Introduction

The current major obstacles to human health in developing regions are well understood and a large component relates to unsafe water poor sanitation and inappropriate hygiene(WHO 2003).Contaminated drinking water for personal hygiene and poor sanitation are the main contributors to an estimated 4 billion cases of diarrhea each year causing 2.2 million deaths,mostly among children under the age of five(WHO2000).

Water hardness is important to fish culture and is a commonly reported aspect of water quality. It is a measure of the quantity of divalent ions (for this discussion, salts with two positive charges) such as calcium, magnesium and/or iron in water. There are many different divalent salts; however, calcium and magnesium are the most common sources of water hardness. Hardness is traditionally measured by chemical titration. The hardness of a water sample is reported in milligrams per liter (same as parts per million, ppm) as calcium carbonate (mg/l CaCO3). Calcium carbonate hardness is a general term that indicates the total quantity of divalent salts present and does not specifically identify whether calcium, magnesium and/or some other divalent salt is causing water hardness. Hardness can be a mixture of divalent salts. In theory, it is possible to have water with high hardness that contains no calcium. Calcium is the most important divalent salt in fish culture water. Calcium has an important role in the biological processes of fish. It is necessary for bone formation, blood clotting and other metabolic reactions. Fish can absorb calcium for these needs directly from the water or food. The presence of free (ionic) calcium at relatively high concentrations in culture water helps reduce the loss of other salts (e.g. sodium and potassium) from fish body fluids (i.e. blood). Sodium and potassium are the most important salts in fish blood and are critical for normal heart, nerve and muscle function. In low calcium water, fish can lose (leak) substantial quantities of these salts into the water. Fish must then use energy supplied by their feed to re-absorb lost salts. That can reduce the energy available for growth and may extend the time necessary to grow fish to market size. For some species (e.g. red drum and striped bass), environmental calcium is required for good survival. It is easy to see that the presence of calcium in water for fish culture is important. A low CaCO3 hardness value is a reliable indication that the calcium concentration is low. However, high hardness does not necessarily reflect a high calcium concentration. A high hardness reading could result from high magnesium concentrations with little or no calcium present. Since limestone commonly occurs in the soil and bedrock of Kentucky, it would be reasonably safe to assume that high hardness readings reflect high calcium levels. A CaCO3 value of 100 mg/l would represent a free calcium concentration of 40 mg/l (divide CaCO3 value by 2.5) if hardness is caused by the presence of calcium only. Similarly, a CaCO3 value of 100 mg/l would represent a free magnesium value of 24 mg/l (divide

CaCO3 value by 4.12) if hardness is caused by magnesium only. Where hardness is caused by limestone, the CaCO3 value usually reflects a mixture of free calcium and magnesium with calcium being the predominant divalent salt. Hardness is commonly confused with alkalinity. Alkalinity is a measure of the amount of acid (hydrogen ion) water can absorb (buffer) before achieving a designated pH. The problem relates to the term used to report both measures, CaCO3 in mg/l. Just as with hardness, mg/l CaCO3 alkalinity is a general term used to express the total quantity of base (hydrogen ion acceptors) present. If limestone is responsible for both hardness and alkalinity, these values will be similar if not identical. However, where sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) is responsible for high alkalinity it is possible to have low hardness and low calcium. Acid ground or well water has little or no alkalinity and can have low or high hardness. An acceptable range for free calcium in culture waters is 25-100 mg/l (63-250 mg/l CaCO3 hardness). Channel catfish can tolerate low calcium concentrations as long as their feed contains a minimum level of mineral calcium. However, they may grow more slowly under these conditions. If striped bass, trout, salmon or red drum culture is being considered, free calcium concentrations in the 40-100 mg/l range (100-250 mg/l as CaCO3 hardness) are more desirable. Tests specific for calcium should be performed on samples of the water source being considered for these fishes. Agricultural limestone can be used to increase calcium concentrations in areas with acid waters or soils. Agricultural gypsum or food grade calcium chloride could be used to raise calcium levels in soft, alkaline waters. Expense may be prohibitive when large volumes of water need treatment. At a pH of 8.3 or greater, calcium will come out of solution as an insoluble carbonate (limestone). Likewise, agricultural lime will be insoluble in waters with that pH range. Identifying a suitable water source may be more practical.
1.1 Identity Water hardness is the traditional measure of the capacity of water to react with soap, hard water requiring considerably more soap to produce a lather. Hard water often produces a noticeable deposit of precipitate (e.g. insoluble metals, soaps or salts) in containers, including bathtub ring. It is not caused by a single substance but by a variety of dissolved polyvalent metallic ions, predominantly calcium and magnesium cations, although other cations (e.g. aluminium, barium, iron, manganese, strontium and zinc) also contribute. Hardness is most commonly expressed as milligrams of calcium carbonate equivalent per litre. Water containing calcium carbonate at concentrations below 60 mg/l is generally considered as soft; 60 120 mg/l, moderately hard; 120180 mg/l, hard; and more than 180 mg/l, very hard (McGowan, 2000). Although hardness is caused by cations, it may also be discussed in terms of carbonate (temporary) and non-carbonate (permanent) hardness. 1.2 Sources The principal natural sources of hardness in water are dissolved polyvalent metallic ions from sedimentary rocks, seepage and runoff from soils. Calcium and magnesium, the two principal ions, are present in many sedimentary rocks, the most common being limestone and chalk. They are also common essential mineral constituents of food. As mentioned above, a minor contribution to the total hardness of water is also

made by other polyvalent ions, such as aluminium, barium, iron, manganese, strontium and zinc.

Iron In Drinking Water

Iron can be a troublesome chemical in water supplies. Making up at least 5 percent of the earths crust, iron is one of the earths most plentiful resources. Rainwater as it infiltrates the soil and underlying geologic formations dissolves iron, causing it to seep into aquifers that serve as sources of groundwater for wells. Although present in drinking water, iron is seldom found at concentrations greater than 10 milligrams per liter (mg/L) or 10 parts per million. However, as little as 0.3 mg/l can cause water to turn a reddish brown color. Iron is mainly present in water in two forms: either the soluble ferrous iron or the insoluble ferric iron. Water containing ferrous iron is clear and colorless because the iron is completely dissolved. When exposed to air in the pressure tank or atmosphere, the water turns cloudy and a reddish brown substance begins to form. This sediment is the oxidized or ferric form of iron that will not dissolve in water. Health Iron is not hazardous to health, but it is considered a secondary or aesthetic contaminant. Essential for good health, iron helps transport oxygen in the blood. Most tap water in the United States supplies approximately 5 percent of the dietary requirement for iron. Taste and Food Dissolved ferrous iron gives water a disagreeable metallic taste. When the iron combines with tea, coffee and other beverages, it produces an inky, black appearance and a harsh, unacceptable taste. Vegetables cooked in water containing excessive iron turn dark and look unappealing. Stains and Deposits Concentrations of iron as low as 0.3 mg/L will leave reddish brown stains on fixtures, tableware and laundry that are very hard to remove. When these deposits break loose from water piping, rusty water will flow through the faucet. Iron Bacteria

When iron exists along with certain kinds of bacteria, a smelly biofilm can form. To survive, the bacteria use the iron, leaving behind a reddish brown or yellow slime that can clog plumbing and cause an offensive odor. This slime or sludge is noticeable in the toilet tank when the lid is removed. The organisms occur naturally in shallow soils and groundwater, and they may be introduced into a well or water system when it is constructed or repaired. Organic Iron and Tannins Iron can combine with different naturally-occurring organic acids or tannins. Organic iron occurs when iron combines with an organic acid. Water with this type of iron is usually yellow or brown, but may be colorless. As natural organics produced by vegetation, tannins can stain water a tea color. In coffee or tea, tannins produce a brown color and react with iron to form a black residue. Organic iron and tannins are more frequently found in shallow wells, or wells under the influence of surface water. Test Your Water If there is an iron problem with the water supply, the first step is to determine the source. The source of iron may be from the corrosion of iron or steel pipes or other components of the plumbing system where the acidity of the water, measured as pH, is below 6.5. A laboratory analysis of water to determine the extent of the iron problem and possible treatment solutions should begin with tests for iron concentration, iron bacteria, pH, alkalinity, and hardness. A water sample kit can be obtained from a certified laboratory. The laboratorys instructions for collecting the water sample should be followed. Collect the sample as close to the well as possible. If the source of water is a public water system and you experience iron-related problems, it is important to contact a utility official to determine whether the red water is from the public system or from the homes plumbing or piping. Well Construction One alternative in solving an iron problem may be to construct a new water well, eliminating the need for treatment. Depending on local land conditions, it is sometimes possible to extend a well casing or screen deeper into the groundwater and avoid the water with high iron levels. An Illinois licensed water well contractor, knowledgeable about the quality of groundwater, can be contacted to discuss options

Treatment The table on the next page lists the treatment methods for the various forms of iron. Before choosing a water treatment method or device, make sure you have answers to the following five questions: 1. What form of iron do I have in my water system? 2. According to the water test results, will the water treatment unit remove the total iron concentration? (Total iron includes both soluble and insoluble iron.) 3. Will the treatment unit treat the water at the flow rate required for my water system? 4. Based on the results of the water tests, will this method effectively remove iron? For example, will the pH have to be adjusted prior to a particular treatment? 5. Would the construction of a new well or the reconstruction of an existing well be more cost effective than a long-term iron removal treatment process? Treatment Methods for Various Forms of Iron Symptoms Form of Iron Treatment Methods Considerations Temperature dependent Hardness must be calculated and increased sodium concentration should be checked if users(s) on restricted sodium diet. System must be airtight. Use of chlorine liquid or pellets. Requires frequent monitoring and proper water pressure. May require lengthy contact time.

Tap water is Dissolved Aeration/Filtration first clear and ferrous iron Water softener colorless. After standing, reddish brown particles appear and Chlorination/Filtration settle to bottom of glass.

Manganese Adequate pressure 1 Greensand/Filtration Catalytic filtration2 Dissolved oxygen, alkalinity, organic matter, chlorination, polyphosphate, and temperature

limitations Ozonation Sequestering (adding chemical agents to water to keep iron to an insoluble, filterable form) Tap water Insoluble appears rusty red water or has a red or ferric iron yellow color. After standing, particles settle to bottom. Cost Method may not prevent staining and may require removal of sequestering agents and iron. Test for agents before choosing another treatment device.

Manganese Adequate pressure 1 Greensand/Filtration Catalytic filtration2 Dissolved oxygen, alkalinity, organic matter, chlorination, polyphosphate, and temperature limitations

Chlorination/Filtration Use of chlorine liquid or pellets. Requires frequent monitoring and proper water pressure. Shock chlorination; consider following with continuous chlorination. Chlorine products must be suitable for drinking water. Method requires long contact time for adequate treatment.

Water tank, Iron toilet tank and bacteria plumbing have reddish brown or yellow gelatinous slime or sludge present. Odor may be objectionable. Water Organic containing iron and organic iron is tannins3 usually yellow or brown color, but may be colorless. Tannins stain water a tea color.

Water softener

First, treat for organics (activated carbon). Check for corrosive properties. System must be airtight.

Manganese First, treat for organics. Maintain 1 Greensand/Filtration adequate pressure. Ozonation Cost