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Eskild Tjalve
Senior Lecturer, Department o f Engineering Design, The Technical University o f Denmark
NEWNES- BUTTERWORTHS
LONDON - BOSTON Sydney - Wellington - Durban - T o r o n t o
THE BUTTERWORTH GROUP UNITED KINGDOM AUSTRALIA Butterworth & Co (Publishers) Ltd London; 88 Kingsway, WC2B 6AB Butterworths Pty Ltd Sydney: 586 Pacific Highway, Chatswood, NSW 2067 Also at Melbourne, Brisbane, Adelaide and Perth Butterworth & Co (Canada) Ltd Scarborough: 2265 Midland Avenue, Scarborough, Ontario, MIP 4SI Butterworths of New Zealand Ltd Wellington: & W Young Building, 7 7 - 8 5 Customhouse Quay 1, CPO Box 472 Butterworth & Co (South Africa) (Pty) Ltd Durban: 1 5 2 - 1 5 4 Gale Street Butterworths (Publishers) Inc Boston: 10 Tower Office Park, Woburn, Mass. 01801 First published in Denmark in 1976 as 'Systematisk udformning af industriprodukter' First published in English 1979 E. Tjalve, 1979 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, including photocopying and recording, w i t h o u t the written permission of the copyright holder, application for which should be addressed to the publisher. Such written permission must also be obtained before any part of this publication is stored in a retrieval system of any nature. This book is sold subject to the Standard Conditions of Sale of Net Books and may not be re-sold in the UK below the net price given by the Publishers in their current price list.
CANADA
NEW Z E A L A N D
SOUTH A F R I C A
USA
Tjalve, Eskild A short course in industrial design. 1. Engineering design I. Title 620'.0042 TA174 78-41280
ISBN 0-408-00388-X
Typeset by Butterworths Litho Preparation Department Printed in Scotland by Thomson Litho L t d . , East Kilbride
Preface
T h e c r e a t i o n o f a n e w p r o d u c t takes i n m a n y levels o f a c t i v i t y a n d m a n y s k i l l s , o f w h i c h t h e f i r s t a n d f o r e m o s t are t h o s e o f design engineers a n d i n d u s t r i a l designers. I t is easy t o recognise t h e e x t r e m e s w h e n c o m p a r i n g t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s o f t h e design e n g i n e e r a n d t h e i n d u s t r i a l designer, b u t n o t so easy t o say w h e r e t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f one ends a n d t h e o t h e r begins. T h e design engineer is i n v o l v e d in design w h i c h is o f t e n k n o w n b y o t h e r names, e.g. s k e t c h i n g , d e t a i l d e s i g n , d i m e n s i o n i n g , e t c . A c o n s i d e r a b l e p a r t o f t h e w o r k o f design engineers a n d i n d u s t r i a l designers consists o f t h e same a c t i v i t i e s , i.e. f o r m u l a t i o n o f suggestions o f shape, ' m o d e l l i n g ' o f these ( s k e t c h i n g , d r a w i n g o r h a r d w a r e m o d e l l i n g ) , i n v e s t i g a t i n g a n d a p p r a i s i n g t h e v a r i o u s p o s s i b i l i t i e s . These a c t i v i t i e s i n v o l v e t h e creative m i n d at m a n y levels a n d are t h e s u b j e c t o f t h i s b o o k , w h i c h n o t o n l y i n t r o d u c e s t h e s t u d e n t t o t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f e v o l v i n g a d e s i g n , b u t surveys t h e c r i t e r i a b y w h i c h these are assessed. T h r o u g h o u t t h i s b o o k t h e w o r d ' d e s i g n e r ' has been used as a b l a n k e t t e r m f o r p e o p l e w o r k i n g w i t h design (i.e. engineers, designers and others) of products. T h e c o n t e n t s o f t h i s b o o k s h o u l d be seen as p a r t o f t h e design t e c h n i q u e . In t h e o v e r a l l p l a n f o r p r o j e c t e v a l u a t i o n a n d design o n l y t h e m e t h o d s c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e f i n a l phases o f design p r o j e c t have been d e s c r i b e d . T h e danger o f f o r m u l a t i n g s y s t e m a t i c m e t h o d s in c o n n e c t i o n w i t h c o n s t r u c t i o n w o r k , is t h a t o t h e r s are led i n t o t h i n k i n g t h a t a s y s t e m a t i c a p p r o a c h necessarily gives t h e r i g h t a n s w e r . T h i s is j u s t n o t so. T h e m o s t e f f e c t i v e s o l u t i o n is achieved b y t h e r i g h t balance o f s y s t e m a t i c s a n d i n t u i t i o n . T h e s y s t e m a t i c a p p r o a c h s h o u l d t h e r e f o r e be seen as t h e f o u n d a t i o n f o r t h e a p p r o p r i a t e a t t i t u d e t o i n n o v a t i o n , n a m e l y an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e f a c t t h a t one c a n , t h r o u g h a c o n s c i o u s e f f o r t l o o k o b j e c t i v e l y a n d s y s t e m a t i c a l l y at all t h e design c r i t e r i a a n d premises o n w h i c h a n y p a r t i c u l a r s o l u t i o n is based. E x i s t i n g p r o d u c t s have t o a great e x t e n t been used as e x a m p l e s . These are i n c l u d e d p a r t i c u l a r l y p a r t i c u l a r l y g o o d o r b a d . T h e r e is t h u s n o i m p l i e d e v a l u a t i o n in t h e i r p r e s e n t a t i o n . I w o u l d l i k e t o t h a n k t h o s e c o m p a n i e s w h i c h have c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e e x a m p l e s b y s u b m i t t i n g m a t e r i a l o f v a r i o u s k i n d s . T h e p h o t o g r a p h s w h i c h are n o t a c k n o w l e d g e d w e r e t a k e n o n m y b e h a l f b y F r a n k S c h m i d t , t o w h o m I am very grateful. It is m y h o p e t h a t m a n y o f t h o s e w h o are i n v o l v e d in t h e e v o l u t i o n o f p r o d u c t s w i l l f i n d t h i s b o o k useful w h e t h e r t h e y are engineers o r designers. I also h o p e t h a t t h e b o o k w i l l f i l l a gap i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e t e a c h i n g o f e n g i n e e r i n g design in t h e schools o f e n g i n e e r i n g . In t h e t r a d i t i o n a l a p p r o a c h , a m a t e r i a l o b j e c t requires a r o u g h d r a w i n g b e f o r e o n e c a n get d o w n t o t h e necessary s p e c i f i c c a l c u l a t i o n s a n d d e t a i l i n g . A l o t o f t i m e is r i g h t l y used o n these essential p r o c e d u r e s , y e t so o f t e n n o o n e w i l l q u e s t i o n h o w t h e idea beh i n d a n y p a r t i c u l a r s c h e m e has e m e r g e d . It is t o o c o m m o n a m i s t a k e t o regard t h e f i r s t idea f o r a design as t h e o n l y o n e o r even as t h e best. L a s t l y I h o p e t h a t t h e b o o k m a y be an i n s p i r a t i o n t o i n d u s t r i a l designers in t r a i n i n g a n d in p r a c t i c e , as i t m u s t be i m p o r t a n t f o r designers t o get an idea o f t h e phases a c o m p l e x p r o d u c t goes t h r o u g h , as w e l l as a general v i e w o f t h e r e l e v a n t c r i t e r i a f o r e v a l u a t i o n . Eskild Tjalve where t h e y i l l u s t r a t e d i f f e r e n t a p p r o a c h e s t o t h e same p r o b l e m a n d d i f f e r e n t results a n d n o t because t h e y are
1 CREATION OF A PRODUCT
1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 T h e idea o f f o r m Life o f the product 3 6 7 7
Properties o f t h e p r o d u c t
T h e step-by-step creation o f t h e p r o d u c t
1. Creation of a Product
1.1 The idea of f o r m
A v e r y great p a r t o f o u r w o r l d consists o f o b j e c t s w h i c h have o n e f u n d a m e n t a l p r o p e r t y , f o r m : i.e. a shape, a c e r t a i n a r r a n g e m e n t o f parts a n d an o v e r a l l s t r u c t u r e . F o r m m a y arise as f o l l o w s ( F i g u r e 1 ) : 1. A n uncontrolled process, where the form depends solely on the conditions o f the enthe handwheel) valve seat). T h e valve seat is a n n u l a r because o n e m u s t be able t o face i t o f f w i t h a m i l l i n g c u t t e r t o m a k e i t f i t t i g h t l y against t h e gasket. T h e i n n e r c a v i t y o f t h e valve is shaped t o f a c i l i t a t e flow. The outer form of the valve consists o f two intersecting cylinders. T h e c y l i n d e r f o r m is d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e f r o m w h i c h t h e valve h o u s i n g is cast. e.g. living S i m i l a r c o m m e n t s t o t h e above can be m a d e o n t h e c u p a n d saucer s h o w n in F i g u r e 3 : T h e c u p a n d saucer have r o t a t i o n a l either symmetry, potter's have because t h e y are t h r o w n o n t h e cups and saucers mould i n t o one of translation (of the
v i r o n m e n t , e.g. p e b b l e s , m o u n t a i n ranges. 2. A process c o n t r o l l e d b y p h y s i c a l a n d c h e m i c a l laws as w e l l as t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e e n v i r o n m e n t , e.g. ice c r y s t a l s , m i c a . 3. A process c o n t r o l l e d of the b y genes a n d t h e c o n ditions environment,
organisms. 4 . A process c o n t r o l l e d b y t h e wishes o f m e n o r animals and the c o n d i t i o n s o f the e n v i r o n m e n t , e.g. m a n u f a c t u r e d b i r d s ' nests. Now dominate that our manufactured everyday products increasingly where p r o d u c t s , a beaver's d a m ,
w h e e l o r , (if t h e y w e r e m a d e in a m o u l d ) s i m p l y because traditionally world indeed rotational symmetry. T h e c u p is c y l i n d r i c a l because a c e r t a i n appearance was d e s i r e d . T h e c u p is s m a l l e r in d i a m e t e r at t h e base p a r t l y because i t is t h e n s t a c k a b l e a n d p a r t l y f o r reasons o f appearance. T h e n o t c h in t h e base o f t h e c u p lets t h e w a t e r drain away if i t is w a s h e d ( u p s i d e d o w n ) i n a part washing up machine.
whole environments
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analyse m o r e c l o s e l y t h e processes b y w h i c h f o r m is d e t e r m i n e d , so t h a t w e m a y design o u r e n v i r o n m e n t as m u c h t o o u r l i k i n g as p o s s i b l e . As a f i r s t a t t e m p t at t h i s analysis let us e x a m i n e t h e valve in F i g u r e 2 . T h e design o f t h e valve a n d t h e parts f r o m w h i c h it is assembled is as f o l l o w s :
T h e t w o c o n n e c t i n g pieces are h e x a g o n a l because o n e m u s t be able t o assemble t h e valve w i t h an a d j u s t a b l e spanner. T h e r o t a t i n g n u t u n d e r t h e h a n d w e e l is also h e x agonal so t h a t it can be t i g h t e n e d w i t h a s p a n n e r . T h e h a n d w h e e l is r o u n d because t h e h a n d m u s t be able t o grasp it f i r m l y in all p o s i t i o n s . T h e s p i n d l e is t h r e a d e d because o f its f u n c t i o n , w h i c h is t o t r a n s f o r m t h e r o t a r y m o v e m e n t ( o f
T h e shape o f is b e i n g u s e d .
t h e h a n d l e ensures t h a t t h e
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Form
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Creation
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Figure
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m a n u f a c t u r i n g process, f u n c t i o n , ease o f h a n d appearance who and economics. Another However very many the
A n understanding of the factors w h i c h influence t h e design m u s t be b u i l t on a knowledge of the v a r i o u s stages i n t h e l i f e o f t h e p r o d u c t . In t h e f o l l o w i n g pages, t h e r e f o r e , w e w i l l e x a m i n e a m o d e l o f t h e life o f a p r o d u c t f r o m i n c e p t i o n t o d e s t r u c t i o n , as w e l l as a m o r e d e t a i l e d m o d e l o f t h e w a y in w h i c h a p r o d u c t comes into being.
d e s i g n , t h e r e w i l l a l w a y s be r o o m f o r t h e designer
Figure 3
(R0rstrand)
Creation
of a Produc t p r o d u c t is c o m p l e t e l y s p e c i f i e d . F o r p r o d u c t s w h i c h are t o be p r o d u c e d i n great n u m b e r s , t h e design a n d choice o f p r o d u c t i o n m e t h o d f o l l o w next, b u t f o r t h e sake o f c l a r i t y t h i s phase has been l e f t o u t i n Figure 4 . N e x t comes t h e p r o d u c t manufacturing process, a f t e r w h i c h t h e p r o d u c t is sold t o t h e dealer, is used i t p e r f o r m s a process f r o m w h o m i t is resold t o t h e c o n s u m e r . O n l y n o w can t h e p r o d u c t f u n c t i o n a c c o r d i n g t o its i n t e n d e d p u r p o s e . T h e l i f e o f t h e p r o d u c t ends w i t h d e s t r u c t i o n . T h i s process can be a c t i v e , w h e r e t h e p r o d u c t may paper d i v i d e d be c r u s h e d , t a k e n a p a r t o f m e l t e d d o w n , o r passive, w h e r e i t rusts, c r u m b l e s o r d e c o m p o s e s , e t c .
carded.
closely w h a t happens t o a p r o d u c t before, d u r i n g a n d a f t e r use. When a product which state t o a n o t h e r . for example: Scissors: Fiie: A w h o l e sheet o f paper brings a b o u t a n e x t e r n a l change f r o m o n e I t is t h e need f o r t h i s t r a n s f o r -
m a t i o n t h a t has caused t h e p r o d u c t t o be c r e a t e d ,
F i g u r e 4 s h o w s t h a t , i d e a l l y , i n f o r m a t i o n is f e d i n t o t h e design process f r o m ail o t h e r p r o d u c t - r e l a t e d activities. ing board E f f e c t i v e design is o n l y and in other possible i f t h e designer is a w a r e o f w h a t h a p p e n s b e y o n d t h e d r a w -
i n t o t w o pieces. A blank w i t h burrs a blank w i t h chamfered A person w i t h a need f o r e n t e r t a i n m e n t edges. Television: and formed. Extruder: information
a person e n t e r t a i n e d a n d i n - p r o d u c t is s p e c i f i e d d u r i n g t h e design process, b u t w i t h r e q u i r e m e n t s a n d wishes f r o m all t h e o t h e r stages i n m i n d . It is i m p o r t a n t t o realise t h a t F i g u r e 4 s h o w s t h e general course of an i n d u s t r i a l l y manufactured p r o d u c t . I n p r o d u c t s t h a t are designed a n d m a d e b y t h e same p e r s o n t h e f i r s t t w o processes can be c o m b i n e d . N o t e also t h a t t h e r e m a y be o t h e r i n p u t t o t h e design process o t h e r t h a n i n f o r m a t i o n o n need o r f u n c t i o n , such as an idea f o r a p r o d u c t o r n e w competing products. The input shown in F i g u r e 4 , h o w e v e r , is c o n s i d e r e d t h e general o n e , because in t h e o t h e r s i t u a t i o n s o n e s t i l l has t o g o b a c k a n d start w i t h t h e n e e d .
Plastic granules c o n t i n u o u s l e n g t h o f
plastic p r o f i l e w i t h t h e r e q u i r e d cross s e c t i o n . B e f o r e t h e p r o d u c t is used t h e user has b r o u g h t it f r o m a dealer, w h o i n t u r n has b r o u g h t i t f r o m t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r . W h e n i t has e i t h e r served its p u r pose, w o r n o u t o r b r o k e n , i t is d e s t r o y e d . If these events are a r r a n g e d in sequence, w e c a n i l l u s t r a t e t h e life o f t h e p r o d u c t as s h o w n i n F i g u r e 4 . T h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t is t h e use f o r w h i c h t h e p r o d u c t is i n t e n d e d . T h e f i r s t phase is t h e design process i n w h i c h possible m e t h o d s o f s a t i s f y i n g t h e user needs are examined, a n d in w h i c h the finally chosen
Feed-back information
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Creation
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T h e a i m in d e s i g n i n g is t h a t t h e q u a l i t i e s p r e s e n t in t h e finished p r o d u c t s h o u l d c o r r e s p o n d t o t h e p r o p e r t i e s r e q u i r e d . A s t h i s a i m , h o w e v e r , is n o t always achieved, w e must distinguish w e c a n arrive at a m o d e l between the o f t h e design desired p r o p e r t i e s a n d t h e realised ones. Thus process as s h o w n i n F i g u r e 5. T h i s s h o w s t h e stepb y - s t e p process f r o m t h e analysis o f t h e p r o b l e m t o the finished product. I n t h e i n i t i a l analysis stage, t h e p r o b l e m is exrequired a m i n e d f r o m all sides. T h i s results o n t h e o n e h a n d in a c o n c r e t e f o r m u l a t i o n o f t h e desired f u n c t i o n , a n d o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , i n a list o f t h e desired p r o p e r ties w h i c h c o n s t i t u t e t h e c r i t e r i a t h a t m u s t m a k e u p the b a c k g r o u n d f o r the selection o f solutions. N e x t f o l l o w s t h e stage o f s y n t h e s i s , i.e. t h e stage in w h i c h t h e p r o d u c t ties of structure, is c r e a t e d . T h i s is d o n e b y
t h e p r i m a r y f u n c t i o n o f t h e p r o d u c t , because it is t h i s t h a t helps t h e user in his n e e d . T h e o t h e r desirable p r o p e r t i e s m a y b e : pleasing a p p e a r a n c e , ease o f handling, safety, durability and reliability. Before the product is designed the p r o p e r t i e s s h o u l d be listed b y t h e designer, p e r h a p s in c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h period when t h e user. D u r i n g t h e design is c r e a t e d , it is these the product
p r o p e r t i e s t h a t d e t e r m i n e t h e decisions a n d c h o i c e s t h a t are m a d e . Unfortunately o n e c a n n o t design a p r o d u c t in such a w a y t h a t t h e desired p r o p e r t i e s are d e t e r m i n e d o n e a f t e r t h e o t h e r , f o r t h e y are n o t i n d e p e n d e n t variables. We f i n d , h o w e v e r , t h a t f i v e p r o p e r t i e s c a n be d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m all o t h e r s , in t h a t t o g e t h e r t h e y completely define the p r o d u c t . T h e y are: For the product as a whole: S t r u c t u r e (i.e. t h e elements o f the product and their relationship) For each element: Form Material Dimension Surface These f i v e p r o p e r t i e s are t h e basic properties. which It
r o u g h l y d e t e r m i n i n g step b y step o n t h e basic p r o p e r f o r m , material, dimension, and surface. W h e n t h e basic p r o p e r t i e s are d e c i d e d o n , t h e design o f t h e p r o d u c t is f i n i s h e d , a n d i t c a n be m a n u f a c t u r e d . A f t e r m a n u f a c t u r e the p r o d u c t exists, and possesses s o m e 'realisedproperties., l a t e d d u r i n g t h e i n i t i a l analysis. which hopefully are close t o t h e ' d e s i r e d p r o p e r t i e s ' t h a t w e r e f o r m u -
is i m p o r t a n t t o emphasise t h a t these are t h e variables t h e designer c a n m a n i p u l a t e , a n d i t is b y deciding on these that a product the is successively well
o r a t e d t o t r y t o achieve t h i s . A s w e are p r i m a r i l y concerned w i t h the quality of ' f o r m ' , we will only m a k e t h e m o d e l m o r e d e t a i l e d in t h e stages w h e r e t h e basic p r o p e r t i e s are l a i d d o w n . We c a n call t h e d e t a i l e d m o d e l the product synthesis, as i t s h o w s t h e i n d i v i d u a l steps t h r o u g h w h i c h
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Creation
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F i g u r e 6. T h e the t w o
black syn-
d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e s t r u c t u r e . In t h e p r o d u c t s y n thesis t h i s v e r y important stage is d i v i d e d into a series o f steps, b e g i n n i n g w i t h a d i v i s i o n o f t h e desired f u n c t i o n i n t o s u b - f u n c t i o n s . T h e n f o l l o w s an e x a m i n a t i o n o f possible means o f realising t h e subfunctions, a combination of these into a basic s t r u c t u r e a n d f i n a l l y an a d a p t a t i o n i n t o a q u a n t i f i e d structure, where critical is d e t e r m i n e d . parameters are o p t i m i s e d and where the relative arrangement o f the elements
outputs
f r o m t h e p r o b l e m analysis, n a m e l y o n t h e one h a n d t h e f o r m u l a t i o n o f t h e desired f u n c t i o n function tions) (possibly on the other hand the list - the main funcof desired several s u b - o r d i n a t e m a i n
of a Product
Sub-functions
B y means, sub-system or
and means
an element, with which a given
t h e t o t a l f o r m a n d t h e f o r m o f t h e c o n s t i t u e n t elem e n t s are d e t e r m i n e d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y . T h e d e t a i l e d form of the elements includes a specification of m a t e r i a l s , d i m e n s i o n s a n d surfaces. We see f r o m t h e p r o d u c t s y n t h e s i s . F i g u r e 6, t h a t t h e c r i t e r i a f o r an o p t i m u m p r o d u c t are used t h r o u g h t h e w h o l e design process as a g u i d e l i n e a n d c o n t r o l f o r each step w h e r e a d e c i s i o n is t a k e n . T h e f o l l o w i n g paragraphs o u t l i n e t h e i n d i v i d u a l stages in t h e p r o d u c t s y n t h e s i s a n d t y p i c a l e x a m p l e s are g i v e n .
w e u n d e r s t a n d a s o l u t i o n , i.e. a m e t h o d , a
f u n c t i o n c a n be realised. T h e d i v i s i o n o f t h e m a i n f u n c t i o n i n t o s u b - f u n c t i o n s a n d f u r t h e r i n t o sub-subf u n c t i o n s , e t c t a k e s place a l t e r n a t e l y w i t h t h e search f o r means t o realise these. O n e possible p r o c e d u r e consists o f a r r a n g i n g a so-called f u n c t i o n / m e a n s t r e e . F i g u r e 7 s h o w s h o w t h e f i r s t stages in t h e f u n c t i o n / means t r e e f o r an a u t o m a t i c t e a m a k e r m a y l o o k . T h e o r e t i c a l l y t h e f u n c t i o n / m e a n s t r e e c a n be d e t a i l e d u n t i l t h e means b e c o m e m a c h i n e e l e m e n t s , o r p a r t s o f m a c h i n e e l e m e n t s . We s t o p w h e n w e have f o u n d means t o t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t s u b - f u n c t i o n s .
Main
functions
function o f a p r o d u c t is t h e w a y in w h i c h If w e c o n c e i v e t h e of the total parallel
T h e main
Basic
structure
o u t p u t is d e t e r m i n e d b y i n p u t . t i o n s at all levels f r o m
A s o l u t i o n is a c h i e v e d b y c o n n e c t i n g o n e process f o r each s u b - f u n c t i o n , w h i c h w e call t h e basic s t r u c t u r e . T h e basic s t r u c t u r e c a n be expressed in b l o c k d i a grams, working (or basic) drawings (machine symbols, hydraulic, pneumatic, electric symbols, etc) o r o t h e r w i s e s i m p l i f i e d d r a w i n g s . N o d e c i s i o n s are made at this stage as to 'quantities' etc. such as 18 dimensions, Figure 7 ) . relative arrangement Figure
p r o d u c t as a c o m p o u n d s y s t e m w e c a n discuss f u n c the function s y s t e m ( m a i n f u n c t i o n , o r p o s s i b l y several of elements (sub-functions). T h e idea o f f u n c t i o n is a v e r y i m p o r t a n t t o o l f o r a n a l y s i n g a p r o b l e m i n t o a series o f c l e a r l y f o r m u l a t e d c o m p o n e n t s t h a t express w h a t t h e p r o d u c t m u s t be able t o d o .
m a i n f u n c t i o n s ) t o t h e f u n c t i o n s o f sub-systems a n d
s h o w s d i f f e r e n t basic s t r u c t u r e s o f t h e t e a m a k e r (see
FUAJCT/OKJ MEAKJS
wM
Normal
tea
process
Tea process
per/i/iSCOH
wLtk
eKtract
Pass
i^ecittn^
through
sc/ir/fice
mter^iea
Tea -^yvcpiterl la^Aj^kyater /Jeasure time Measure tea concentration Kieasi/ire \ stte time dependant process
f^eynove both
in tke
Figure
The function/means
teamaker
10
Figure
Alternative
basic structures
for an automatic
teamaker
Creation
of a Product
11
Figure
Quantified
structures
elements
of a
teamaker
12
Creation
of a
Product
Quantified
structure
Total form
The total form with of of the the the form total product of the design is determined The the
alternately
elements. depend on
requirements
Figure
10
Suggestions
form
of the
teamaker
Creation
of a Product
13
4.
'Pen
^1 Cast
Figure
11
with
the detail
design elements
of the
teamaker
extremely
u s e f u l , see F i g u r e
1 1 . G r a d u a l l y , as t h e
f o r m o f t h e e l e m e n t s is s e t t l e d , t h e sketches are replaced by layouts, prepared w i t h a drawing machine, a n d scale d r a w i n g s . T h e f i n a l design o f each e l e m e n t requires decisions on material, The dimension, of the surface, product tolerance are s p e c i f i e d and in and
production technology. elements w o r k i n g d r a w i n g s w h i c h express f o u r o f t h e f u n d a mental properties, f o r m , material, dimension s u r f a c e , as w e l l as f u r t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n such as q u a n t i ties t o be p r o d u c e d , possible m a n u f a c t u r i n g process, n u m b e r of the d r a w i n g , date, etc. The f i f t h fundamental elements property, the structure, is specified in assembly d r a w i n g s w h i c h s h o w h o w t h e c o m p o n e n t are t o be a s s e m b l e d , see F i g u r e 12. T h e f i n i s h e d t e a m a k e r is s h o w n in F i g u r e 13.
sketches d o n e
14
Creation
of a
Product
5)
Figure
and
Product
Each
syntfiesis
in the product synthesis brings the 1. T h e search f o r s o l u t i o n s , 2. Examination of the solutions, work. 3. E v a l u a t i o n a n d c h o i c e o f s o l u t i o n s f o r f u r t h e r
phase
t h e f i n i s h e d p r o d u c t . In
Creation
of a Product
15
T h i s c o u r s e is i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e 1 4 , w h e r e t h e n u m b e r o f s o l u t i o n s is s h o w n as a f u n c t i o n o f t i m e . Each p e a k c o r r e s p o n d s t o a phase in t h e product synthesis. T h e search f o r s o l u t i o n s is c a r r i e d o u t b y genera t i n g ideas e i t h e r i n t u i t i v e l y o r s y s t e m a t i c a l l y , the m o s t a p p r o p r i a t e m e t h o d s d e p e n d i n g o n t h e phase. T h e a i m in s e e k i n g m a n y s o l u t i o n s in a given phase is t o e x p l o r e t h e ' s p a c e ' c r e a t e d b y t h e great n u m b e r o f t h e o r e t i c a l l y p o s s i b l e s o l u t i o n s . I t is s e l d o m possible t o e x a m i n e all s o l u t i o n s , as t h e y are u s u a l l y so t h a t all t h e m a i n t y p e s o f with best that w e can c h o o s e t h e i n n u m e r a b l e . B u t t h e ' s o l u t i o n s p a c e ' s h o u l d s t i l l be examined thoroughly solution solution. T h e e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e s o l u t i o n s is m a d e o n t h e basis o f c r i t e r i a w h i c h v a r y w i t h t h e phase a n d t h e degree o f d e t a i l in t h e s o l u t i o n s . A n i n t u i t i v e e v a l u a t i o n m a y t h u s be s u f f i c i e n t in t h e e a r l y phases, w h i l e later o n it m a y be necessary t o a p p l y q u i t e a n u m b e r of mutually weighted criteria. T h e final result the p r o d u c t thus depends o n t w o fundamentally decide w h i c h of view. different factors, firstly on the ideas t h a t are b o r n , a n d s e c o n d l y o n t h e c r i t e r i a t h a t Figure 13 Engineering The finished teamaker (The Laboratory for design. The Technical University of Denmark) ideas are c h o s e n . A closer analysis o f the next chapter deals with the t h e idea o f f o r m can be m a d e f r o m these t w o p o i n t s Thus m e t h o d s t h a t c a n be a p p l i e d in s e a r c h i n g f o r f o r m ideas, w h i l e C h a p t e r 3 ' F o r m F a c t o r s ' is a b o u t t h e factors t h a t make up the background f o r the selection criteria. reasonable certainty are i n c l u d e d . O n l y t h e n w e can say
Number
of xciniLhation ofsoLiAtcoMS
solutionis
T^me Figure 14 The search for and examination of solutions, are a characteristic sequence in the product evaluation synthesis and choice
17
t a k e place in t h e last phases o f t h e design process, b u t i t is i m p o r t a n t t o realise t h a t b e f o r e t h i s , t h e designer has a l r e a d y been reflecting and making d e c i s i o n s t h a t have a f u n d a m e n t a l i n f l u e n c e o n t h e f o r m . In t h e p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r ( s e c t i o n 1.4) w e saw an example of this. L e t us, h o w e v e r , c o n s i d e r a illustrate number of examples w h i c h more directly the product. T h e main f u n c t i o n o f t h e p r o d u c t established d u r i n g t h e f i r s t phase o f p r o d u c t s y n t h e s i s c r u c i a l i n f l u e n c e o n t h e t y p e o f p r o d u c t , e.g. w h e t h e r i t is a m a c h i n e o r a t o o l . T w o p r o d u c t s w i t h d i f f e r e n t m a i n f u n c t i o n s w i l l t h e r e f o r e be so d i f f e r e n t t h a t i t is i m p o s s i b l e t o create o n e ' i n b e t w e e n ' t h e y are s i m p l y f u n d a m e n t a l l y d i f f e r e n t . F i g u r e 1 5 s h o w s an e x a m p l e o f t h i s , n a m e l y a c a l c u l a t o r a n d a n abacus.
t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e early decisions o n t h e f o r m o f
c a n n o t be g r a d u a l l y c h a n g e d i n t o t h e f o r m o f t h e
Figure
15
Desk calculator
frame. The two products fulfil the same need, but the main reproduced by courtesy of Canon)
20
Methods
used in form
design
Figure 16 Two car jacks having the same main function (i.e. similar input and output) but different basic structures
Basic structure
-o
Figure
17
the same basic structure but with different quantified structures. changed into the other how one structure can be gradually
The lower
illustration
shows
used in form
design
21
t e r i s t i c p a r a m e t e r s are v a r i e d i n s u c h a w a y t h a t t h e whole which s o l u t i o n space is c o v e r e d . T h e q u e s t i o n o f p a r a m e t e r s c a n be p r o f i t a b l y v a r i e d w i l l in the following the chapters, where be the the
p r o d u c t synthesis where w e can m o v e gradually f r o m o n e s o l u t i o n t o a n o t h e r . I n F i g u r e 17 t h e t w o valves have d i f f e r e n t basic quantified structures i.e. from the b u t t h e same of view of the form structure, point
examined synthesis,
m e t h o d s are r e l a t e d t o t h e last phases i n namely quantified total f o r m and the f o r m o f the elements.
product
f u n c t i o n t h e y c o n t a i n t h e same e l e m e n t s . T h e y are distinguished b y t h e d i f f e r e n t f o r m design o f in w h i c h the e l e m e n t s a n d b y t h e d i f f e r e n t angle o f t h e s p i n d l e and the handwheel. The w a y design o f t h e t w o valves can be m o d i f i e d , so t h a t w e can m o v e g r a d u a l l y f r o m o n e t o t h e o t h e r , is also illustrated. F o r m synthesis m e t h o d s a i m t o cover t h e w h o l e range o f design s o l u t i o n s . We have seen t h a t f o r a c h o s e n basic s t r u c t u r e t h e f o r m design c a n be c h a n g e d s m o o t h l y f r o m one solution t o another. The methods for form synthesis can therefore be naturally d e s c r i b e d as v a r i a t i o n m e t h o d s w h e r e s o m e charac-
structure,
C o n s i d e r t h e t h r e e c o f f e e m a k e r s s h o w n in F i g u r e 1 8 . T h e y all w o r k o n t h e same p r i n c i p l e (i.e. w i t h a s i m i l a r basic s t r u c t u r e ) . B u t w h y are t w o o f t h e m alike, while the t h i r d o n e is q u i t e d i f f e r e n t ? The a n s w e r lies in t h e q u a n t i f i e d s t r u c t u r e .
Figure 18 Three different coffee makers with the same basic structure. The shape of the top two products is a/most idntica/. Why is the one below different? (Courtesty of Melitta, NG Electric, Braun)
22
Methods
used in form
design s t r u c t u r e f o r a n y t w o p r o d u c t s gives a c o m m o n design c h a r a c t e r , w h i l e d i f f e r e n t q u a n t i f i e d s t r u c t u r e s p r o d u c e w i d e d i f f e r e n c e s in t h e d e s i g n . T h e s t r u c t u r e v a r i a t i o n m e t h o d is a n easy m e t h o d o f g e n e r a t i n g ideas f o r alternative structures. The m e t h o d is based o n t h e v i e w t h a t a n u m b e r o f suggested s o l u t i o n s are needed b e f o r e a s o l u t i o n c a n d e f i n i t e l y be c h a r a c t e r i s e d as g o o d . T h e m e t h o d has been t r i e d in d i f f e r e n t p r o j e c t s i t u a t i o n s , a n d i t can be a p p l i e d at m a n y levels, e.g. in b o t h t h e b u i l d i n g u p o f t h e t o t a l s y s t e m a n d in t h e c r e a t i o n o f small sub-systems. Q u a n t i f i e d s t r u c t u r e can be used f r o m t w o p o i n t s o f v i e w , w h i c h d i f f e r in w h e t h e r the f u n c t i o n a l c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e e l e m e n t s is i n c l u d e d o r n o t . If these f u n c t i o n a l c o n n e c t i o n s are i g n o r e d , t h e s t r u c t u r e v a r i a t i o n m e t h o d gives a n u m b e r o f suggestions coffee f o r a v e r y r o u g h c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e p r o d u c t . If t h e functional connections are included, we get a d e f i n i t e f u r t h e r d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e basic s t r u c t u r e , w i t h t h e a i m o f o p t i m i s i n g a n d s p e c i f y i n g t h e paracoffee meters involved. This is s h o w n by the examples given i n t h e f o l l o w i n g p a r a g r a p h s .
t h e d i m e n s i o n s o f t h e p a r t s , in t h i s case t h e sizes o f t h e c o n t a i n e r s a n d t h e d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n these. T h e relative a r r a n g e m e n t a n d t h e d i m e n s i o n s o f the component method method.' can The be e l e m e n t s can be used as v a r i a t i o n called 'the effect structure variation if the p a r a m e t e r s in t h e search f o r design s o l u t i o n s . T h i s greatest is achieved
i n d i v i d u a l s o l u t i o n s are i l l u s t r a t e d ( p o s s i b l y m o d e l l e d in t h r e e d i m e n s i o n s ) i n a t e c h n i q u e w h e r e all superf l u o u s details are l e f t out. In t h i s w a y o n e saves t i m e i n t h e f o r m u l a t i o n o f t h e s o l u t i o n s as w e l l as clarity when comparing them. Figure 19 s h o w s t h e basic s t r u c t u r e f o r makers, together w i t h h o w a number of quantified s t r u c t u r e s c r e a t e d b y v a r i a t i o n o f t h e r e l a t i v e arrangem e n t and o f the dimensions o f the elements. Figure 20 shows examples of typical m a k e r s . It d e m o n s t r a t e s h o w a c o m m o n quantified
QUANTIFIED V a r i a t i o n of
w
Figure 19 Quantified structures for coffee
a
ma/<ers
23
Figure 20 Various types of coffee makers. See a/so quantified structures in Figure 19 (Courtesy of Siemens, Krups, Me/itta, Ptii/ips, and Braun)
24
Methods
used in form
design s o r t i n g o f t h e s o l u t i o n s a c c o r d i n g t o such c r i t e r i a as space, o p e r a t i o n a n d a p p e a r a n c e . Figure 21 shows a n u m b e r o f q u a n t i f i e d structures for a vacuum cleaner, t o g e t h e r w i t h between the the relative is not arrangement of the three main elements. The functional connection elements indicated. Figure 22 shows some m o d e r n vacuum
Structure
The elements t h a t most influence a p r o d u c t ' s f o r m design are, o f c o u r s e , t h e m a i n ones. We m a y t h e r e fore conveniently apply the structure variation m e t h o d t o a f e w o f the main elements o f the p r o d u c t , in o r d e r t h a t a f i r s t s u r v e y o f t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r t h e design m a y be c a r r i e d o u t . T h e sketches o r m o d e l s m a d e a t t h i s stage give a b a c k g r o u n d f o r a f i r s t r o u g h
cleaners, w h e r e w e can see h o w g r e a t l y t h e relative arrangement o f the elements influences the design.
QUANTIFIED
STRUCTURES
SYMBOLS
Variatior^
of
relative
arrangement
jTTI
1S I
Mouthpiece
etc
Ml. S.
s
Figure
21
Quantified
structures
for vacuum
cleaners
25
Figure
22
Vacuum
cleaners
with different
quantified
structures.
21).
(Courtesy
ofNilfisk
and
Miele)
26
Methods Let us
now
nnethod can be a p p l i e d t o a m i c r o s c o p e . T h e basic s t r u c t u r e o f t h e m i c r o s c o p e is c h a r a c t e r i s e d b y t h e lenses a n d image planes i n v o l v e d . T o d e t e r m i n e t h e d e r i v e d s t r u c t u r e , o n e needs i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e size a n d f o c a l l e n g t h o f t h e lenses, t h e d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n t h e m and their relative arrangement. Figure 2 3 shows quantified relative structures based of the on variation of the arrangement tube and the object
F i g u r e 2 4 are c o n s t r u c t e d w i t h d i f f e r e n t d i f f e r e n t designs.
quantified
s t r u c t u r e s , w h i c h c a n be c l e a r l y seen f r o m t h e i r v e r y O f t e n i t is possible t o use y e t a n o t h e r v a r i a t i o n p a r a m e t e r , n a m e l y t h e n u m b e r o f each o f t h e c o n s t i t u e n t t y p e s o f e l e m e n t . In p r i n c i p l e a v a r i a t i o n o f the n u m b e r belongs t o t h e basic s t r u c t u r e , b u t in cases w h e r e a n e l e m e n t can be d i v i d e d i n t o several or d o u b l e d w i t h o u t altering the character o f the basic s t r u c t u r e t h e n u m b e r m a y w i t h e q u a l r i g h t be v a r i e d u n d e r t h e q u a n t i f i e d s t r u c t u r e .
plane in relation t o t h e table. The functional connections between the elements (e.g. t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e rays a n d f o c u s s i n g ) are n o t included in t h e q u a n t i f i e d structures, b u t t h e y can
QUANTIFIED
STRUCTURES
BASIC STRUCTURE
Variation of relative a r r a n g e m e n t
4
1^ I
Figure
23
Quantified
structures
for a
microscope
27
quantified
structures.
28
Methods
used in form
design In F i g u r e 2 5 , n o t e t h a t t h e range o f s o l u t i o n s is n a r r o w e d c o n s i d e r a b l y d u e t o t h e f a c t t h a t all t h e w h e e l s m u s t be o n t h e same l e v e l , a n d t h a t n o elem e n t m a y lie b e l o w t h i s level. In F i g u r e 2 5 , n o t e also t h a t t h e k e y t o t h e systematic arrangement covering the whole spectrum of solutions lies in t h e small f r a m e d f i g u r e s . These
F i g u r e 2 5 s h o w s possible q u a n t i f i e d s t r u c t u r e s f o r r o a d r o l l e r s , w h e r e t h e v a r i a t i o n p a r a m e t e r s are t h e relative a r r a n g e m e n t a n d t h e n u m b e r o f t h e e l e m e n t s . T h e e l e m e n t s w e e x a m i n e are: w h e e l s , engine a n d p o s i t i o n o f t h e o p e r a t o r . O n l y r o a d rollers b u i l t o n the t r a d i t i o n a l principle, where rolling wheels and t r a n s p o r t w h e e l s are i d e n t i c a l are c o n s i d e r e d .
QUANTIFIED
STRUCTURFi^
SYMBOLS
O lEl
E L E M E N T S ON ONE LEVEL
2 Wheels
OOdllH]
OOEll
OiOSl
OEO O m o
OMO
Figure 25
Jooia isioo
?! EOG
for road rollers
lOO
29
3 Wheels
Id OOiEQO
)?OIlO
4 Wheels
)?
OO
Figure
25
(continued)
30
E L E M E N T S ON TWO LEVELS
2 Wheels
...|...
-I
o m o m
!
o o
oof
3 Wheels
OmO OmOO
OOOE\
doof
coo
4 Wheels o o o J m
oooo
Figure 25
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(continued)
31
E L E M E N T S ON TWO LEVELS
2 Wheels
3 Wheels
m l
OO
i. W h e e l s
OOO
)00
oooo
ELEMENTS ON THREE LEVELS
ooo
MM.
2 Wheels
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)"
/El)
\ S o l
3 Wheels
\OOo/
Wheels
oooo
Figure 25 (continued)
32
Methods
used in form
design a reasonable n u m b e r ( f o u r , in t h i s case) o f c a t e g o r i e s , W h e n a given s t r u c t u r e is c h o s e n f o r closer e x a m i n a t i o n o n e m u s t s t i l l feel f r e e t o v a r y t h e a r r a n g e m e n t of the elements, although within narrow limits, Figure 26 shows some m o d e r n existing road rollers.
f i g u r e s express t h e levels o n w h i c h t h e e l e m e n t s lie i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e e a r t h . O f c o u r s e an e l e m e n t (e.g. t h e e n g i n e ) m a y lie o n a level b e t w e e n t h e ones w e are c o n s i d e r i n g , b u t as t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s are o b v i o u s l y i n n u m e r a b l e w e begin b y d i v i d i n g t h e p r o b l e m i n t o
Figure
26
Road rollers.
25)
33
Figure
26
(continued)
34
Methods
used in form
design t h e angle o f t h e t w o e l e m e n t s can be v a r i e d g r a d u a l l y , b u t t h e range o f s o l u t i o n s c a n be i l l u s t r a t e d b y t h e angles s h o w n . T h e relative arrangement o f three elements o f t h e same o r d e r o f size c a n be s u b j e c t e d t o t h e same c o n siderations. Figure 2 8 shows a n u m b e r o f possibilities at t h e s h o w n level o f d e t a i l . T h e great n u m b e r o f solutions that emerge through a permutation the of three different elements in each o f positions
s h o w n w i l l a l w a y s be q u i c k l y l i m i t e d w h e n w o r k i n g o n a s p e c i f i c p r o d u c t . A n e x a m p l e o f t h i s is s h o w n i n t h e e x a m p l e o n page 4 2 .
ARRANGEMENT OF TWO
ELEMENTS:
0 O
Remember:
Figure
27
Possibilities
arrangement
of two
elements
35
Figure
28
Possibilities
arrangement
of the three
elements
36
Methods
used in form
design
Structure function
variation in connection
witfi
boat
b e i n g used as t h e s o u r c e o f
energy f o r
the
p u m p . As the boat rocks, a p e n d u l u m o n a vertical axis swings f r o m side t o side a n d t h i s drives a p i s t o n pump. The inset of Figure 29 shows the basic
The functional connection between the most importa n t e l e m e n t s is expressed i n t h e basic s t r u c t u r e , m o s t o f t e n in s o m e s o r t o f s k e t c h s h o w i n g t h e p r i n c i p l e of the design, where c o m m o n l y accepted symbols f o r k n o w n elements (machine, h y d r a u l i c , pneumatic, e l e c t r i c s y m b o l s , e t c ) are used. So l o n g as t h i s s k e t c h expresses t h e basic s t r u c t u r e i t is e x e m p t f r o m a n y definite built dimensions or form, but it may be the the starting point f o r a series o f q u a n t i f i e d variation structures
structure. F i g u r e 2 9 also i l l u s t r a t e s t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r e are m a n y possible v a r i a t i o n s , as t h e r e l a t i v e a r r a n g e m e n t a n d t h e d i m e n s i o n s c a n be c h a n g e d c o n t i n u o u s l y . I t is t h e r e f o r e i m p o r t a n t t o m a k e t h e v a r i a t i o n s a t t h e c o r r e c t stage, w h i c h means t h a t t h e n u m b e r o f elements considered must must not be too great (less the important parameters of ones are k e p t f o r later), and that
on the structure
method with
relative a r r a n g e m e n t a n d d i m e n s i o n s as p a r a m e t e r s f o r each separate e l e m e n t in t h e basic s t r u c t u r e . Figure 2 9 shows the q u a n t i f i e d structure f o r a baling p u m p empty intended f o r keeping a m o o r e d by the rocking m o v e m e n t of boat the of water
37
QUANTIFIED
STRUCTURES
BASIC
STRUCTURE W a t e r out
V a r i a t i o n of: R e l a t i v e a r r a n g e n n e n t - Dinnensions
Pendulunn
O'
Piston p u m p ] ^
7777777
W a t e r in
RELATIVE
ARRANGEMENT
H D 777Z7Z7 ////////'
-CID
CUD
DIMENSIONS V to v a r y : , , L , D , V :
-CID;
7777777
-fe
///////
O'
o
77777
Figure 29 Quantified structures for a baling pump
77777
38
Methods
used in form
Figure 3 0 shows a n u m b e r o f q u a n t i f i e d structures for a gear, drawn up on t h e basis o f t h e basic structure illustrated in t h e inset. Here t h e r e l a t i v e
variation f o r a labelling machine. The t o p illustration shows q u a n t i f i e d structures f o r f o u r existing labelling m a c h i n e s , a n d a n u m b e r o f o t h e r p o s s i b i l i t i e s are s h o w n below. Finally, Figure 3 2 shows some quantified structures for an excavator, and Figure 33 in demonstrates h o w t h r e e o f these are e m p l o y e d
a r r a n g e m e n t a n d t h e d i m e n s i o n s are n o t i n d e p e n d e n t l y v a r i e d . W h e t h e r i t is u s e f u l t o k e e p t h e t w o p a r a m e t e r s separate d u r i n g t h e search f o r s o l u t i o n s depends o n the nature o f the p r o b l e m , a fact w h i c h is also evident from the other examples in this
existing excavators.
BASIC STRUCTURE
QUANTIFIED
STRUCTURES
777
v////\ ////
Z77/A
4-
Figure
30
Quantified
structures
for a gear
39
BASIC
QUANTIFIED
STRUCTURES Mj
Variation o f : R e l a t i v e a r r a n g e m e n t - Dimensions
^ ^ ? > C supporting
Label (9) strip I
Roll for
U existing labelling
machines:
Other p o s s i b i l i t i e s
0
(M)
Ms)
Figure 31 31 Quantified structures for a labelling machine
40
BASI C
STRUCTURE
QUANTIFIED
STRUCTURES
Variation
parameters
Arrangement Dimensions
Figure
32
Quantified
structures
for an
excavator
41
Figure
33
Excavators
wit/i
different
quantified
structures.
32)
42
Methods
used in form
design A m o n g t h e s o l u t i o n s i n F i g u r e 3 4 are s o m e w h i c h c a n be e x c l u d e d o n t h e basis o f c r i t e r i a s u c h as handling (the teapot ought not to be inside the
w a t e r is p o u r e d o n t o t e a leaves, a n d w h e r e t h e t e a from f i n i s h e d t e a . We i m a g i n e t h a t w e have reached a stage i n t h e design w o r k w h e r e d i f f e r e n t basic s t r u c t u r e s have been c o n s i d e r e d , so t h a t t h e q u a n t i f i e d s t r u c t u r e m u s t be c o n s i d e r e d . As a first approach t o the q u a n t i f i e d structure we m a y l o o k at the relative arrangement o f the three main elements: a container f o r cold water, one f o r tea t h a t is b r e w i n g , a n d f i n a l l y o n e f o r t h e f i n i s h e d t e a , w h e r e t h e l a t t e r m a y perhaps be a t r a d i t i o n a l teapot. The m a n y possibilities illustrated in Figure 2 8 are r e d u c e d since s t r u c t u r e s w h i c h are s y m m e t r i c a l round simple a vertical axis are identical. The to making relative a r r a n g e m e n t s are s h o w n i n F i g u r e 3 4 . N o t e h o w t h e sketches contribute systematic v a r i a t i o n easy. V a r i a t i o n s c a n be m a d e b y d r a w i n g f r o m one solution t o another.
usable s t r u c t u r e s i n F i g u r e 3 4 w i t h a basic s t r u c t u r e is assumed has been c h o s e n b e f o r e r e l a t i v e a r r a n g e m e n t o f t h e e l e m e n t s was c o n s i d e r e d . T h e inset i n F i g u r e 3 5 s h o w s a r o u g h s k e t c h o f a sugg e s t i o n f o r a basic s t r u c t u r e . T h e m a i n i l l u s t r a t i o n shows t w e n t y d i f f e r e n t q u a n t i f i e d structures expressing t h e relative arrangement o f t h e elements a n d the functional relationship between t h e m . It is p o s s i b l e , i n t h e l i g h t o f t h e d i a g r a m s i n F i g u r e 3 5 , t o discard some structures. T h e factors t h a t can be used as c r i t e r i a a r e : p r i c e ( c o m p l e x i t y ) , appearance, h a n d l i n g a n d effectiveness. T h e final c h o i c e o f s t r u c t u r e c a n o n l y be s a f e l y m a d e a f t e r c o n s i d e r i n g the design possibilities for some of the most promising structures.
43
Variation
of r e l a t i v e a r r a n g e n n e n t
B r e w i n g vessel
()
Teapot
SS-
ra
g l
'
^ ^ i ^
2.
^msi
3& SS
m 3
ffi.
TU
"i^
8 "2
1 !
El
IIL
teamaker
43
Figure
34
Relative
arrangement
of boiler,
brewing
44
BASIC S T R U C T U R E
QUANTIFIED
STRUCTURES
V a r i a t i o n o f relative a r r a n g e m e n t
Heating element w h i c h forces the boiling water into the brewing vessel. A f t e r b r e w i n g , a r e m a i n i n g a m o u n t o f w a t e r is b o i l e d , w h e r e b y t h e tea is f o r c e d i n t o t h e t e a p o t
Ti
\I
7^
1^
21-2.
34)
for an automatic
45
Figure
35
(continued)
46
Structure
W h e n v a r y i n g t h e s t r u c t u r e i t is a l w a y s necessary t o visualise t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s . D i a g r a m s w i t h seen f r o m the previous examples three-dimensional models simplified section. however, s y m b o l s are s u i t a b l e f o r t h i s p u r p o s e . T h i s c a n be in t h i s may, Making
also be r e l e v a n t . F i g u r e 3 6 s h o w s s o m e s t r u c t u r e s f o r a tea m a k e r m o d e l l e d w i t h s i m p l e t o y b r i c k s . (See also F i g u r e 3 4 ) . Where more complex s i d e r e d , sketches are n o t s u f f i c i e n t , a n d In s u c h cases t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l m o d e l l i n g is t h e o n l y 37, where quantified structures for A t y p i c a l t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l m o d e l is s h o w n i n F i g u r e filling machine are s h o w n . ( F o r a more detailed
Figure
36
Mal<ing
three-dimensional
models
for a teamaker
with
(See also
47
Figure
37
Three-dimensional
models of quantified structures for a test tube filling machine. handling conditions the best structure may be chosen
On an evaluation
of space
and
48
In t h e p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n i t was s h o w n h o w t h e basis f o r t h e fornn design o f a p r o d u c t is laid d o w n choosing the quantified structure. Once this choice has been m a d e i n a s p e c i f i c p r o j e c t t h e a c t u a l f o r m design w o r k c a n s t a r t . A s t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f p r o d u c t synthesis s h o w e d , t h e r e are t w o aspects o f t h e design t h a t m u s t be t r e a t e d c o n c u r r e n t l y , n a m e l y t h e t o t a l f o r m of the product and the f o r m of the individual e l e m e n t s . T h e m e t h o d s t h a t m a y be e m p l o y e d f o r these t w o a c t i v i t i e s are b r o a d l y s i m i l a r . So i n t h e following pages, w h e r e w e have used e x a m p l e s o f e l e m e n t d e s i g n , t h e m e t h o d s d e m o n s t r a t e d can be t r a n s f e r r e d d i r e c t l y t o t h e t o t a l design a n d vice versa. H o w c a n o n e m a k e a s t a r t o n t h e f o r m design o f a s p e c i f i c e l e m e n t ? We m u s t ask ourselves w h a t i t is t h a t characterises t h e e l e m e n t i n q u e s t i o n . T h e element is a p a r t o f b o t h a basic s t r u c t u r e a n d o f a q u a n t i f i e d s t r u c t u r e . We c a n t h e r e f o r e say t h a t t h e e l e m e n t has been d e f i n e d o n l y b y its f u n c t i o n a n d b y its f u n c t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p t o its s u r r o u n d i n g s . T h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t o f t h e f o r m design m u s t c o n s e q u e n t l y be t o f o r m u l a t e t h e f u n c t i o n s t h e e l e m e n t m u s t perf o r m . Thereafter one can sketch the most i m p o r t a n t surfaces o r f u n c t i o n a l surfaces a n d f r o m these t h e rest o f t h e e l e m e n t m a y be d e s i g n e d . In t h i s b o o k a f u n c t i o n a l s u r f a c e is t a k e n t o m e a n a surface t h a t has an a c t i v e f u n c t i o n d u r i n g use for e x a m p l e , t h e s l o t i n t h e head o f a s c r e w , t h e area o f i m p a c t o n t h e head o f a h a m m e r ; t h e surface o f a c h a i r seat; t h e cogs o n a w h e e l , e t c . We now examine the connection between the f u n c t i o n a l surfaces a n d t h e f o r m . F o r e x a m p l e , let
Figure 39 The functional surface openers for the two bottle
US select a s i m p l e e l e m e n t - a b o t t l e o p e n e r . F i g u r e 3 8 s h o w s t w o t y p e s o f o p e n e r w h i c h d o n o t appear t o have m u c h i n c o m m o n ; h o w e v e r , t h e f u n c t i o n a l surfaces are almost identical, see Figure 39. A b o t t l e o p e n e r possesses t h r e e f u n c t i o n a l surfaces as s h o w n . T h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e t w o t y p e s illust r a t e d consists i n t h e d i f f e r e n t spacial a r r a n g e m e n t o f t h e m a t e r i a l c o n n e c t i n g t h e f u n c t i o n a l surfaces. We c a n t h e r e f o r e i d e n t i f y t w o steps in t h e design o f an e l e m e n t , o n t h e o n e h a n d d e t e r m i n i n g t h e f u n c t i o n a l surfaces a n d , o n t h e o t h e r , d e c i d i n g h o w these w i l l be c o n n e c t e d t o g e t h e r . A s a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d . F i g u r e 3 9 s h o w s t h i s last s t e p , w h i l e 40 illustrates how other arrangements functional surfaces give rise t o o t h e r f o r m surfaces are t h e basis o f t h e Figure of the design form
possibilities. Functional design o f a n y p r o d u c t . I t is t h e r e f o r e a p p r o p r i a t e t o discuss i n m o r e d e t a i l w h a t , in f a c t , f u n c t i o n a l surfaces are. I n a p r o d u c t c o n s i s t i n g o f m o r e t h a n o n e e l e m e n t t h e r e are t w o t y p e s o f f u n c t i o n a l surfaces external and internal. External surfaces have an
active f u n c t i o n in relation t o t h e surroundings, such as a h a n d l e , a s u p p o r t i n g su'-face, e t c . T h e i n t e r n a J surfaces have a n a c t i v e f u n c t i o n in r e l a t i o n t o o t h e r elements o f the p r o d u c t . T h i s c a n be i l l u s t r a t e d b y i m a g i n i n g a p r o d u c t as a system consisting o f a n u m b e r o f elements w i t h
Figure 38 Two different nothing bottle in openers common with apparently
certain
relationships
to
each
other.
The
vice
in
F i g u r e 4 1 m a y t h u s be d e s c r i b e d as a s y s t e m s h o w n
49
Figure
40
Different
cfioices
of functional
surfaces
design
possibilities
Figure
41
point
for Figures
42 to
44
50
Methods
used in form
in F i g u r e 4 2 , w h e r e t h e e l e m e n t s are r e p r e s e n t e d b y blocks and the relationship between t h e m and the s u r r o u n d i n g s b y lines. If w e c o n s i d e r a p a r t i c u l a r e l e m e n t o f t h e vice e.g. t h e s l i d i n g j a w , w e c a n see t h a t t h e r e l a t i o n s c o r r e spond exactly t o t h e above m e n t i o n e d functional surface, surfaces. T h e s l i d i n g j a w has a n e x t e r n a l j e c t as w e l l and
surfaces c a n be t h e basis f o r m a n y
f o r m designs, a n d o t h e r a r r a n g e m e n t s c a n give o t h e r series o f f o r m designs. In t h e c h a p t e r o n t h e f o r m variation m e t h o d w e described t h e w a y in w h i c h t h e form design w o r k c a n be t a c k l e d o n t h e basis o f functional surfaces. I n t h e f o l l o w i n g p a r a g r a p h s i t
OBJECT
1
SPIKJDLE
HANDLE
Figure
42
A vice. Relationship
of
elements
Figure
43
surfaces
51
Figure
44
Suggested
form
groups
of the functional
surfaces
52
Methods
used in form
design
functional
g e o m e t r y a n d d i m e n s i o n . Figures 4 5 a n d 4 6 s h o w a number of examples o f products, where the functional surfaces are e m p h a s i s e d . T h e products are p r e s e n t e d i n pairs in o r d e r t h a t t h e f o u r variation
A specification of the parameters t h a t determine the f u n c t i o n a l surfaces o f an e l e m e n t m a y f o r m t h e basis o f v a r i a t i o n m e t h o d s f o r g e n e r a t i n g ideas. B y system a t i c v a r i a t i o n o f t h e p a r a m e t e r s i t b e c o m e s possible t o list a n u m b e r o f a r r a n g e m e n t s o f f u n c t i o n a l surfaces f o r a given e l e m e n t . T h e r e l e v a n t p a r a m e t e r s t h a t can be v a r i e d are: n u m b e r , a r r a n g e m e n t , f o r m
p a r a m e t e r s m a y be o b s e r v e d , p a r t l y f o r t h e i n t e r n a l a n d p a r t l y f o r t h e e x t e r n a l f u n c t i o n a l surfaces. As these are n a t u r a l l y a p a r t o f t h e f i n a l f o r m w e shall m e e t t h e f o u r v a r i a t i o n p a r a m e t e r s again in c o n n e c tion with the later s e c t i o n o n t h e f o r m variation method.
NUMBER
ARRANGEMENT
FORM
GEOMETRY
DIMENSIONS
Figure
45 Examples of variation of internal functional surfaces based on tfie four variation parameters. Tfie examples sfiown are a hinge, overhead projector, a socket for a camera lens and a socket for an electric light bulb
53
NUMBER
ARRANGEMENT
FORM
GEOMETRY
DIMENSIONS
Figure
46
Examples
of variation of external functional surfaces based on the four variation parameters. - a wheel for a chair, an electric drill, a hotplate andan electric switch
The examples
are
54
NUMBER
ARRANGEMENT
1=
=B
Figure
47
Variation
of functional
surfaces
packing
number,
arrangement
Methods In t h e f o l l o w i n g paragraphs i t w i l l be s h o w n h o w v a r i a t i o n o f t h e f u n c t i o n a l surfaces m a y be a p p l i e d in a p a r t i c u l a r p r o b l e m . T h i s is t o design an area o f packing r o u n d a lid, cover, cork or similar object. T h e p r o b l e m is i l l u s t r a t e d in F i g u r e 4 7 ( i n s e t ) . A n e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e p r o b l e m o n t h e basis o f v a r y i n g t h e f o u r v a r i a t i o n p a r a m e t e r s m a y , f o r i n s t a n c e , give t h e suggestions s h o w n in Figures 4 7 a n d 4 8 . These m u s t n o t be regarded as f i n a l suggestions, b u t o n l y as categories o f s o l u t i o n s , as each o f t h e suggestions shown must be f u r t h e r elaborated at the detail design stage.
used in form
design
55
T h e v a r i a t i o n p a r a m e t e r s m a y g e n e r a l l y be f r e e l y v a r i e d inside t h e l i m i t s w h e r e t h e f u n c t i o n a l surfaces c a n f u l f i l l t h e i r f u n c t i o n . I f t h e f u l l range o f s o l u t i o n s is t o be t h o r o u g h l y e x a m i n e d i t w i l l be necessary t o evaluate t h e l i m i t s f o r t h e i n d i v i d u a l p a r a m a t e r s . A s an o v e r a l l c h e c k o n t h e l i m i t s i t m a y be u s e f u l t o e x a m i n e t h e f u n c t i o n a l surfaces w i t h t h e greatest e x t e n t a n d t h o s e w i t h t h e smallest e x t e n t . S u c h surfaces m a y be s u i t a b l y c a l l e d m a x i m u m a n d m i n i m u m surfaces, see F i g u r e 4 9 .
DIMENSION
FORM GEOMETRY
5z
Figure 48
Variation
of functional
surfaces
dimension,
form
geometry
MINIMUM
SURFACE
MAXIMUM
SURFACE
Figure 49
Minimum
and maximum
functional
surface
packing
56
decides t o a p p l y t h e v a r i a t i o n p r i n c i p l e s s y s t e m a t i cally, or whether minimum surfaces one s i m p l y uses m a x i m u m by a few supplemented possi-
o r is s i m p l y p a r t o f t h e a t t i t u d e
w h i c h o n e a t t a c k s a given t a s k . L e t us t h e r e f o r e c o n sider s o m e details in a s p e c i f i c m a c h i n e o n t h e basis of a more flexible a t t i t u d e , while primarily studying m a x i m u m a n d m i n i m u m surfaces. Figure 5 0 shows a machine t h a t can carry o u t a n u m b e r o f processes w i t h t e s t t u b e s in c o n n e c t i o n w i t h n u t r i e n t s f o r tests o n b a c t e r i a . T h e processes t h a t t h e test t u b e s go t h r o u g h a r e : s t e r i l i s a t i o n ( b y heat), cooling, filling w i t h n u t r i e n t , closing w i t h a sterile w a d o f c o t t o n w o o l a n d l a b e l l i n g . T h e t u b e s are loaded manually, transported through the machine on a continuous circular conveyor and taken o u t by hand.
because t h e c o n v e y o r , as w e l l as t h e t e s t t u b e s , goes t h r o u g h b o t h the heater and t h e c o o l i n g zone and so t h e h e a t c a p a c i t y o f t h e c o n v e y o r needs t o kept to a m i n i m u m . T h e l o a d i n g s y s t e m is a f u n n e l - s h a p e d m a g a z i n e w h i c h c a n t a k e t h i r t y t e s t t u b e s . T h e t u b e s are passed a l o n g b y b e i n g grasped o n e at a t i m e b y a d r u m , w h e r e u p o n t h e y are s w u n g d o w n i n t o t h e c i r c u l a r be
Machine for filling test tubes. This machine carries out automatic the correct dose, corking and labelling of test tubes (Inst, for Product of Denmark) The Technical University
sterilisation, Development,
57
FROM A B O V E
SIDE V I E W
Toothed
wheel
Figure
51
The functional
surfaces
in the circular
conveyor
are designed
as minimum
surfaces
58
FUNCTION
/////////////////
MAXIMUM
SURFACES
MINIMUM
SURFACES
Figure
52
L oading
system
machine.
The actual
functional
59
FUNCTION
MAXIMUM
SURFACES
MINIMUM
SURFACES
Figure
53
Unloading
system
machine
60
Methods
used in form
design Banned areas: in space must which not are structurally conother be o b s t r u c t e d , i.e.
c o n v e y o r as s h o w n i n F i g u r e 5 2 . If t h e l o a d i n g s y s t e m is c o n s t r u c t e d using m a x i m u m surfaces t h e t u b e s m u s t be s u p p o r t e d a n d g u i d e d as m u c h as possible. T h e result can be seen at t h e b o t t o m l e f t in F i g u r e 5 2 . T o design t h e f u n c t i o n a l surfaces as m i n i m u m ones, t h e desired f u n c t i o n m a y be achieved as l o n g as t h e t u b e s are c o n s t a n t l y s u p p o r t e d at f o u r p o i n t s , see F i g u r e 52, b o t t o m r i g h t . In t h e m a c h i n e , t h e l o a d i n g s y s t e m is designed using m a x i m u m surfaces t o p r e v e n t damage t o t h e t u b e s a n d t o p r e v e n t t h e o p e r a t o r g e t t i n g his f i n g e r s t r a p p e d . W h e n , a f t e r t h e c y c l e is c o m p l e t e d , t h e test t u b e s leave t h e c i r c u l a r c o n v e y o r t h e y are grasped b y a d r u m w h i c h passes t h e m u p i n t o a m a g a z i n e , w h e r e t h e o p e r a t o r can r e m o v e t h e m . T h e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e u n l o a d i n g d r u m is i l l u s t r a t e d in F i g u r e 5 3 , t o p . T h e d r u m r o t a t e s o n a s l o p i n g axis, so t h a t t h e test t u b e s are m o v e d in a h y p e r b o l o i d p l a n e . W h e n t h e t u b e s have c o m p l e t e d a h a l f c i r c u i t t h e y are f o r c e d u p i n t o t h e m a g a z i n e . If m a x i m u m surfaces are used f o r t h e d r u m , w e get a design l i k e t h e one b o t t o m l e f t in F i g u r e 5 3 . A m i n i m u m s u r f a c e w i l l be c o m p l e t e l y analogous t o t h e c i r c u l a r c o n v e y o r in F i g u r e 5 4 , as i t is s u f f i c i e n t t o have t w o p o i n t s o f c o n t a c t above a n d t w o b e l o w as w e l l as a p o i n t in t h e m i d d l e a n d o n e at t h e b o t t o m . mum. In t h e m a c h i n e , t h e d r u m is reason is t o prevent designed w i t h f u n c t i o n a l surfaces close t o t h e m a x i Here again, t h e m a i n damage t o t h e test t u b e s .
1. Areas
ditioned
e l e m e n t s m u s t n o t be h a m p e r e d ( t h i s applies t o b o t h stationary and movable elements). 2. Areas in space w h i c h must not be are f u n c t i o n a l l y conditioned water). 3. Areas in space w h i c h are o p e r a t i o n a l l y must not conditioned be o b s t r u c t e d (e.g. r o o m o b s t r u c t e d , (e.g. t h e
f o r a h a n d , r o o m f o r an o p e r a t o r , e t c ) . O n t h e basis o f these b a n n e d areas o n e can n o w d r a w u p a n u m b e r o f f o r m design suggestions t h a t r o u g h l y s h o w w h e r e in space t h e c o n n e c t i o n s m u s t be p u t . T h e n e x t step is t o d e c i d e o n t h e f o r m geom e t r y a n d t h e d i m e n s i o n s f i r s t as r o u g h sketches and, thereafter, Chapter 3). It is i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e f r o m t h e p r e c e d i n g c o m m e n t s t h a t t h e f o r m design o f an e l e m e n t c o n t a i n s both a qualitative how the and a quantitative will part. Any e.g. d e c i s i o n o n d i m e n s i o n s is i r r e l e v a n t u n t i l i t has been decided material be a r r a n g e d , w h e t h e r a f u n c t i o n a l surface w i l l be s u p p o r t e d at o n e p o i n t o r at several. T h e n u m b e r o f e l e m e n t s a n d t h e relative a r r a n g e m e n t o f t h e c o n n e c t i o n s b e l o n g t o t h e q u a l i t a t i v e p a r t o f t h e f o r m d e s i g n , w h i l e geom e t r y and dimension belong t o the quantitative one. The f o l l o w i n g section explains h o w the variation of in d e t a i l drawings, judged on for instance t e c h n o l o g i c a l o r a e s t h e t i c c r i t e r i a (see also
Restrictions
on form design
p a r a m e t e r s can be a p p l i e d .
Let us i m a g i n e t h a t w e have a p r o p o s a l f o r t h e f o r m design o f t h e f u n c t i o n a l surfaces o f an e l e m e n t . H o w t h e n d o w e m o v e o n f r o m t h e r e ? A s has a l r e a d y been m e n t i o n e d , t h e f u n c t i o n a l surfaces m u s t be The variation parameters: number, arrangement f o r m geometry and dimension, are general f o r m parasurm e t e r s , a n d w e have a l r e a d y s h o w n h o w these m a y be used in t h e search f o r possible f u n c t i o n a l faces. T h e i n t e r a c t i o n o f t h e f o u r p a r a m e t e r s w i t h the f o r m of the material that connects the functional surfaces is i l l u s t r a t e d in Figures 5 4 a n d 5 5 . c o n n e c t e d t o g e t h e r . T h e p r o b l e m is n o w t o arrange t h e c o n n e c t i o n s so t h a t t h e e l e m e n t can f u n c t i o n i n use. T h e role o f t h e e l e m e n t w h e n in use m u s t t h e r e f o r e be assessed a n d t a k e n i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n . T h e c o n d i t i o n s t h a t m a y have t o be t a k e n a c c o u n t o f in t h e f o r m design o f an e l e m e n t can be f o r m u l a t e d as f o l l o w s :
method
Methods
used in form
design
61
Number
Figure
can be used in connection with arranging the materia/ two sprinkler valves and two motor lawn mowers
62
Dimension
Figure
55
The variation parameters of form geometry and dimension can be used to specify the form when area (see Figure 54) has been chosen. The examp/es show two nutcrac/cers and two c/amps
the
materia/
used in form
design
63
In o t h e r w o r d s t h e f r a m e m u s t be designed so t h a t t h e t w o f u n c t i o n surfaces are c o n n e c t e d i n a w a y w h i c h t a k e s a c c o u n t o f t h e b a n n e d areas, a n d w h i c h allows it t o fulfill necessary f o r c e s . Figure and 57 shows h o w the variation of of elements may be number used to arrangement its f u n c t i o n t o t r a n s m i t t h e
w e n o w observe h o w t h e v a r i a t i o n
parameters can be used in d e s i g n i n g an e l e m e n t . T h e f r a m e o f t h e press c o n t a i n s t w o f u n c t i o n a l surfaces, namely the fastening areas for respectively the h y d r a u l i c c y l i n d e r a n d t h e pressure p l a t e , see F i g u r e 5 6 . W h e n d e s i g n i n g t h e f r a m e t h e r e are t h r e e b a n n e d areas: 1. T h e r e m u s t be r o o m f o r t h e p i s t o n in all its positions; 2. T h e r e m u s t be r o o m f o r an o b j e c t o f a c l o s e l y d e f i n e d m a x i m u m size; 3. T h e r e m u s t be r o o m f o r t h e o b j e c t t o be p u t i n t o a n d t a k e n o u t o f t h e press.
examine where t h e material can lie. A f t e r t h a t , t h e variation it of f o r m geometry to detail and dimension of rough make design possible a number
FUNCTIONAL
SURFACE
Figure
56
Functional
surfaces
and banned
areas in connection
with
the form
design
of a frame
for a hydraulic
press
64
FORM CONCEPTS
NUMBER
ARRANGEMENT
FORM GEOMETRY
DIMENSION
On
o;
Figure 57 Form concepts for a frame for a hydraulic press
65
Figure
58
Hydraulic
57
66
Methods
used in form
design f o r m p r o p o s a l s as s h o w n In F i g u r e 6 0 . N o t e t h a t i t is useful to work at two levels of abstraction, n a m e l y , w i t h a series o f s o l u t i o n s w h e r e n u m b e r a n d a r r a n g e m e n t are v a r i e d ( F i g u r e 5 9 ) a n d o n e w h e r e f o r m g e o m e t r y a n d d i m e n s i o n are v a r i e d ( F i g u r e 6 0 ) . N o t e also t h e c o n s i d e r a b l e d i f f e r e n c e i n i l l u s t r a t i o n technique. T h e f o r m p r o p o s a l s m u s t n o w be f u r t h e r d e t a i l e d , a n d i t b e c o m e s necessary t o t a k e i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n the example of the fork joint, the design, c o m p a r e Figures 6 0 a n d 9 8 . manufacturing double
A m o r e d e t a i l e d use o f t h e v a r i a t i o n p a r a m e t e r s is possible t h r o u g h a closer i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e m a t e r i a l areas b e t w e e n t h e f u n c t i o n surfaces. T h i s is i l l u s t r a t e d in t h e f o l l o w i n g e x a m p l e . F i g u r e 5 9 s h o w s t h e f u n c t i o n a l surfaces i n a f o r k j o i n t w i t h a single b e a r i n g a t o n e e n d a n d i t is a p p r o p r i a t e line for bearings a t t h e o t h e r . I n v a r y i n g t h e m a t e r i a l area t o use t h r e e sorts o f s y m b o l s ; a that is a p p r o x i m a t e l y a rod something
( s t r a i g h t o r c u r v e d ) , a h a t c h e d p l a n e f o r s o m e t h i n g t h e f o r m f a c t o r s (see p. 9 8 ) t h a t a c t u a l l y e x i s t . I n f l a t , a n d f i n a l l y a h a t c h e d area f o r s o m e t h i n g s o l i d , i.e. m a t e r i a l i n t h r e e d i m e n s i o n s . Va^-iation o f f o r m geometry and dimension can r e s u l t i n a series o f process b e c o m e s a decisive f a c t o r f o r t h e c h o i c e o f
SURFACES
:.
RODS
PLANES
SOLID
COMBINATIONS
Figure
59
Form
concepts
at the most
abstract
level,
where
the number
and arrangement
of the
material
areas are
examined
67
FORM CONCEPTS
RODS
PLANES
SOLID
i 1 1 , * 1
COMBINATIONS
Figure
60
Form
concepts
drawn
59 and variation
of form
geometry
and
dimension.
68
Methods
used in form
design m a t e r i a l m a y be a r r a n g e d f r e e l y in space a n d F i g u r e 6 2 s h o w s a n u m b e r o f suggested f o r m designs d r a w n u p b y v a r y i n g t h e n u m b e r o f e l e m e n t s a n d arrangem e n t . A d i v i s i o n i n t o r o d s , planes a n d s o l i d shapes has been m a d e , as in t h e p r e v i o u s e x a m p l e . maximum and m i n i m u m Note t h a t f o r some o f the parameters one can consider values. F i g u r e 6 3 s h o w s f o r m concepts arising o u t o f v a r i a t i o n o f t h e f o r m geometry and the dimension. I n F i g u r e 6 2 a n d 6 3 i t c a n be seen t h a t v a r i a t i o n of number and arrangement varying can form be c a r r i e d geometry out and q u i t e s y s t e m a t i c a l l y , w h i l e it is u n r e a l i s t i c t o w o r k systematically when d i m e n s i o n . Here t h e m o s t a p p r o p r i a t e c o u r s e is t o c o m b i n e t h e suggestions a r i s i n g f r o m v a r y i n g n u m b e r and arrangement Figure with different basic geometric form existing shapes a n d use t h i s as a s o u r c e o f ideas f o r suggestions. microscopes. 6 4 s h o w s a series o f
F i n a l l y t h e f o r m v a r i a t i o n m e t h o d w i l l be illustrated by a slightly more complex example, a m i c r o s c o p e . We have a l r e a d y s t u d i e d t h e q u a n t i f i e d structure for a microscope designed o n t h e t r a d i t i o n a l p r i n c i p l e , see F i g u r e 2 3 . If t h e t u b e is m a d e v e r t i c a l o r s l i g h t l y s l a n t i n g t h e c o n d i t i o n s f o r t h e design o f t h e f r a m e m a y be illustrated as s h o w n in Figure 6 1 . The most imknob p o r t a n t f u n c t i o n a l surfaces o f t h e f r a m e are surfaces f o r f i x i n g t h e t u b e , t h e stage, t h e a d j u s t i n g a n d t h e m i r r o r as w e l l as t h e s u p p o r t i n g base. T h e b a n n e d areas are t h e t u b e , t h e stage, t h e a d j u s t i n g k n o b , t h e m i r r o r a n d t h e t a b l e t o p as w e l l as t h e rays f r o m t h e l i g h t source t h r o u g h t h e m i r r o r t o t h e o b j e c t a n d o n t o t h e t u b e . T h e r e are also b a n n e d areas over t h e t u b e ( w h e r e t h e o p e r a t o r is l o o k i n g ) a n d o p p o s i t e t h e stage a n d t h e a d j u s t i n g k n o b ( w h e r e t h e o p e r a t o r ' s hands m u s t have r o o m t o w o r k . ) W h e n t h e above c o n d i t i o n s are f u l f i l l e d t h e f r a m e
69
frame
Banned a r e a s for t h e
frame
Figure
61
Functional
surfaces
and banned
of a
microscope
70
SURFACES Tube
- Stage
S u p p o r t i n g base
RODS
^cy
PLANES
-7
SOLID
COMBINATIONS
Figure
62
Form
concepts
of a
microscope
71
FORM
Variation
RODS
3 ^
PLANES
5 5
7
SOLID
COMBINATIONS
4 J
Figure
63
Form
coricepts
of a
microscope
72
Figure
64
Various
types of microscope
(See also Figures 62 and 63). (Courtesy Leitz, Ealing Beck, Vickers)
of Olympus,
JENA,
73
Figure
64
(continued!
74
Methods
used in form
design
method
t h e d i v i s i o n m a y be d o n e f o r reasons o f f u n c t i o n , s e c o n d l y f o r p h y s i c a l reasons, i.e. w h e t h e r t h e elem e n t s c a n be separated f r o m each o t h e r , a n d t h i r d l y f o r visual reasons. A deliberate variation o f the n u m b e r o f elements may be s u i t a b l y c a l l e d t h e f o r m d i v i s i o n method, b e a r i n g i n m i n d , t h a t i t m a y be a q u e s t i o n o f a d i v i s i o n more elements or not lead to more i n t o m o r e e l e m e n t s as w e l l as an i n t e g r a t i o n i n t o a f e w p o s s i b l y i n t o a single w h o l e o n e . In the examples the it on the following are pages the physical and visual divisions considered.
If t h e e x a m p l e s i n t h e p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n are s t u d i e d c l o s e l y o n e m o r e p a r a m e t e r can be i d e n t i f i e d . T h i s , t h r o u g h c o n s c i o u s v a r i a t i o n , c a n give rise t o ideas f o r a n u m b e r o f suggestions f o r t h e design. If t h e m i c r o s c o p e s i n F i g u r e 6 4 are c o m p a r e d i t is o b v i o u s t h a t o n e m i c r o s c o p e f r a m e consists o f m o r e e l e m e n t s than another. This choice of dividing i n t o integrating available. The division need i n t o a f e w is a c h o i c e w h i c h is a l w a y s
Incidentally
is n o t s t a t e d w h e t h e r t h e e l e m e n t s
PRODUCT
Figure
65
Different
points
of view according
to which
a product
may be divided
into
elements
Methods F i g u r e 6 6 s h o w s a p a w l w i t h f o u r f u n c t i o n a l surfaces, t h e area o f t h e b r e a k i n g f u n c t i o n , t h e area o f t h e b e a r i n g , t h e area o f f i n g e r pressure a n d t h e area o f pressure f o r a m e c h a n i c a l s y s t e m , w h i c h m u s t be m o v e d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y w i t h t h e p a w l b e i n g released. If i t is assumed t h a t t h e p a w l m u s t be f o r m designed a p p r o x i m a t e l y as s h o w n in t h e i l l u s t r a t i o n , t h a t is t o say t h a t t h e m a t e r i a l areas are laid d o w n , t h e f o r m d i v i s i o n m e t h o d m a y give rise t o t h e f o r m
75 of
design p r o p o s a l s s h o w n . N o t e t h a t t h e n u m b e r
FUNCTIONAL SURFACES
APPROXIMATE
DESIGN
2 ^ L=rHi
Figure 66 Form concepts for a pawl based on variation of the form division
76
Methods
used in form
design f i g u r e c o n t a i n s a n u m b e r o f ideas t o w h i c h t h e f o r m d i v i s i o n m e t h o d gives rise. Here a g a i n , an essential factor in the choice of form design w i l l be the m a n u f a c t u r i n g process.
DESIGN
Figure
67
Form
concepts
for a double
bearing
Methods In t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h i s c h a p t e r , i t was m e n t i o n e d t h a t t h e m e t h o d s in q u e s t i o n m a y be used in d e s i g n i n g e i t h e r e l e m e n t s o r c o m p l e t e p r o d u c t s . T h i s also applies t o t h e f o r m d i v i s i o n m e t h o d . A s an e x a m p l e let us s t u d y t h e tea m a k e r in F i g u r e 3 5 . I t is assumed t h a t w e w i l l e x a m i n e t h e f o r m s t h a t are possible if b o x s h a p e d c o n t a i n e r s are
used in form
design
11
c h o s e n , p l a c e d side b y side as s h o w n i n t h e inset i n F i g u r e 6 8 . ( I n t h e same w a y o t h e r shapes o f c o n tainer number or may of be examined). of the three In the illustration a possibilities are i l l u s t r a t e d f o r elements division
integration
comprising
b o i l e r , b r e w i n g vessel a n d p l i n t h .
OF
APPROXIMATE DESIGN
Figure
68
Form
concepts
for a teamal<er.
35)
78
Methods
used in form
design f o r d e c i d i n g t h e c h o i c e o f f o r m design w i l l be t h e manufacturing process, t h e appearance, cleaning, number e t c . (see also C h a p t e r 3 ' F o r m f a c t o r s ' ) . A 70 and 7 1 .
o f c a l c u l a t o r s are s h o w n , f o r c o m p a r i s o n , i n Figures
DESIGN
Figure
69
Form concepts
for a
calculator
79
Figure
70
Types
of calculator.
69 and 71).
(Courtesy
of Olympia,
.Facit
and
Cannon)
80
Figure
71
Types of calculator.
69 and 70).
(Courtesy
of Olympia,
Diefil
and
Facit)
used in form
design
81
d i v i s i o n f o r t h e i n d i v i d u a l p r o d u c t s m a y be n o t e d , (see F i g u r e s 7 2 t o 7 6 ) . I t is o b v i o u s f r o m t h e exampies that a change cause in the form division may occasionally a radical a l t e r a t i o n of a well-
known product.
Figure
72
Pneumatic
motors
with a different
form division,
82
Figure
73
Motor
bicycles
with
different
form
division
Figure
74
Watering
cans with
different
form
division
83
Figure
75
Petrol
pumps
with
different
form
division.
(Danish
Industrial
Syndicate
Ltd.)
Figure
76
Hole punches
with
different
form
division
84
numbers and
relative a r r a n g e m e n t .
d i v i s i o n o f t h e m a t e r i a l areas i n t o t h e f o r m o f r o d s , planes o r solids is u s e f u l . F i g u r e 7 9 s h o w s h o w , b y varying the f o r m geometry and the dimension, a a few of these largely n u m b e r o f m o r e s p e c i f i c f o r m design ideas c a n be g i v e n . Possible f o r m divisions f o r ideas are s h o w n in F i g u r e 8 0 . T h e final decision o n the f o r m depends o n t h e c h o i c e o f m a t e r i a l a n d m a n u f a c t u r i n g process (see s e c t i o n 3 . 4 ) a n d p o s s i b l y also o n an e v a l u a t i o n of t h e appearance. B y using s k e t c h e s , m o d e l s are t h e n d o c u m e n t e d i n a set o f and scale d r a w i n g s o n e can d e c i d e o n all t h e which details, working Figures
drawings w i t h the a c c o m p a n y i n g assembly d r a w i n g . Naturally this plan, w h i c h corresponds t o 7 7 t o 8 0 , is v e r y s c h e m a t i c . T h i s is in o r d e r t o u n d e r line t h e steps o n e m u s t basically t a k e in d e s i g n i n g . A more relaxed attitude to this will probably be more realistic, as can also be seen f r o m t h e case
h i s t o r y in C h a p t e r 5.
85
FUNCTIONAL
POINT: bearings
Variation paranneters :
NUMBER
ARRANGEMENT
FORM GEOMETRY
DIMENSION
MAXIMUM
SURFACES
MINIMUM
SURFACES Possibly
Figure
77
Variation
of functional
surfaces
for a pulley
on a conveyor
belt
86
FORM
CONCEPTS
FUNCTIONAL
SURFACES
V a r i a t i o n p a r a n n e t e r s : Nunnber, a r r a n g e m e n t
RODS
SHEETS
SOLID
FUNCTIONAL
SURFACES
RODS
SHEETS
SOLID
Figure
78
Form
concepts
for a pulley
level,
where
the number
and arrangement
of the material
areas
examined
87
FORM CONCEPTS
Variation
parameters:
Form geometry,
dimension
7ZZZ
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F/^yre 7 P
F o r m concepts
for a pulley
arrived
and dimension
of selected
solutions
from
88
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y//
7777
x^xvwv yyyy
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Figure 80 by varying Form concepts for a pulley. Two of tfie suggested solutions in Figure 79 have been detailed to a certain level the form division. For the final detailed design the design engineer must first decide on the manufacturing processes to be used. (See also Figure 95)
l\/lethods
used in form
design
89
The application
of form synthesis
methods
H a v i n g s t u d i e d t h e basis o f f o r m synthesis m e t h o d s , i t is n o w possible t o l o o k a t t h e i r a p p l i c a t i o n s . T h e methods for varying the structure, functional situations, for i n s t a n c e , (as a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d ) surin faces a n d f o r m m a y all be a p p l i e d i n v e r y d i f f e r e n t deciding o n b o t h the total f o r m and the details o f p r o d u c t . T h e m e t h o d s also m a y be used f o r c o m p o u n d products (machines, apparatus, etc) and f o r products consisting of only one element (bottle o p e n e r s , f i t t i n g s , jugs, e t c ) , e x c e p t t h a t in t h i s case t h e s t r u c t u r e v a r i a t i o n m e t h o d is e x c l u d e d . Of course, in d e m o n s t r a t i n g these m e t h o d s it has n o t been t h e i n t e n t i o n t o argue t h a t t h e y m u s t all be a p p l i e d t o all t h e e l e m e n t s in a p r o d u c t . T h i s is u n r e a l i s t i c . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e m e t h o d s c a n give rise to a conscious systematic approach to s p e c i a l l y i m p o r t a n t e l e m e n t s , so t h a t these p r o b a b l y are designed as w e l l as possible. T h e m e t h o d s m a y also be used t o great advantage in a s i t u a t i o n w h e r e o n e has g o t s t u c k i n d e s i g n i n g a given e l e m e n t . I n t h e c o l l a b o r a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e design e n g i n e e r a n d t h e process t e c h n i c i a n , t h e idea o f functional surfaces can be especially v a l u a b l e . If, f o r i n s t a n c e , a f o r m d e t a i l is discussed because t h e f o r m a n d t h e manufacturing process might have been better
Making
models
W h a t e v e r t h e p r o d u c t , t h e f o r m design w o r k can be carried o u t w i t h the help of different kinds o f models. F o r a design e n g i n e e r t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t k i n d o f m o d e l s are g r a p h i c a l ones, i.e. sketches a n d d r a w i n g s . We have, t h e r e f o r e , so f a r e x c l u s i v e l y used these when describing the f o r m variation methods. Other categories o f m o d e l s , h o w e v e r , are also r e l e v a n t f o r t h e design engineer. Form models can be used in many different s i t u a t i o n s i n a design p r o j e c t . The decisive factor is: decided:
w h a t t h e m o d e l w i l l be used f o r . On the basis of this can be h o w d e t a i l e d t h e m o d e l m u s t be, a n d o f w h a t m a t e r i a l i t m u s t be m a d e . A c o n s c i o u s d e c i s i o n o n t h e degree o f d e t a i l a n d t h e c h o i c e o f m a t e r i a l is necessary f o r an o p t i m u m m o d e l , i.e. o n e w h i c h as c h e a p l y as p o s s i b l y expresses w h a t is n e e d e d . T h e use t o w h i c h t h e m o d e l is p u t t o a f f e c t s t h e c h o i c e o f degree o f d e t a i l a n d o f m o d e l l i n g m a t e r i a l a n d t h i s is i l l u s t r a t e d i n t h e e x a m p l e s pages 9 0 - 9 2 . on
m a t c h e d , i t is easier t o a l t e r t h e f o r m o f t h e c o n n e c t i n g m a t e r i a l t h a n t h a t o f t h e f u n c t i o n a l surfaces, because these are a d j u s t e d t o c o r r e s p o n d i n g surfaces in o t h e r elements. Apart f r o m t h e a b o v e - m e n t i o n e d occasions f o r variation methods, the l a t t e r can also using f o r m
90
Methods
used in form
design
Figure 81 Model of a diesel engine mounting constructed in foam rubber, Witt) rough models such as these it is possible to obtain a first impression of the correlation stiffeners between rigidity and the different
F i g u r e 8 1 s h o w s s o m e m o d e l s t h a t have been used for an evaluation of the relative rigidity of diff e r e n t l y designed m o u n t i n g s f o r diesel engines. T h e m o d e l s are used in t h e e a r l y design stages w h e n i t has t o be d e c i d e d w h e r e in space t h e m a t e r i a l m u s t be c o n c e n t r a t e d (in t h e f o r m of ribs). Relatively r o u g h m o d e l s o f f o a m r u b b e r s are t h e r e f o r e s u i t a b l e , p a r t l y because t h e y are q u i c k a n d c h e a p t o m a k e , and partly be seen. F i g u r e 8 2 s h o w s a m o d e l o f t h e tea m a k e r discussed in C h a p t e r 1. T h e m o d e l has o n l y been used t o assess t h e c o n d i t i o n s d u r i n g use a n d i t is, t h e r e f o r e , v e r y r o u g h l y c o n s t r u c t e d in p l a s t i c f o a m . T h e m o d e l was n o t t o be used f o r j u d g i n g t h e a p p e a r a n c e , as i t w o u l d t h e n have h a d t o be m o r e d e t a i l e d a n d so bec o m e t o o e x p e n s i v e . T h e appearance was j u d g e d o n the background of another type of model, namely, t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l sketches. because t h e degree o f rigidity can be assessed b y s l i g h t f i n g e r pressure, as t h e b u l g i n g can
Figure 82 Model of a teamaker in plastic foam. This model can be used to evaluate the conditions during use
operation,
model of filled
appearance.
made of
plastic f o a m , card-
automatic
labelling
test
board and w o o d .
83
Model
filling
machine during
(see Figure
cardboard Technical
The model of
for evaluation
of conditions Development,
use. (Courtesy
Figure 84 Model of a machine for the automatic labelling of filled test tubes. It is made of plastic foam and cardboard and used for an evaluation of conditions during use as well as appearance. (This was a student project from the Laboratory of Engineering Design, University of Denmark)
92
Methods
used in form
design demonstrate the instrument t o potential customers before i t was i n p r o d u c t i o n . I t is m a d e o f plaster o f paris a n d is so d e t a i l e d as t o be i n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e f r o m t h e real t e l e p h o n e .
T h e m o d e l in F i g u r e 8 5 has been used t o e v a l u a t e t h e basic f o r m o f a c o i n - o p e r a t e d t e l e p h o n e ; i t is made of clay. Figure 86 shows a model latter has been of the used t o finished telephone. The
Figure 85 Mode/ of a pay te/epfione made in clay. It is used to evaluate tfie basic shape of the telephone. (See also Figure 86). (The model Andreasen for GNT was made by Henning Automatic Ltd)
Figure 86 Mode/ of pay te/ephone made in p/aster of paris. It is so detai/ed as to be indistinguishable from the finished te/ephone. (This Andreasen) model was a/so made by Henning
3 FORM FACTORS
3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 The origination of form requirements 95 97
The interdependence of the basic properties Design factors Production factors 99 102 116 118
140
93
3. Form Factors
3.1 The origination o f f o r m requirements
T h e great m u l t i p l i c i t y that either may be d r a w n chapter the how to or o f f o r m design up possibilities through middle form, in t h e criteria the are criteria that are formulated. surface In the
material, product
reject t h e u n s u i t a b l e by a continuous
It was seen earlier h o w t h e p r o d u c t s y n t h e s i s m a y be c h a r a c t e r i s e d alternation t w e e n s e a r c h i n g f o r a n d s e l e c t i n g ideas, a n d i t was m e n t i o n e d t h a t o n e o u g h t o n l y t o select i f s u i t a b l e c r i t e r i a f o r s e l e c t i o n are present. T h e c r i t e r i a used are f o r m u l a t e d b y t h e designer o n t h e basis o f r e q u i r e m e n t s f r o m t h e o u t s i d e w o r l d . As all t h e stages i n t h e life o f t h e p r o d u c t ( F i g u r e 4 ) can give rise t o d e m a n d s a n d r e q u i r e m e n t s in respect o f t h e p r o d u c t w e can get a general idea o f w h e r e these o r i g i n a t e . T h e s i t u a t i o n m a y be d e s c r i b e d as a f o r c e f i e l d w h e r e a n u m b e r o f f o r c e s t r y t o p u l l t h e p r o d u c t in d i f f e r e n t d i r e c t i o n s . T h e f i n a l p r o d u c t w i l l t h e n r e p r e s e n t an e q u i l i b r i u m a c o m p r o m i s e w h e r e t h e f o r c e s b a l a n c e d each o t h e r . F i g u r e 8 7 i l l u s t r a t e s these c o n d i t i o n s . O n t h e o u t s i d e are a number of requirements, product factors, stemming from the life o f the p r o d u c t , w h i c h influence it
basic p r o p e r t i e s are d e r i v e d all o t h e r p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e p r o d u c t , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e f u n c t i o n , w h i c h is t h e c e n t r a l p r o p e r t y i n t h e process o f use. If one we consider the from the basic p r o p e r t y product factors of form in p a r t i c u l a r , w e f i n d t h a t t h e i n f l u e n c e s arise, o n t h e hand, mentioned a b o v e , a n d , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , f r o m t h e o t h e r basic p r o p e r t i e s , as these are n o t i n d e p e n d a n t variables. T h e d e p e n d e n c e o f t h e f o r m o n t h e o t h e r basic p r o p e r t i e s w i l l be discussed i n t h e f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n . The remainder o f t h e c h a p t e r deals w i t h t h e dep e n d e n c e o f f o r m o n t h e p r o d u c t f a c t o r s , w h i c h in t h i s c o n n e c t i o n are c a l l e d f o r m f a c t o r s . T h e f o l l o w i n g p a r a g r a p h s are o n l y i n t e n d e d t o h i n t at t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e separate f o r m f a c t o r s i n o r d e r t o d e m o n s t r a t e the interplay. A more p r o f o u n d study of certain of t h e f a c t o r s , e.g. ' t e c h n o l o g i c a l l y c o r r e c t ' d e s i g n , c a n be f o u n d in o t h e r l i t e r a t u r e .
95
96
DESIGN 1. D e s i g n e n Ability/knowledge Imagination Creativity Habit Attitude Personal taste Expenditure of time PRODUCTION FACTORS 2.
Company: A i m s of the c o m p a n y Know-how Working conditions Economics Contracts Licences Service p o l i c y P r o d u c t series Company's identity
1. M a n u f a c t . process: Feasibility Economics Operator situation Assembly: Feasibility Economics Operator situation
Figure
87
Survey
product
STmrm
FOltM MATERIAL -blMENSIOSJ
i n f l u e n c e o f t h e s t r u c t u r e o n t h e f o r m is
d i r e c t , as a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d (sections 2.1 a n d 2 . 2 ) and illustrated in Figure 8 8 . T h e dependence o f t h e f o r m o n t h e m a t e r i a l , d i m e n s i o n a n d s u r f a c e is a l i t t l e more difficult to identify, because it takes place indirectly. The interaction o f the material and f o r m occurs in t w o w a y s . F i r s t l y , t h e f o r m d e p e n d s o n t h e p r o duction processes by which the material can be
T h e f a c t t h a t t h e basic p r o p e r t i e s are n o t i n d e p e n d e n t can be seen in practice until by the the impossibility of the deciding o n t h e m separately. T h e structure c a n n o t be f i n a l l y determined chosen until consequences t o f o r m have been e s t i m a t e d , a n d t h e f o r m c a n n o t be material, dimensions and surface
s h a p e d , a n d so t h e f o r m d e p e n d s i n d i r e c t l y o n t h e material. Secondly, the properties of the material p l a y a m a j o r role in d e t e r m i n i n g t h e f o r m e.g. t h e s t r e n g t h , e l a s t i c i t y a n d w e i g h t o f t h e m a t e r i a l (see Figure 89).
Figure
88
Two drawing
instruments
with different
structures.
This illustrates
the dependence
of form on
structure
Figure
89
Springs made of two different materials - rubber and steel. The different materials result in very different form designs
properties
of the
98
Form factors
T h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e d i m e n s i o n s o n t h e f o r m is e.g. t h e p r i c e o f t h e m a t e r i a l a n d t h e w e i g h t , also change. T h e influence o f the surface o n t h e f o r m t a k e s place i n d i r e c t l y t h r o u g h t h e c h o i c e o f p r o d u c t i o n process.
Figure 90
of the
Figure
91
The separate products in a product series are usually so designed that greatest possible number of common form features (Danfos Ltd.)
they
have the
Form
factors
99
The
company
A m o n g the m a n y p r o d u c t factors that stem f r o m the c o m p a n y t h e f o l l o w i n g m a y be m e n t i o n e d c o m pany objectives, know-how, working conditions, e c o n o m i c s , c o n t r a c t s , licences, service p o l i c y , e t c . N o n e o f these have a d i r e c t i n f l u e n c e o n t h e f o r m . A l l t h e same, i t w i l l o f t e n be t h e case t h a t t h e f o r m o f a greater o r lesser p o r t i o n o f t h e p r o d u c t s have a c o m m o n c h a r a c t e r . T h i s f a c t is m o s t c l e a r l y seen in p r o d u c t series, i.e. g r o u p s o f p r o d u c t s w i t h t h e same o f r e l a t e d f u n c t i o n s . A n e x a m p l e is s h o w n in F i g u r e 9 1 .
Figure
92
A group
of products
with common form features can help to make up the identity company (Bang and Olufsen)
of a
100
Form
factors a firm tries c o n s c i o u s l y t o m a i n t a i n a N o r m s a n d s t a n d a r d s e x i s t i n areas w h e r e s a f e t y f a c t o r s are decisive, o r w h e r e f r e q u e n t use m a k e s standardisation bolts, containers. Pattern r e g i s t r a t i o n is a legal p r o t e c t i o n , w h i c h says t h a t o t h e r p e o p l e have n o r i g h t t o s i m p l y c o p y an o r i g i n a l l y designed p r o d u c t . T h e l a w o n p a t t e r n s says a m o n g o t h e r t h i n g s : A p a t t e r n means i n t h i s l a w t h e m o d e l f o r a p p e a r a n c e o f an a r t i c l e o r f o r a n o r n a m e n t . T h e p e r s o n w h o has p r o d u c e d a p r o t o t y p e , o r t o w h o m t h e p e r s o n ' s r i g h t has been t r a n s f e r r e d , m a y in accordance w i t h this law by registration acquire a monopoly for commercial exploitation of the the necessary, for example: nuts and and washers, fish boxes, railway carriages,
Sometimes
c e r t a i n i d e n t i t y . T h e a i m o f such a c o m p a n y i d e n t i t y is t o create f a i t h i n t h e c o m p a n y , as w e l l as t o m a r k its p r o d u c t s as against o t h e r c o m p a r a b l e p r o d u c t s , so t h a t t h e user e x p e r i e n c e s t h e c o m p a n y a n d its p r o d u c t s i n t h e same w a y each t i m e . T h i s t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e f a c t t h a t t h e user i n m a n y cases uses several c o n n e c t e d o r r e l a t e d p r o d ucts from the same company leads to the e x p e d i e n c y o f a i m i n g a t c o m m o n f e a t u r e s in appearance. S u c h a ' h o u s e s t y l e ' m a y be based o n c o m m o n f o r m t r a i t s as w e l l as c h a r a c t e r i s t i c c h o i c e o f m a t e r i a l s a n d surfaces.
Ttie society
T h e r e are t w o aspects o f t h e s o c i e t y in w h i c h t h e p r o d u c t w i l l be u s e d , t h a t m u s t be t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t i n t h e f o r m design ( a n d , o f c o u r s e , also e a r l y o n i n t h e c r e a t i o n o f t h e p r o d u c t ) . These are f i r s t l y , c o n sideration of the members of the society, and s e c o n d l y , c o n f o r m i n g t o its n o r m s a n d laws. A m o n g t h e m e m b e r s o f s o c i e t y t o be c o n s i d e r e d f i r s t is t h e user, a f a c t w h i c h w i l l be discussed later i n this c h a p t e r . T h e r e are also all t h e p e o p l e w h o c o m e i n t o c o n t a c t w i t h t h e p r o d u c t . These m a y be p e o p l e w h o have to listen to their neighbour's motor lawn m o w e r , t o an a e r o p l a n e o r a s p e e d b o a t , a n d all t h o s e w h o each d a y have t o l o o k a t o t h e r p e o p l e ' s cars, e x c a v a t o r s a n d cranes, buses, t r a i n s , e t c .
design. The pattern will only from be registered if its is essentially different w h a t was k n o w n be-
fore the date o f application. In designing a p r o d u c t , p a t e n t registration come into the picture in t w o ways partly limitations o f t h e design p o s s i b i l i t i e s , i f may as
registered market,
products o f a similar
nature exist in t h e
a n d p a r t l y as a p r o t e c t i o n f o r o n e ' s o w n p r o d u c t . F i g u r e 9 3 s h o w s an e x a m p l e o f a r e g i s t e r e d p r o d u c t . Patents m a y also p l a y a p a r t as c o n d i t i o n s in d e s i g n i n g a p r o d u c t , so t h a t c e r t a i n f o r m p o s s i b i l i t i e s m u s t be l e f t o u t , i f t h e y are d e s c r i b e d i n a n e x i s t i n g patent. Normally, patents concern principles and structures.
101
Figure 93 A patented photocopier. The characteristic of this particular photocopier is the fact that the original is put in from above and the copy is produced vertically (Zeuthen and Aagaard Ltd.)
102
Form
factors
{see also
these
d i a g r a m s i t c a n be seen t h a t t h e r e is a close r e l a t i o n ship between elements, the m a n u f a c t u r i n g and the a s s e m b l y processes. F i g u r e 9 6 s h o w s t w o bearings w h e r e t h e h o u s i n g o f o n e b e a r i n g is m a d e in o n e piece (cast) a n d , t h e s e c o n d is m a d e o f pressed sheet i n t w o p a r t s t h a t are s u b s e q u e n t l y a s s e m b l e d . F i g u r e 9 7 s h o w s t w o versions o f a f r a m e f o r an e l e c t r i c i t y m e t e r . Here again o n e v e r s i o n is m a d e i n o n e piece (pressure d i e c a s t ) , w h i l e t h e o t h e r o n e is m a d e o f s t a m p e d o u t p a r t s t h a t are assembled b y s p o t - w e l d i n g . I n b o t h cases there are d i f f e r e n c e s in c h o i c e o f material, form design d i v i s i o n , m a n u f a c t u r i n g a n d a s s e m b l y processes. If we return t o the model o f the f o r m stages i n F i g u r e 9 4 i t m u s t be a p p r o p r i a t e t o give an e x a m p l e o f h o w t h e s y n t h e s i s m a y l o o k i n t h e last stages. In F i g u r e 9 8 w e have t a k e n as a s t a r t i n g p o i n t t h e earlier m e n t i o n e d f o r k j o i n t (see Figures 59 t o 6 0 ) . The f o r m concept on w h i c h the detailed design p r o p o s a l s are b u i l t is s h o w n t o p l e f t , a n d i t is assumed t h a t t h e j o i n t is a p p r o x . 1 0 0 m m l o n g a n d t h a t t h e m a t e r i a l is steel. We f i r s t e x a m i n e b y w h i c h processes o r c o m b i n a t i o n s o f processes t h e f o r k j o i n t can be manufactured as one element. Next, we
t h e f o r m o f t h e parts. In s e c t i o n 2.3 o n f o r m v a r i a t i o n , t h e different e x a m p l e s d i d n o t e n d w i t h d e t a i l e d design suggest i o n s , b u t w i t h a series o f f o r m c o n c e p t s . T h e r e is a n a t u r a l reason f o r t h i s , n a m e l y t h a t a p r o d u c t o r a part cannot chosen the be designed in d e t a i l u n t i l o n e has manufacturing process and material,
assembly process. T h e stages in t h e design o f an e l e m e n t are s h o w n in Figure 9 4 , starting f r o m considerations o f f u n c t i o n a l surfaces over t w o f o r m c o n c e p t levels t o t h e c h o i c e o f processes a n d a f i n a l design o f d e t a i l s . T h e l o o p r o u n d t h e c h o i c e o f processes means t h a t , a t any point, part i t is possible t o s p l i t t h e e l e m e n t elements which are later it is s o m e t i m e s into several assembled.
Correspondingly,
possible t o i n t e -
grate several e l e m e n t s i n t o o n e . T h e stage o f f o r m d i v i s i o n / f o r m i n t e g r a t i o n m u s t t h u s be t h o u g h t o f as a last level o f ideas, w h i c h m a y be used i f o n e cannot easily produce a n d assemble o n e ' s elements.
FUNCTIONAL
SURFACES
FORM CONCEPTS: M a t e r i a l areas (number, arrangement) FORM CONCEPTS: Form geometry Main dimension F o r m d i v i s i o n -f choice of material Choice of manufacturing processes a n d assembly processes
DETAILED
Figure 94 Ttie form
DESIGN
The stages are gone through for each element
Form
factors
103
Cast 77W/////ZZZZZZL EZZZ V/yyy/y/yy/777777. Vz//////7?7/77^ Welded/turned/bolted /////// SS VZZZZZZ^^ZZZZZZ VzzzzzZ2zzzzzA ^ZZZZZZZTZZZZZZ
Welded/tu rned/screwed
7ZZZZZZZZZZZZL
^ ^ Turned/screwed/bolted
I
Turned/screwed/bolted
>///
/ /
///////.
7^ZZ2ZZZ1 221
~V
'
///////7ZZZ2.
^^ZZZZZZZZZZ^ ^ZZZZZZZZZZSZ2
%///7//7////7/\
Figure 95
104
Form
factors n o t all are e q u a l l y s u i t a b l e i n a s p e c i f i c s i t u a t i o n , T h e c h o i c e d e p e n d s o n s u c h f a c t o r s as t h e n u m b e r to be produced, the tolerance required, surface in t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s a n d m a n y o t h e r f a c t o r s . These r e q u i r e ments will be d e a l t w i t h more thoroughly f o l l o w i n g section.
Figure 96 Two bearings where the casings are respectively cast and made from pressed sheets assembled with bolts (Courtesy SKF)
Figure 97 Two frames for an electricity meter. One frame is pressure die cast and the other is punched out, bent and spot-welded
Form
factors
105
Milled
Milled
Milled
Cast/milled
Extruded/sawn/milled
NEW F O R M CONCEPTS BY F O R M
DIVISION:
Figure
98
Examples
of interplay
concept, form division and choice (See also Figures 59 and 60)
of manufacturing
and
assembly
106
Form
factors
The manufacturing
process
n o t excuse t h e designer f r o m k n o w i n g the existing processes. T h e designer intimately know
A c o n d i t i o n f o r b e i n g able t o c h o o s e an o p t i m u m manufacturing process is that the best possible a g r e e m e n t can be a c h i e v e d b e t w e e n t h e design a n d t h e process r e q u i r e m e n t s . T h i s means t h a t t h e o r d e r shown in Figure 94 form concept, choice processes, design drawn up, then of of the the manufacturing first the form and assembly are
must
a b o u t t h e f o r m g e o m e t r i e s t h a t c a n be c r e a t e d w i t h a given process, i n c l u d i n g t h e t o o l s a n d f i x i n g s . He m u s t also k n o w w h a t m a t e r i a l s c a n be used i n t h e process a n d t h e t o l e r a n c e s w h i c h c a n be a c h i e v e d a n d t h e s u r f a c e f i n i s h . U s i n g t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n as a b a c k g r o u n d t h e designer m u s t be able t o design his o b j e c t so t h a t i t is c h e a p t o m a n u f a c t u r e . H o w in p r a c t i c e is i t possible t o c h o o s e t h e best possible f o r m c o n c e p t a n d m a n u f a c t u r i n g process? O b v i o u s l y t h i s c a n o n l y be d o n e f r o m a n u m b e r o f criteria which categories: situation. may be d i v i d e d into the and following operator feasibility, economics
f o r m c o n c e p t a n d t h e processes are c h o s e n as f a r as p o s s i b l y s i m u l t a n e o u s l y . I t is t h u s u s u a l l y n o t e n o u g h t o adjust the detailed f o r m t o t h e process, i f an o p t i m u m p r o d u c t is t o e m e r g e . The problem of choosing the manufacturing process b e f o r e t h e design o f t h e details has been t a k e n too far often occurs in discussions between the designer a n d t h e process t e c h n i c i a n . T h e f o r m e r o f t e n t e n d s t o f o r g e t t h e m a n u f a c t u r i n g process so t h a t t h e l a t t e r has n o p o s s i b i l i t y o f o p t i m i s i n g his c o n t r i b u t i o n . T h e ideal w o u l d be if t h e process t e c h n i c i a n c o u l d c o m e i n t o t h e p i c t u r e e a r l y so t h a t he c o u l d t a k e p a r t in assessing t h e f o r m c o n c e p t s at t h e f i r s t stage. In a possible discussion of proposals for a l t e r a t i o n s based o n t h e m a n u f a c t u r i n g process, t h e idea o f f u n c t i o n a l surfaces is v a l u a b l e . A f u n c t i o n a l surface can o n l y be a l t e r e d if o t h e r a l t e r a t i o n s are m a d e s i m u l t a n e o u s l y elsewhere in t h e s y s t e m , w h i l e an a l t e r a t i o n o f t h e areas b e t w e e n t h e functional surfaces can be m a d e w i t h m u c h greater f r e e d o m . A s a rule t h e designer m u s t have an i n t i m a t e k n o w ledge o f t h e m a n u f a c t u r i n g processes available. T h e f a c t t h a t (in t h e bigger f i r m s ) t h e r e m a y be process t e c h n i c i a n s w h o can assist in t h e d e t a i l e d design does
Tfie manufacturing
The factors
process:
feasibility
in connection
concerning
feasibility
w i t h t h e c h o i c e o f process are as f o l l o w s : form geometry, material, size/dimensions, surface r e q u i r e m e n t s , tolerance requirements, f o r m (availability) of the i n p u t materials. The first three factors decide w h e t h e r a given process is at all possible. Each process has its o w n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a n d l i m i t a t i o n s , as s h o w n i n F i g u r e 9 9 . When initially considering various processes one s h o u l d n o t c h o o s e t h o s e a t t h e e x t r e m e s , so t h a t t h e size is t h e o r e c t i c a l l y possible b u t in p r a c t i c e d i f f i c u l t t o achieve.
R ( m m ) = 0.4,0.8, 1.0,1.2
R
m
Dimensions Possible Usual
1 - - 1 0 . 0 0 0 -101 . 5 0 0
Drnrr)
0 , 5 1 5 0 0
3 6 0
a -
Figure
99
Possibilities
concerning
form geometry
and dimensions
by
turning
Form
factors
107
Force a c t i n g d u r i n g
manufacture
S t i f f e n i n g rib
Figure
100
Bearings
bracket
where
so that
T h e f a c t o r s o f surface a n d t o l e r a n c e r e q u i r e m e n t s m u s t also be i n c l u d e d w h e n c h o o s i n g t h e process. I t is n o t e n o u g h t h a t these r e q u i r e m e n t s c a n t h e o r e t i c a l l y be m e t , b u t t h e y m u s t also a p p l y t o t h e s p e c i f i c o b j e c t . T h e e x a m p l e in F i g u r e 1 0 0 s h o w s a b e a r i n g b r a c k e t , t h e design o f w h i c h is s u i t e d t o t h e f o r c e s t h a t act o n it d u r i n g p r o d u c t i o n . T h e o n l y purpose t h e s t i f f e n i n g r i b serves, in t h i s case, is t o r e s t r i c t t h e flexibility during the production sufficiently for t h e desired t o l e r a n c e s t o be a c h i e v e d . T h e last f a c t o r m e n t i o n e d in t h e list is t h e f o r m of the materials used. It is necessary t h a t t h e rein the quired m a t e r i a l s e x i s t o r c a n be o b t a i n e d
desired f o r m .
108
Form factors
Figure
101
Two versions of control wfieels in a pfiotocopier. in tfie final version it is die-cast (rigfit).
In tfie prototype tfie wfieel is turned and milled (Courtesy of Zeuthen & Aagaard Ltd.)
(left),
wfiile
The economics of the manufacture depend on w h i c h a n d h o w m a n y processes m u s t be gone t h r o u g h bef o r e t h e o b j e c t is f i n i s h e d . O n e m u s t also c o n s i d e r t h e necessary t r a n s p o r t , h a n d l i n g a n d ' f i x i n g s ' bet w e e n t h e separate processes. T h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f t h e desired m a t e r i a l s m u s t be examined. be b o u g h t conditions, I t s h o u l d be d e c i d e d w h e t h e r t h e y c a n in the required f o r m , and under or whether the company itself what must
investment are
in
new
machinery with
and the
closely
connected
q u a n t i t i e s t o be p r o d u c e d .
77?^ manufacturing
process: tfie
operator
A t t h e same t i m e as a n o b j e c t is d e s i g n e d a n d a p r o cess d e c i d e d o n , a j o b f o r an o p e r a t o r is l a i d d o w n . T h i s m u s t be d o n e as a c o n s c i o u s e f f o r t , w h e r e t h e operator's situation is used t o i n f l u e n c e t h e form design a n d t h e c h o i c e o f process. O n e m u s t ensure t h a t t h e o p e r a t o r c a n c a r r y o u t t h e process a p p r o priately and, without unnecessary w o r k load and risk f o r instance, w i t h o u t unnecessary demands f o r
produce them. T h e q u a n t i t y i n w h i c h t h e o b j e c t is t o be p r o d u c e d is decisive when deciding which manufacturing processes w i l l be e c o n o m i c . Processes t h a t r e q u i r e b i g i n v e s t m e n t s i n t o o l s a n d m a c h i n e r y (e.g. d i e c a s t i n g a n d d r o p f o r g i n g ) can o n l y be c o n s i d e r e d w h e r e large numbers of objects are involved, while those processes t h a t are i m m e d i a t e l y available (e.g. t u r n i n g , m i l l i n g a n d w e l d i n g ) are w e l l s u i t e d t o t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f single o b j e c t s o r series o f o b j e c t s . F i g u r e 1 0 1 s h o w s an e x a m p l e o f t h i s . A s a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d , t h e last t h r e e f a c t o r s
Form
factors
109
economics
A f t e r the f o r m concept and the manufacturing process are c h o s e n a c c o r d i n g t o t h e c r i t e r i a o f f e a s i b i l i t y , e c o n o m i c s a n d o p e r a t o r s i t u a t i o n t h e r e is s t i l l the d e t a i l e d design t o be d e c i d e d (see F i g u r e 9 4 ) . T h e last t a s k is t o design t h e d e t a i l s in such a w a y t h a t t h e o b j e c t c a n be m a n u f a c t u r e d in t h e m o s t s u i t a b l e way by the chosen process, a n d t h a t t h e d e s i r e d f u n c t i o n m a y be s u f f i c i e n t l y w e l l realised. F o r m design g u i d e l i n e s f o r all t h e usual processes can be f o u n d in t h e specialist l i t e r a t u r e , a n d t h e r e f o r e t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e v a r i o u s processes w i l l n o t be discussed here. A f e w general g u i d e l i n e s c a n .
h o w e v e r , be l a i d d o w n w i t h a v i e w t o as e c o n o m i c a f o r m design as p o s s i b l e . T h e y a r e : n u m b e r and nature of 'fixings', number and nature o f tools, n u m b e r a n d e x t e n t o f processes, accessibility f o r tools, c o n s u m p t i o n o f materials. These g u i d e l i n e s are i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e 1 0 2 t o 106. Figure 107 shows a c o m p l e t e e x a m p l e in w h i c h many of the economically important factors are mentioned.
y//////////A
mm/.
Milled F l a m e cut
Figure
102
Form
designs
the economics
of
production
110
ECONOMICS: Number
a n d n a t u r e of t o o l s
N\
r
2 different parts
2 identical parts
+ 1
rrl////
Figure
103
Form
designs
account
the economics
of
production
111
ECONOMICS: N u m b e r
and
extent
of
processes
-2L
w///////\
'// V
/ / / /
7/7//4'7 / / / / / / ,
standard
bushes
,
//
J 1 1. I 1 1 I I I 1 1 I I I I I I I I /'
1
^
Figure
104
Form
designs that
the economics
of
production
112
ECONOMICS: A c c e s s i b i l i t y f o r
tools
3
la
7>77,
m m
Figure J 05
Form
the economics
of;fig:^uction
ECONOMICS:
C o n s u m p t i o n of
materials
F/^/re 106
Form
the economics
of
production
113
5 OOP pieces a y e a r starting material: manufacture: P2P brass r o d turning thread cutting milling consumpt. of material: o b j e c t 2 5 gr. shavings 7P gr. investment: p r o d u c t i o n cost: nil 5Pp
5 0 OOP pieces a y e a r starting material: manufacture: P2P brass r o d h o t pressing turning thread cutting Consumption of mat: o b j e c t 2 5 gr. shavings 2 5 gr. investment: production cost: 2PP PPP pieces a y e a r starting material: 1 2 m m h e x a g o n a l brass r o d 1.5 m m brass s t r i p manufacture: turning thread cutting punching assembly consumption of material: o b j e c t 2 P gr -H 3 gr shavings 2 P gr c u t 2 gr investment: p r o d u c t i o n cost: 36PP 25p 9PP 35p
Figure
107
spindle
product
quantities.
economic
114
Form
factors
Assembly
T h e close c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e assembly process a n d t h e m a n u f a c t u r i n g processes was m e n t i o n e d o n page 1 0 5 a n d is i l l u s t r a t e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g e x a m p l e s . T h e assessments t h a t m u s t be m a d e b e f o r e c h o o s i n g an assembly process are (as in t h e case o f t h e m a n u f a c t u r i n g process) f e a s i b i l i t y , economics and situa t i o n o f t h e o p e r a t o r , a n d t h e f a c t o r s are c o m p l e t e l y parallel t o t h e f a c t o r s in c h o o s i n g t h e m a n u f a c t u r i n g process (see pages 1 1 0 - 1 1 2 ) . F i g u r e 1 0 8 s h o w s e x amples f r o m a p h o t o c o p i e r w h e r e t h e p r o t o t y p e a n d the final m a c h i n e are c o m p a r e d . T h e illustration recognise grasp m o v e t o c o n t a c t area orientate line u p f i t in m o v e a l o n g c o n t a c t area secure s h o w s , a b o v e , an e x a m p l e o f t h e w a y in w h i c h t h e n u m b e r o f o p e r a t i o n s in f i t t i n g a m i r r o r c a n be red u c e d i f o n e goes t o t h e expense o f a d i e cast t o o l . T h e l o w e r i l l u s t r a t i o n shows an e x a m p l e o f h o w a t r a d i t i o n a l w a y o f f i t t i n g a p i n c a n be s i m p l i f i e d i f t h e assembly process is c a r e f u l l y t h o u g h t o u t . A f t e r t h e a s s e m b l y process has been c h o s e n ( a n d t h e m a n u f a c t u r i n g ones as w e l l ) t h e p r o d u c t d e t a i l s m u s t be designed i n s u c h a w a y t h a t an o p t i m u m a s s e m b l y c a n be a c h i e v e d . A s a c h e c k t h e f o l l o w i n g list o f general s u b - o p e r a t i o n s i n a s s e m b l y m a y used: be
PROTOTYPE
FINAL
VERSION
Mirror Clip
Cog w h e e l Loose p i n
Figure
108 Comparison between form design details in a prototype (function model) and the final version of a photocopier. Above, fixing a mirror to a frame; below, fixing a cog wheel on an axle (Courtesy Zeuthen & Aagaard Ltd.)
Form Figure 109 shows examples o f the w a y in w h i c h some form sub-operations can be made easier apply by the 110 design. These c o n s i d e r a t i o n s whether
factors
115 STOP,
s w i t c h . O n t h e b u t t o n is p r i n t e d t h e w o r d up, the b o t t o m
the assembly
is m a n u a l o r a u t o m a t i c . F i g u r e
s h o w s t h e assembly o f a s t o p b u t t o n in an e l e c t r i c
ASSEMBLY : To ease o r i e n t a t i o n
To ease i n s e r t i o n
'/////'/,
Figure
109
Form
design details
that illustrate
is taken into
account
Figure
110
Form
design details
is fitted
in the correct
position
(Danfoss
Ltd.)
116
Form factors
s t i t u t e a large a n d m i x e d g r o u p m a d e u p p a r t l y o f t h e p h y s i c a l c o n d i t i o n s s u c h as p a c k a g i n g , p a c k i n g , transport and warehousing, partly of market conditions and partly of the sales s i t u a t i o n of the company. Transport t h i n k a b o u t possible results o f s h o c k s a n d s h a k i n g . D e l i c a t e p a r t s m a y have t o be s e c u r e d ; d a m p , d i r t , c o r r o d i n g f u m e s , etc m u s t also be c o n s i d e r e d . If t h e w e i g h t o f t h e p r o d u c t c a n cause p r o b l e m s i t m a y be necessary elements. to divide must big heavy parts i n t o on smaller the One also c h e c k whether
t h e case i n m a n y e a r l y m o d e l s . A s o l u t i o n t o t h i s p r o b l e m m a y be seen i n t h e i l l u s t r a t i o n , as t h e h a n d l e is d i v i d e d in t w o places, so t h a t i t c a n be p a c k e d w i t h o u t taking up more room than the cutting unit.
Figure 111 Lawn mower where the handle is divided in two places solely for reasons of packaging and transport (Courtesy of Ginge Fabrikker Ltd)
Form M a t t e r s t o be t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t in w a r e h o u s i n g nnay, f o r i n s t a n c e , be r e d u c i n g t h e space o c c u p i e d , nnininnising t h e s e n t i t i v i t y o f t h e p r o d u c t t o d a m p a n d d i r t e t c , a n d t o ensure t h a t several o b j e c t s o f t h e same s o r t c a n be s t a c k e d . F i g u r e 1 1 2 s h o w s h o w s t o r i n g c o n d i t i o n s c a n i n f l u e n c e t h e design o f p l a s t i c b u c k e t s . T h e r e are here t w o p r o b l e m s i n c o n n e c t i o n
factors
117
w i t h storage, o n the one hand t h e objects must take u p as l i t t l e space as possible (i.e. t h e y m u s t be stacka b l e ) , a n d o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e y m u s t be easy t o separate. A l t e r a t i o n o f t h e angle gives m o r e c o m p a c t s t a c k i n g . S q u a s h i n g i n t h e s t a c k can be p r e v e n t e d b y a vertical rib.
A l t e r a t i o n of a n g l e g i v e s m o r e c o m p a c t
stacking;
S q u a s h i n g in t h e s t a c k can be p r e v e n t e d by vertical r i b :
Figure
112
Form
Superfos
Emballage
L td.)
18
Form
factors
3.6 Factors concerning the p i o d u c t in use Process evaluation: function Input, output and
W h e n a p r o d u c t is b e i n g used t h e user o f t h e p r o d u c t achieves a desired process (see also page 6 ) . S u c h a process m a y , f o r i n s t a n c e , be t h e d r i l l i n g o f holes (electric d r i l l ) , t h e m i n c i n g o f meat (meat m i n c e r ) , the moving of water (pump) and the moving of f o o d ( f o r k ) . T h i s is t h e f u n c t i o n o f t h e p r o d u c t ( t h e m a i n f u n c t i o n , see also page 9 ) ; o n e can t h i n k o f t h e usage a n d t h e f u n c t i o n as t w o sides o f t h e same c o i n ; t h e usage m a y be d e s c r i b e d b y t h e o b j e c t t h a t alters a c o n d i t i o n , w h i l e t h e f u n c t i o n describes t h e s i m u l t a n e o u s o p e r a t i o n o f t h e p r o d u c t (or t o o l ) . We t h u s get p r o d u c t f a c t o r s f r o m b o t h t h e o b j e c t i n t h e s t a r t i n g state these are c a l l e d i n p u t a n d i n t h e f i n a l state o u t p u t - a n d f r o m t h i s f u n c t i o n . If w e f i r s t e x a m i n e t h e i n f l u e n c e o f i n p u t output o f t h e f o r m design o f a p r o d u c t w e and must
o f i r o n s f r o m d i f f e r e n t p e r i o d s . Here t h e shape o f t h e f u n c t i o n a l s u r f a c e against t h e m a t e r i a l has been preserved a l m o s t u n a l t e r e d t h r o u g h t h e ages. T h i s shape has t w o c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , f i r s t t h a t i t c o n s t i t u t e s a f l a t , s m o o t h s u r f a c e area against t h e m a t e r i a l , i n order that this may itself be m a d e s m o o t h , and secondly t h a t i t is p o i n t e d so t h a t t h e m a t e r i a l is
s p r e a d o u t b e f o r e i t is pressed s m o o t h . N e x t , let us l o o k a t t h e i n f l u e n c e o f f u n c t i o n o n t h e f o r m . F u n c t i o n s c a n be f o u n d a t m a n y levels i n a product and the main f u n c t i o n may thus affect the total form of the product and the sub-functions the f o r m o f the elements. The influence o f the funct i o n s is, h o w e v e r , v e r y d e p e n d e n t o n t h e i n t e n d e d f u n c t i o n s . In c e r t a i n cases t h e r e is a n connection (top). In o t h e r cases a c e r t a i n c o n n e c t i o n e x i s t s , even though there is s o m e f r e e d o m . T h e p r o p e l l e r and t h e t h r e a d are e x a m p l e s o f t h i s . F i n a l l y t h e r e are s i t u a t i o n s w h e r e t h e r e is n o c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e function a n d t h e f o r m , as f o r instance, the case r o u n d a meter or a c o m p u t e r . between function and unambigous as for 114 form,
r e m e m b e r t h a t t h e areas w h e r e i t is in c o n t a c t w i t h its s u r r o u n d i n g s are t h e e x t e r n a l f u n c t i o n a l surfaces (see page 4 8 ) . I t is o n these surfaces t h a t i n p u t a n d o u t p u t have t h e i r greatest i n f l u e n c e . C o u n t l e s s exa m p l e s o f such an i n f l u e n c e m a y be m e n t i o n e d , f o r e x a m p l e , n u t s t h a t a f f e c t t h e f o r m o f an o p e n - e n d e d o r a b o x s p a n n e r , a p u n c h i n g t o o l t h a t t r a n s f e r s its f o r m t o the object, etc. Figure 113 shows a n u m b e r
119
Figure
113
Irons
from
different
periods. (The
The
functional illustrations
surface
which
unchanged.
two lower
are by courtesy
Philips)
120
Figure
114
Interaction
between
function
and
centre,
a certain
degree
of
connection;
Form
factors
121
Realisation of tfie
I t is o b v i o u s t h a t t o m e r e l y state t h e r e is a m o r e o r less close connection between function a n d f o r m , as d e s c r i b e d p r e v i o u s l y , is n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y c o n s t r u c t i v e , but a description of the factors that come into play m a y i l l u m i n a t e i m p o r t a n t p r o b l e m s f o r t h e designer. The functional factors may be d i v i d e d into two categories: realisation quality of function.
T h e f o r m e r m a y i n v o l v e s u c h f a c t o r s as: f u n c t i o n i n t e r v a l (can t h e f u n c t i o n be realised in t h e d e s i r e d size?) quality of the output exactness ( p r e c i s i o n ) capacity speed o f t h e process effectiveness. E x a m p l e s o f t h e d e p e n d e n c e o f s o m e o f these f a c t o r s o n t h e f o r m o f t h e f u n c t i o n a l surfaces are s h o w n in Figure 115.
Shape o f c o i l
unacceptable
Shape o f coil g o o d
Figure 115 Examples of the way in which the feasability of a desired function is tied in with the form design of a functional surface. Above, an unloading magazine in a test tube machine (see also Figure 53); below, a bending tool for a coil of thick copper wire
122
Form
factors
Process realisation:
Quality of tfie
function
These factors can be t a k e n into account by c h o o s i n g a n d b u i l d i n g - i n s u i t a b l e q u a l i t i e s such as: strength rigidity hardness elasticity, etc. F i g u r e 1 1 6 s h o w s e x a m p l e s o f f o r m designs t h a t take the above-mentioned quality of f u n c t i o n factors into consideration.
W h e n i t has been d e c i d e d t h a t a given f u n c t i o n is possible, t h e n e x t stage is t o establish u n d e r w h a t c o n d i t i o n s t h i s w i l l be d o n e a n d t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h t h e d e s i r e d f u n c t i o n c a n be a c h i e v e d . T h e f u n c t i o n a l f a c t o r s at t h i s stage m a y be c a l l e d q u a l i t y o f f u n c t i o n factors, f o r example: is t h e f u n c t i o n r e p r o d u c i b l e parameter sensitivity reliability safety stability.
Fiaure 116 1 A bolt where deeper bends reduce the slot sensitiv i tity. 2. Connection between mo mechamcal parts fbere the sJmbly is most rigid if th^ through the middle 3 and 4. Form designs that g,ve strength. 5 and 6. Form designs that provide rigidity (a truck body and supporting frame for a diesel engineer)
Form
factors
123
least possible m e n t a l a n d p h y s i c a l e f f o r t . In o r d e r t o t a k e a d e q u a t e a c c o u n t o f such req u i r e m e n t s t h e designer m u s t a c q u i r e o r at least be able t o f i n d senses, perception, of etc, information on the dimensions, muscular performance, tiredpeople, to
ness, e t c o f t h e h u m a n b o d y . If t h e r e are special categories children, users, such special as h a n d i c a p p e d must attention be given
t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n . I t is t h e n t h e designers j o b t o u t i l i s e
Figure
117
A lathe in which
the requirement
of a good
working
posture
124
Form
F i g u r e 1 1 8 s h o w s an exannple o f a p r o d u c t w h e r e t h e design t a k e s t h e greatest possible a c c o u n t o f t h e user's s i t u a t i o n . T h e noise m e t e r is b u i l t so t h a t a t the top t h e r e is a d i r e c t i o n a l microphone which p i c k s u p a n d r e c o r d s t h e noise c o m i n g i n . T h e t o p part of the instrument almost a bottleneck t o avoid r e f l e c t i n g surfaces t h a t m a y have a n e f f e c t o n t h e exactitude of the microphone. T h e noise m e t e r is also designed so t h a t i t is c o m f o r t a b l e t o h o l d w h e n m e t e r i n g . H a n d l i n g is t a k e n i n t o consideration by a suitable arrangement o f such e l e m e n t s as c o n t r o l k n o b s , d i a l s , e t c . These are designed i n s u c h a w a y t h a t t h e y are easily accessible when the instrument source. is d i r e c t e d t o a given noise
w i l l n o w be s t u d i e d m o r e c l o s e l y . W e can t h i n k o f a m a c h i n e a n d a n o p e r a t o r as a s y s t e m t h a t c a n a c t o n t h e s u r r o u n d i n g s i n a d e s i r e d w a y , i.e. t o m a k e use o f t h e p r o d u c t . Figure 1 1 9 shows such a m a n / m a c h i n e system, where the interplay between the and the operator The operator interaction may r o u n d i n g s is s h o w n . between the machine and the be d i v i d e d i n t o f o u r categories, ininstalgood and machine a n d b e t w e e n t h e m a n d t h e sur-
volving a number of factors: handling normal working conditions operation, in c o n n e c t i o n w i t h e.g. nature of job, lation and running in. p o s t u r e , s a f e t y , easy movements
accessibility. o c c a s i o n a l o p e r a t i o n , e.g. c l e a n i n g , m a i n t e n a n c e , adjustments a n d repairs. e m e r g e n c y o p e r a t i o n , e.g. e m e r g e n c y s t o p fire. A p a r t f r o m these f o u r categories w h i c h c o n c e r n the operation o f the machine under various c i r c u m stances t h e r e are f o u r a d d i t i o n a l c a t e g o r i e s , t h a t have no direct connection w i t h the operation. T h e y are: circumstances outside direct economics, preciation, user r e q u i r e m e n t s , e.g. a d v a n c e struction, training, education, subjective ance. F r o m the above eight categories, t h e have a close connection with the operation, occasional operations and following normal subjective circumstances, e.g. psychological c i r c u m s t a n c e s i n o p e r a t i n g t h e m a c h i n e , appearknowledge, ine.g. i n i t i a l o p e r a t i o n , e.g. i n and
form:
Figure sideration
118 of
designed
with
conwhich
circumstances
under
it will be used
Form
factors
125
SYSTEM
MACHINE
OPERATOR
J
SURROUNDINGS
Figure
119
l\^a /machine
system
User or operator:
Among the factors
Normal
which
operations
concern the normal
o p e r a t i o n o f t h e m a c h i n e m u s t be m e n t i o n e d : nature o f the j o b (aim: a meaningful j o b ) , good w o r k i n g posture, safety, easy m o v e m e n t s , accessibility, convenient communication w i t h the machine, n o u n p l e a s a n t noise, h e a t , r e f l e c t i o n s , e t c . The three factors of w o r k i n g posture, movements a n d a c c e s s i b i l i t y are c l o s e l y t i e d i n w i t h t h e d e s i g n . T h i s is p r i m a r i l y a q u e s t i o n o f t a k i n g a c c o u n t o f t h e h u m a n d i m e n s i o n s a n d p e r f o r m a n c e p o s s i b i l i t i e s , so t h a t o n e c a n a v o i d b a d l y designed p r o d u c t s s u c h as t h e l a t h e i n F i g u r e 1 1 7 . T h e r e are a n u m b e r o f b o o k s o n e r g o n o m i c s a n d a n t h r o p o m e t r y (i.e. t h e s t u d y o f the measurements o f the h u m a n b o d y ) w h i c h cover this subject. Communication machine worthy involves of further between the operator and many design aspects that examination. Without the are the one hand i n f o r m a t i o n m a y be l o s t , o r wrong i n f o r m a t i o n m a y be a d d e d . T h e f o l l o w i n g pages o u t line a n u m b e r o f circumstances t h a t can c o n t r i b u t e t o clear a n u n a m b i g o u s c o m m u n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e operator and the machine. L e t us t a k e as o u r s t a r t i n g p o i n t t h e m a n / m a c h i n e system be in Figure of 119. A more detailed three model is s h o w n in F i g u r e 1 2 1 . T h e o p e r a t o r c a n , i n p r i n c i p l e , thought as c o m p r i s i n g sub-systems, n a m e l y t h e s e n s o r y a p p a r a t u s (eyes, ears, e t c . ) , t h e decision apparatus (the brain), and m o t o r apparatus ( h a n d s , a r m s a n d legs). T h e m a c h i n e m a y be d i v i d e d i n t h e same w a y i n t o t h r e e s u b - s y s t e m s ; t h e process system, the supervision system and the system. operating
Figure 120 The two possibilities information from for errors A to in transferring
suitable
126
Form
factors
MAN/MACHINE SYSTEM
MACHINE OPERATOR
"supervisin
system
p
^
Sensory apparatus
Process system
Decision apparatus
Operating
Motor apparatus
I
Figure 121 The most important elements and relationships in a man/machine system
T h o s e parts o f t h e m a c h i n e w h i c h are i n d i r e c t c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h t h e o p e r a t o r ( t h e h a t c h e d areas i n t h e f i g u r e ) are k n o w n as t h e s u p e r v i s i o n s area, t h e o p e r a t i n g area a n d t h e o p e n process area. T h e m u t u a l i n f l u e n c e b e t w e e n t h e sub-systems is d e m o n s t r a t e d i n t h e i l l u s t r a t i o n . T h e t h r e e areas are s y m b o l i c a l l y
illustrated
in
Figure
122.
Supervision
areas
and
o p e r a t i n g areas are o f t e n p l a c e d t o g e t h e r in a c o n t r o l area, w h i l e t h e o p e n process area is k e p t a p a r t f r o m these. E x a m p l e s o f t h e a r r a n g e m e n t o f t h e areas are s h o w n in Figure 123 and 1 2 4 .
C o n t r o l area
Figure
122
with which
the operator
is in
contact
127
Figure and
123 open
in a grinding
128
Figure 124 Control area and open process area in a copying camera and an electric cooker (Courtesy of Esk o fot Ltd. and S.A.G. Ltd)
Form O n a m a c h i n e , t h e c o n t r o l areas a n d t h e t h e y are c l e a r l y and from the separated. This is h e l p f u l to open the
factors
129
o p t i m i s e d . T h i s does n o t m e a n t h a t t h e c o n t r a s t must be as g r e a t as possible ( b l a c k / w h i t e , r e d / On the contrary, be a d a p t e d it means that the the green e t c . ) as t h i s m a y m a k e e v e r y t h i n g seem t o flicker. contrast must so t h a t figure
process area s h o u l d be a r r a n g e d i n such a w a y t h a t operator and furthers communication between h i m machine. Sometimes the control either area is p l a c e d i n a separate u n i t w h i c h is p h y s i c a l l y a p a r t the machine. This may be d u e t o a n a t u r a l f u n c t i o n a l s e p a r a t i o n , as e.g. in n u m e r i c a l l y c o n t r o l l e d m a c h i n e t o o l s , w h e r e t h e c o n t r o l u n i t is separate f r o m t h e rest, o r i t m a y also be because s p e c i f i c advantages in use m a y be g a i n e d . T h e l a t t e r m a y be q u i c k e r a n d m o r e c o n v e n i e n t h a n d l i n g , t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f r e m o t e c o n t r o l , greater s a f e t y f o r t h e o p e r a t o r o r perhaps o n l y greater f l e x i b i l i t y all r o u n d . A n e x a m p l e is s h o w n in F i g u r e 1 2 5 . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , i f t h e c o n t r o l area is p l a c e d i n o r o n t h e m a c h i n e i t m a y be e m p h a s i s e d in v a r i o u s w a y s . A n i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r in t h i s c o n n e c t i o n is t h e so-called ' f i g u r e o n g r o u n d e f f e c t ' , w h i c h is a f u n d a m e n t a l e f f e c t in a n y visual p e r c e p t i o n . T h e ' f i g u r e o n g r o u n d e f f e c t ' tells us t h a t w h e n w e l o o k we a l w a y s n o t i c e o b j e c t s o r f i g u r e s , w h i c h t h e r e b y become significant, while the background dwindles and perhaps h a r d l y leaves a t r a c e i n o u r consciousness. If o n e w a n t s t o d r a w a t t e n t i o n t o s o m e t h i n g , i t m a y t h u s be d o n e b y u s i n g a f i g u r e t h a t stands o u t c l e a r l y against t h e b a c k g r o u n d . O n t h e basis o f these facts o n e can f o r m u l a t e s o m e r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r t h e design o f the c o n t r o l area: T h e contrast in f o r m , c o l o u r and surface ( t e x t u r e ) b e t w e e n t h e f i g u r e a n d t h e b a c k g r o u n d m u s t be
stands o u r c l e a r l y f r o m t h e b a c k g r o u n d w i t h o u t distracting and t i r i n g the eye. Dimensions between the individual figure and the remaining figures must be a d j u s t e d . There m u s t n o t be f i g u r e s t h a t g e t l o s t in t h e c r o w d . G o o d l i g h t i n g m u s t be assured. D i s t r a c t i n g e l e m e n t s m u s t be m i n i m i s e d . These may be e.g. r e f l e c t i o n s , a f t e r images, powerful sources near a n d d o m i n a t i n g f i g u r e s v e r y close t o . Figure 126 shows a p h o t o c o p i e r where the figure g r o u n d e f f e c t is u t i l i s e d t o e m p h a s i s t h e c o n t r o l area a n d m a k e i t clear. T h e i n d i v i d u a l e l e m e n t s o f a c o n t r o l panel c o n stutute two categories, namely the signalling i n s t r u m e n t s ( t h e s u p e r v i s i o n area) a n d t h e o p e r a t i n g i n s t r u m e n t s ( t h e o p e r a t i n g a r e a ) . We have p r e v i o u s l y seen h o w t h e m a c h i n e m u s t be designed in s u c h a w a y t h a t t h e c o n t r o l areas s t a n d o u t as a clear a n d w e l l d e f i n e d p a r t o f t h e m a c h i n e . T h e f o l l o w i n g pages outline some principles f o r arranging the individual c o m p o n e n t s o f t h e c o n t r o l panel w i t h regard t o effective c o m m u n i c a t i o n between the operator and the machine. T h r e e m a i n p o i n t s m a n i f e s t t h e m s e l v e s i n t h e layo u t o f a c o n t r o l p a n e l , n a m e l y t h e f r e q u e n c y o f use
Figure 125 Electric scales, where the control area is separate from the process area (the tray). (Courtesy of Bizerba)
130
Form
factors a n d t h e i n n p o r t a n c e o f t h e separate elennents, as w e l l as t h e c l a r i t y o f t h e l a y o u t . T h i s means t h a t t h e m o s t o f t e n used e l e m e n t s , a n d , f o r i n s t a n c e , an e m e r g e n c y s t o p are p l a c e d c e n t r a l l y . W h i l e , g e n e r a l l y , i t is n o t d i f f i c u l t t o decide w h i c h elements belong t o the t w o f i r s t - m e n t i o n e d g r o u p s i t is a m o r e d e m a n d i n g t a s k t o a r r a n g e t h e e l e m e n t s i n r e l a t i o n t o each o t h e r i n a m a n n e r t h a t is clear a n d s i m p l e t o grasp. H e r e , h o w ever, p e r c e p t i o n p s y c h o l o g y m a y h e l p us, e s p e c i a l l y t h e b r a n c h c a l l e d gestalt p s y c h o l o g y . T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r s i n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n are t h e ideas o f g r o u p a n d p a t t e r n c r e a t i o n o n t h e basis o f closeness and similarity. On control these into panels w i t h m a n y s i m i l a r e l e m e n t s , groups t h a t are easy t o scan. e.g. l i g h t s , s w i t c h e s a n d h a n d l e s , i t is u s e f u l t o d i v i d e smaller V a r i o u s means m a y be used f o r t h e g r o u p i n g , n a m e l y either collecting the elements i n t o smaller groups by arranging them closer t o g e t h e r , or differentiating t h e m b y g r o u p s , e.g. each g r o u p its o w n c o l o u r . I t is also p o s s i b l e , o f c o u r s e t o f o r m g r o u p s b y d i v i d i n g t h e area o f t h e c o n t r o l panel i n t o d i f f e r e n t s e c t i o n s w i t h t h e a i d o f lines a n d c o l o u r s . F i g u r e 1 2 7 s h o w s s c h e m a t i c a l l y a c o n t r o l panel
Figure
control Ltd)
O O o o o
o o o o o
o o o o o
o o o o o
Figure
127
A control
elements
131
Figure
128
Grouping
the elements
on the background
of closeness
and similarity
(Courtesy
IBM)
Figure
129
An
element
that stands
out in an otherwise homogeneous row catches the attention. of a control panel on a computer (Courtesy IBM)
The picture
showspart
132
Form
factors t h e m . Figure 128 shows yet another example o f this, If, o n a c o n t r o l p a n e l , t h e r e is a r o w o f s i m i l a r e l e m e n t s t h e y w i l l be p e r c e i v e d a s a h o m o g e n o u s r o w w h e r e n o e l e m e n t stands o u t . O n e does n o t n o t i c e the separate elements. Now, if one of these is a l t e r e d , i t w i l l a t o n c e be c l e a r l y d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e f r o m t h e o t h e r s . T h i s f a c t m a y be used in t w o w a y s ;
g r o u p i n g is d o n e r e s p e c t i v e l y b y d i f f e r e n t d i s t a n c e , different colour, division b y line a n d d i v i s i o n b y c o l o u r e d areas. These d i v i s i o n s m e a n t h a t o n e c a n q u i c k l y w i t h o u t c o u n t i n g p o i n t t o a given elem e n t . In o t h e r w o r d s , b y g r o u p i n g t h e e l e m e n t s o n e can ensure much quicker identification of the separate e l e m e n t s t h a t i f o n e h a d t o c o u n t t o f i n d
Figure 130 A control panel with groups sections (Courtesy DISA Electronic Ltd)
formed
similarity
and
framed
Form A r o w o f s i m i l a r e l e m e n t s o u g h t t o have t h e same ' n o r m a l ' p o s i t i o n , i.e. all p o i n t e r s are v e r t i c a l a n d all lights are o n d u r i n g o p e r a t i o n , e t c . If o n e o f t h e e l e m e n t s gets o u t o f t h e n o r m a l p o s i t i o n i t w i l l i m m e d i a t e l y a t t r a c t a t t e n t i o n , and thus ensure t h a t t h e a l t e r a t i o n 129. If o n e o f t h e e l e m e n t s is especially i m p o r t a n t i t c a n be p l a c e d i n a r o w o f o t h e r s t h a t are s i m i l a r t o each o t h e r . T h e o n e t h a t is d i f f e r e n t w i l l s t a n d o u t . A s an e x a m p l e m a y be m e n t i o n e d a d i a l w i t h a d i f f e r e n t shape f r o m t h e o t h e r s , o r a red emergency stop placed between black c o n t r o l knobs. G r o u p i n g b y f u n c t i o n is o f t e n used as a basis f o r control panel layout. The elements t h a t belong is n o t i c e d . See Figure together
factors
133
in a f u n c t i o n a l u n i t are c o l l e c t e d in one
group o n the panel, either by placing the elements in the individual f u n c t i o n a l groups closely together (proximity), colour sections by making them by similar in f o r m panel o r areas. or into An (similarity), or indicated by dividing the lines, c o l o u r s
e x a m p l e is s h o w n i n F i g u r e 1 3 0 . A n operationally-determined layout of a control panel m a y be e x p e d i e n t if t h e e l e m e n t s are used each time in a c e r t a i n s e q u e n c e . In t h i s case i t w i l l to place t h e e l e m e n t s in an o r d e r be natural corre-
Figure 131 Operationally determined layout of a control panel. The elements of the panel are arranged in the order in which they must be operated (Courtesy Ltd) Watson-Marlow
Figure 132 Process-determined of a control panel. The layout picture shows the control panel of a grass drying plant (Courtesy of Atlas Ltd)
134
Form
factors H o w m u c h regard o n e s h o u l d p a y t o these f a c t o r s depends o n b o t h the p r o d u c t and t h e e n v i r o n m e n t . T h e designer m u s t r e m e m b e r t o c o n s i d e r f r o m w h i c h points of view t h e f a c t o r s s h o u l d be t a k e n into a c c o u n t , f o r i n s t a n c e , w h e t h e r t h e p r o d u c t m u s t be easy t o c l e a n , o r w h e t h e r i t s h o u l d b e d e s i g n e d so that cleaning is unnecessary. Also whether the p r o d u c t m u s t be easy t o a d j u s t a n d r e p a i r , o r w h e t h e r
n a t u r a l if t h e e l e m e n t s o n t h e panel c o n t r o l a n u m b e r o f c o m p o n e n t s i n a process s y s t e m . T h e panel m a y in t h i s case, as s h o w n i n F i g u r e 1 3 2 , be designed as a s i m p l i f i e d d i a g r a m o f t h e process w i t h t h e i n d i v i d u a l e l e m e n t s o n t h e panel so a r r a n g e d t h a t i t is easy t o see t o w h i c h p o i n t i n t h e process s y s t e m t h e y c o r r e spond.
User or operator:
Occasional operations,
Occasional
operations
in connection con-
it must systems
a c h i e v e d f i r s t o f all b y e n s u r i n g easy access a n d b y o p e r a t i o n s are a c t i v i t i e s but which a v o i d i n g slots a n d holes t h a t c a n c o l l e c t d i r t Figures taken 133 and into 134). The consideration b y a design w h i c h (see also of w i t h the machine, which d o not concern the normal are necessary f o r t h e t i n u o u s use o f i t . These are: cleaning, maintenance, servicing, adjusting, repairs. r e m a i n i n g f a c t o r s are
gives a c c e s s i b i l i t y , s i m p l e a s s e m b l y / d i s m a n t l i n g a n d s a f e t y w h i l e p e r f o r m i n g these j o b s .
c o m p o n e n t s , c o n v e n i e n t w e i g h t a n d size o f these
Figure
133 Meat mincers with suction feet. On the left is a design where meat juices and liquid may run down into the foot which cannot be taken apart. On the right a new design where cleaning has been taken into consideration
Form
factors
135
Figure ment,
134 Suggested designs for the ho/der of a dia/ysis ceil (artificial kidney). The equipment is used in a hospital environwhere easy cleaning is an important requirement. The design shown in the lower illustration is therefore preferable
136
Form
factors
circumstances
Figure 135 shows t w o microscopes f r o m d i f f e r e n t periods, which The particular b o t h give an a e s t h e t i c conditions concerned experience. in aesthetic
S o m e o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t a n d , a t t h e same t i m e , most difficult factors in d e s i g n i n g a p r o d u c t conc e r n t h e user's s u b j e c t i v e a t t i t u d e t o i t : psychological facts, appearance. T h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l f a c t s c o n c e r n t h e user's r e a c t i o n to the product; t h e user m a y , f o r instance, feel repulsed/attracted, unsure/confident, oppressed/free w h i l e using i t (see F i g u r e 1 9 0 ) . These f a c t o r s m a y b e d i f f i c u l t t o assess at t h e design stage, b u t if o n e feels that there may be p r o b l e m s , a three-dimensional m o d e l m a y be n e e d e d . F r o m t h e user's v i e w p o i n t t h e appearance o f t h e product plays an i m p o r t a n t r o l e . W h e n evaluating style, t h e a p p e a r a n c e d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n c a n be m a d e b e t w e e n the aesthetic element a n d the influence o f f a s h i o n a n d h a b i t . T h e a e s t h e t i c side is t i m e l e s s a n d universal b e a u t y , w h i l e s t y l e , f a s h i o n a n d h a b i t dep e n d o n t i m e a n d place.
design w i l l be discussed in greater d e t a i l i n C h a p t e r 4 , w h i c h deals e x c l u s i v e l y w i t h t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f t h e product. It is d i f f i c u l t t o draw the line b e t w e e n style, f a s h i o n a n d h a b i t . W h i l e s t y l e is a s o r t o f c o m m o n d e n o m i n a t o r f o r w h a t is c u r r e n t i n a c e r t a i n p e r i o d w i t h regard t o t h e design o f p r o d u c t s in i n d u s t r y , a p p l i e d a r t s , a r c h i t e c t u r e a n d a r t , f a s h i o n is s h o r t lived and o f t e n attached t o certain products. T h u s t h e f a s h i o n in cars, f o r i n s t a n c e , has n o t h i n g t o d o w i t h t h e f a s h i o n in t h e design o f d o m e s t i c a p p l i a n c e s . Figures fashion. A l s o , h a b i t m u s t n o t be o v e r l o o k e d w h e n d e s i g n i n g a p r o d u c t . If t h e r e is a w i d e s p r e a d h a b i t u a l idea o f w h a t t h e design s h o u l d b e , i t c a n be c a t a s t r o p h i c f o r a c o m p a n y t o i g n o r e t h i s . O n e o f t h e best k n o w n 136 and 137 show examples of style and
Figure
135
New
and
However,
they
both
provide
an aesthetic Ltd.)
experience.
(New
is by courtesy
of Wild Heerbrugg
Form e x a m p l e s o f t h e f o r c e o f h a b i t is t h a t o f s h i p s , w h i c h even t o d a y are m o s t l y b u i l t w i t h a f u n n e l , t h o u g h these b e c a m e unnecessary w i t h t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e diesel e n g i n e . A n o t h e r e x a m p l e is t h e t r a n s i s t o r radio s h o w n in Figure 1 3 8 ( l e f t ) . In spite o f t h e f a c t t h a t i t was t h o r o u g h l y was too remote from
factors
137
a n d o p e r a t i o n a l l y i t d i d n o t s e l l , because t h e f o r m people had o f w h a t a transistor radio should look like (Figure 138, r i g h t ) .
Figure
136
The influence
by telephones LK-NESLtd)
and switches
(Courtesy
of G NT Automatic
Ltd, and
Figure 137 Fashion: Three makes of car having almost iden tical designs
138
Form
factors
Environment
T h e e n v i r o n m e n t in w h i c h t h e p r o d u c t w i l l be used is i m p o r t a n t f o r t h e design in t w o w a y s . O n t h e o n e hand the environment may have t o be p r o t e c t e d against t h e e f f e c t s o f t h e p r o d u c t a n d , o n t h e o t h e r , t h e p r o d u c t m a y have t o be p r o t e c t e d against t h e effects o f t h e e n v i r o n m e n t . In cases w h e r e a p r o d u c t m i g h t p o s s i b l y d a m a g e o r p e r h a p s r u i n t h e e n v i r o n m e n t t h e design m u s t be s u c h t h a t t h i s does n o t h a p p e n . If a p r o d u c t is t o be d i r e c t l y o p e r a t e d b y a user, o n e m u s t be a w a r e o f t h e i n f l u e n c e s t o w h i c h t h i s p e r s o n is e x p o s e d t o and t a k e these i n t o a c c o u n t i n t h e d e s i g n . If i t is a p r o d u c t
Figure
138
Habit.
Two transistor radios showing traditional and unusual designs. The design on the right is recognisable as a transistor radio (Courtesy Bang & Olufsen)
immediately
Figure
139
Two oil-fired
boilers
and
muffling
Form t h a t w i l l be used in a f a c t o r y o n e m u s t t h e r e f o r e , t h r o u g h t h e d e s i g n , ensure t h a t t h e r e is n o d e t e r i o ration of the w o r k i n g environment. Obviously, the same c o n s i d e r a t i o n s m u s t be s h o w n i f p e o p l e , m a y have t o pass near t h e p r o d u c t . In t h e instances m e n t i o n e d t h e p r o d u c t m a y have t o be s h i e l d e d against
factors
139
Figure protect
140 A pressure switch on three different covers to it from damp - normal, drip-proof and ray-proof (Courtesy Danfoss Ltd)
140
Form
factors a given s o l u t i o n . W h e n e v a l u a t i n g a n u m b e r o f f o r m design suggestions (see C h a p t e r 2 o n ' F o r m s y n t h e s i s m e t h o d s ' ) o n e gets a s i t u a t i o n w h e r e t h e d i f f e r e n t suggestions f u l f i l l t h e c r i t e r i a i n d i f f e r e n t w a y s . T h e problem may be i l l u s t r a t e d by the following exa m p l e . W h i c h o f t w o suggested s o l u t i o n s is t h e best o n e , w h e n o n e s o l u t i o n is c h e a p t o p r o d u c e , r e l a t i v e l y complicated to operate, expensive t o run and of g o o d a p p e a r a n c e , w h i l e t h e o t h e r s o l u t i o n is dearer t o p r o d u c e , easy t o o p e r a t e , c h e a p t o r u n a n d o f an u n f o r t u n a t e appearance? T h e answer m u s t n a t u r a l l y d e p e n d o n w h a t o t h e r c r i t e r i a s h o u l d also be t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t , as w e l l as w h a t w e i g h t t h e i n d i v i d u a l c r i t e r i a m u s t be given c o m p a r e d t o each o t h e r . T h e
T h e design is i n f l u e n c e d b y t h e c h o i c e o f m a t e r i a l and consequently by the choice of manufacturing process. It w i l l also be a f f e c t e d b y t h e possible need f o r special c o v e r i n g , p r o t e c t i v e shields, e t c . A n example is s h o w n in Figure 1 4 0 , w h e r e a pressure s w i t c h is designed f o r t h r e e d i f f e r e n t e n v i r o n m e n t s . A t t h e t o p , is a n o r m a l s w i t c h f o r o r d i n a r y f a i r l y d r y r o o m s , in t h e c e n t r e a design t h a t is d r i p p r o o f , i.e. p r o o f against d a m p a n d d u s t , a n d a t t h e b o t t o m a ray p r o o f t y p e s w i t c h locations. i.e. a c o m p l e t e l y enclosed a n d v e r y t o u g h v e r s i o n f o r use i n s p e c i a l l y e x p o s e d
evaluation
of a number
o f suggested s o l u t i o n s
is
therefore a d i f f i c u l t task. E v a l u a t i o n m a y be c a r r i e d o u t b y a n u m b e r o f m o r e o r less f o r m a l i s e d t e c h n i q u e s . These r u n f r o m a quite informal after evaluation which based o n i n t u i t i o n evaluation to is o n e w i t h several b a l a n c e d c r i t e r i a t h a t are w e i g h e d separately, a complete m a d e a c c o r d i n g t o c e r t a i n rules. T h e c h o i c e o f t e c h n i q u e f o r e v a l u a t i o n d e p e n d s o n t h e level o f d e t a i l i n g at which t h e suggested s o l u t i o n s are formulated. These t e c h n i q u e s w i l l n o t be discussed here as t h e r e is a great deal o f l i t e r a t u r e a l r e a d y p u b l i s h e d o n t h i s subject. C o m m o n t o all e v a l u a t i o n s i t u a t i o n s is t h e f a c t t h a t t h e suggested s o l u t i o n s m u s t be m o d e l l e d (in t h e w i d e s t sense, e.g. i n a s k e t c h o r i n a t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l m o d e l , see C h a p t e r 2 ) , so t h a t o n e c a n e x a m i n e t h e q u a l i t i e s t o be e v a l u a t e d , such as space, o p e r a t i o n , appearance, etc. The various suggested solutions w h i c h m u s t be e v a l u a t e d c o n c u r r e n t l y , m u s t necess a r i l y be m o d e l l e d w i t h t h e same degree o f d e t a i l , so that a solution that might possibly be more t h o r o u g h l y w o r k e d o u t is n o t s u b c o n s c i o u s l y given preference over the others. W h e n a series o f suggested s o l u t i o n s has been e v a l u a t e d t h e r e w i l l u s u a l l y be m o r e o r m o r e s o l u t i o n s t h a t t u r n o u t t o be b e t t e r t h a n t h e o t h e r s . T h e best one, or possibly a f e w o f t h e best o n e s , m u s t be f u r t h e r d e t a i l e d , w h i c h gives rise t o a n e w series o f solutions must at a m o r e d e t a i l e d l e v e l . Here again o n e and make other (more a choice, but this detailed) criteria. time After evaluate
m a t e r i a l s . A s t h e s u p p l y o f o u r r a w m a t e r i a l s becomes shorter i t m a y b e c o m e m o r e usual t o this factor i n t o account. T h e c o n s u m p t i o n o f resources in d e s t r u c t i o n is m a i n l y a question o f using m a n p o w e r , energy and equipment.
according to
C o m b i n i n g f o r m elements Means o f e x p r e s s i o n
141
f o r e c a n n o t be m e a s u r e d a n d , o f c o u r s e , i t is t h i s f a c t w h i c h gives rise t o m u c h d i s c u s s i o n w h e n a n o b j e c t l o o k s pleasing. W h e n d e s i g n i n g a p r o d u c t o n e c a n n o t leave its appearance o u t o f a c c o u n t , b u t t h e degree t o w h i c h t h i s influences the f o r m depends o n the t y p e of p r o d u c t i n q u e s t i o n . F o r c e r t a i n p r o d u c t s , a p p e a r a n c e is a basic q u a l i t y . T h i s a p p l i e s f o r i n s t a n c e t o j e w e l l e r y , c l o t h e s a n d f u r n i t u r e . T h e r e are also p r o d u c t s w h e r e the appearance is immaterial, e.g. other carburettors, products are f e r r u l e s , nails a n d screws. A l l in t h e table o n the left. What exactly characteristic for is g o o d a p p e a r a n c e , a n d w h a t is a product that we would call
APPA/^AMC
s o m e w h e r e in b e t w e e n these e x t r e m e s , as suggested
Contractors
pLarit BLectrLCaL
Values
aiS, sere s
b e a u t i f u l ? U n f o r t u n a t e l y , a s a t i s f a c t o r y a n s w e r has never been f o u n d . T h e nearest o n e c a n get is t h a t i t is possible t o i d e n t i f y c e r t a i n f e a t u r e s t h a t t o g e t h e r give us an idea o f w h y s o m e t h i n g s are u g l y , w h i l e o t h e r s are b e a u t i f u l . A e s t h e t i c s , i.e. t h e s t u d y of b e a u t y , is c o n c e r n e d w i t h these q u e s t i o n s . I t is n o t possible t o d r a w u p rules t h a t w i l l ensure a b e a u t i f u l p r o d u c t , b u t o n t h e o t h e r h a n d w e c a n give s o m e g u i d e l i n e s , w h i c h a designer c a n use w i t h a c e r t a i n probability o f a reasonable r e s u l t . T h e rest o f t h i s c h a p t e r deals w i t h s u c h g u i d e l i n e s . S p e c u l a t i o n o n w h y c e r t a i n a r t i c l e s c a n give a n
o n l o o k e r an a e s t h e t i c e x p e r i e n c e has a l w a y s engaged h u m a n i t y . S o m e p e o p l e have f o u n d b e a u t y in n a t u r e , o t h e r s i n s t r i c t g e o m e t r i c shapes a n d o t h e r s again i n s w e l l i n g curves a n d garish c o l o u r s . These p e o p l e m a y all be r i g h t i n t h e i r o w n w a y . T h e d i f f e r e n c e i n taste o f d i f f e r e n t p e o p l e c o u l d o f t e n be t h e reason w h y s o m e a r t i c l e s are f e l t t o be b e a u t i f u l , w h i l e o t h e r s are n o t . However, if s o m e t h i n g is r e a l l y beautiful m o s t p e o p l e c a n agree. T h e r e f o r e , i t m u s t be possible t o f i n d c e r t a i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a t are c o m m o n t o t h e f e e l i n g w h i c h gives o n e an a e s t h e t i c e x p e r i e n c e .
144
Figure
141
An aesthetic
product
characterised
by unity
and order
(Courtesy
Bang &
Olufsen)
B e a u t y m a y i n t h e f i r s t instance be c h a r a c t e r i s e d b y its o p p o s i t e ugliness. W h e n an a r t i c l e is f e l t t o be u g l y i t m a y be because i t is d i s c o r d a n t , s h o d d y , careless, b i t t y , d e f e c t i v e o r b a d l y m a d e . B e a u t y is t h e c o m p l e m e n t o f ugliness, a n d f r o m t h i s w e m a y get an i n d i c a t i o n o f w h a t b e a u t y is. O n e m u s t , h o w e v e r , r e m e m b e r t h a t b e t w e e n ugliness a n d b e a u t y lies t h e neutral a n d u n i n t e r e s t i n g . So b e a u t y m u s t possess other qualities apart f r o m n o t being ugly. T h e most i m p o r t a n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s are u n i t y a n d o r d e r , (see Figure 141).
harmonic
unit
may
be a c h i e v e d i f t h e c o m -
ponent
Order
T w o o f t h e qualities already m e n t i o n e d in connect i o n w i t h ugliness w e r e carelessness a n d d i s o r d e r . I t is t h e r e f o r e n a t u r a l t o e x a m i n e h o w f a r t h e idea o f O r d e r ' belongs t o t h e aesthetic p r o d u c t . Sometimes o r d e r in i t s e l f m a y s a t i s f y a n a e s t h e t i c n e e d .
Unity
A p r o d u c t o u g h t t o appear as a f i n i s h e d c o m p l e t e u n i t , w h e r e t h e separate e l e m e n t s a n d details bel o n g t o g e t h e r i n a logical a n d h a r m o n i c w a y . T h e r e m u s t be n o e l e m e n t s t h a t s t a n d o u t as i f t h e y d i d not b e l o n g , a n d t h a t arouse q u e s t i o n s o r s u r p r i s e . I t w i l l also be u n f o r t u n a t e i f t h e p r o d u c t l o o k s as if s o m e p a r t is m i s s i n g . I t c a n be g e n e r a l l y said t h a t a n y d i s t u r b a n c e o f t h e o v e r a l l i m p r e s s i o n mars t h e appearance.
T h e h i g h e s t degree o f o r d e r - s t r i c t r e p e t i t i o n
will, however, often become t o o m o n o t o n o u s , while a freer and more varied order can make the p r o d u c t an e x c i t i n g sensual e x p e r i e n c e . T h e degree o f o r d e r t h a t is m o s t s u i t a b l e d e p e n d s o n t h e c o m p l e x i t y o f t h e p r o d u c t , i n t h e sense t h a t t h e m o r e c o m p l e x t h e p r o d u c t t h e h i g h e r a degree o f o r d e r is n e e d e d . H o w e l e m e n t s c a n be a r r a n g e d w i t h a c e r t a i n v a r i e t y is m o r e closely e x a m i n e d in section 4 . 3 . T h e i m p o r t a n c e of order f o r aesthetic experience is i l l u s t r a t e d in Figure 143.
145
Above, a programmable machine tool that constitutes a harmonic unit Below, a car where the superstructure and the chassis do not seem to belong
(courtesy together
146
Figure 143 Order and disorder. Above, an offset writing machine where the separate form elements express order in respect of both form and arrangement. (Courtesy of Helioprint Ltd). Below, a typical prototype that bears the stamp of disorder. In this case one does not worry about appearance but about function
Appearance
of tfie product
147
4.2 F o r m elements
Most industrially m a n u f a c t u r e d p r o d u c t s are built t h e m a i n visual d i r e c t i o n s , a n d i t is n a t u r a l t o t h i n k i n t e r m s o f these directions. Models. W h e n i t is necessary t o s u p p l e m e n t t h e i m a g i n a t i o n t h i s m a y be d o n e by using a m o d e l . By far t h e m o s t widely used t y p e o f m o d e l In this sort that of is a prod r a w i n g , m o s t o f t e n in r i g h t - a n g l e d projection. sketch consist Technologies. the are of j e c t i o n m u c h t h e easiest o b j e c t s t o those broadly to the planes parallel processes
up of a n u m b e r o f elements o f a relatively simple g e o m e t r i c a l f o r m . In t h e m o r e c o m p l e x p r o d u c t s a n d m a c h i n e s t h e e l e m e n t s are p u t t o g e t h e r i n t o subs y s t e m s , w h i c h again are o f t e n i n t h e f o r m o f k n o w n g e o m e t r i c a l shapes. T h e p r o d u c t is t h e r e f o r e u s u a l l y c h a r a c t e r i s e d b y a number of ' f o r m elements', which together make u p t h e o u t e r f o r m . These f o r m e l e m e n t s h e l p t o give t h e p r o d u c t its c h a r a c t e r , w h e t h e r t h i s f a c t has been t a k e n deliberate advantage o f or n o t . T h e f o r m e l e m e n t s t h a t are m e t m o s t o f t e n are t h e basic shapes o f t h e c u b e t h e c y l i n d e r , parts o f t h e s e , see F i g u r e 144. The sphere, t h e p y r a m i d , t h e c o n e a n d t h e e l l i p s o i d o r box and the c y l i n d e r are t h e f o r m e l e m e n t s m o s t o f t e n u s e d , w i t h the result t h a t t h e m a j o r i t y o f p r o d u c t s consist o f lines a n d planes a t r i g h t angles t o each o t h e r . Several reasons f o r t h i s s i t u a t i o n m a y be m e n t i o n e d : The Mind. ' T h e e y e ' is n a t u r a l l y u s e d - t o perc e i v i n g v e r t i c a l a n d h o r i z o n t a l as
p r o j e c t i o n planes. Manufacturing favour o b j e c t s w i t h planes at r i g h t angles t o each o t h e r a n d t h o s e t h a t c a n be t u r n e d o n a l a t h e . The above c o m m e n t s must n o t be r e g a r d e d as arguments f o r t h e f o r m elements always having t o be s i m p l e g e o m e t r i c a l f o r m s , f o r n a t u r a l l y t h e designer has a l w a y s his f r e e d o m inside t h e l i m i t s o f t h e
BASIC SHAPES
O o
/7\
PARTS OF BASIC S H A P E S
Figure
144
Form
elements
148
c r i t e r i a . H o w e v e r , if a n u m b e r o f p r o d u c t s are s t u d i e d o n t h e basis o f t h e f o r m e l e m e n t s t h e y consists o f , i t w i l l be f o u n d t h a t t h e basic shapes i n F i g u r e 144 have been used. F i g u r e 1 4 5 s h o w s t h i s f o r a n u m b e r o f s m a l l c o m p o n e n t s . In t h e m o r e c o m p l e x p r o d u c t s s h o w n i n Figures 1 4 6 t o 1 4 9 t h e basic shapes are used i n t h e f o r m design o f t h e smallest e l e m e n t s u p to the construction of the total system. T h i n k i n g in t e r m s o f f o r m e l e m e n t s is i m p o r t a n t t o t h e designer, because t h e basic shapes can
Figure 145 A number of smaller components in which the form elements 144 can be from Figure recognised
149
Figure 146 Fresh water plant. clearly defined fornn elements the total form and in the details of Atlas Ltd)
Figure
147
An automatic
lathe
with many
form
elements
(Courtesy
of
Boehringer)
150
up of of Carl
simple Zeiss)
Figure
149
Excavator
built
up of pronounced
form
elements
(Courtesy
of J. C. Bamford
Exc.)
Appearance
of tfie product
151
try to combine
them.
If t h e
1 5 0 (c) t o ( e ) , w h e r e (c) s h o w s i t a c h i e v e d b y s y m m e t r y , ( d ) an a s y m m e t r i c a l balance a n d (e) a visual imbalance. I f a g r o u p o f f o r m e l e m e n t s are n o t i n balance t h e y m a y ' o f f e n d the eye'. One m u s t especially guard against cases w h e r e t h e t o t a l f o r m is v e r y n e a r l y s y m m e t r i c a l , b u t n o t q u i t e . A g o o d rule o f t h u m b is, t h a t t h e f o r m m u s t be e i t h e r s y m m e t r i c a l o r s u f f i c i e n t l y a s y m m e t r i c a l f o r i t t o be c l e a r l y d e l i b e r a t e a n d n o t s i m p l y lopsidedness. Figures balance 151 and 1 5 2 s h o w e x a m p l e s o f visual of t w o meters. Figure 153 on the f r o n t
e l e m e n t s are m o v e d t o w a r d s each o t h e r w e n o t i c e t h a t , a t a c e r t a i n d i s t a n c e , t h e y seem t o b e l o n g t o g e t h e r a n d have f o r m e d a g r o u p (see F i g u r e 1 5 0 (a) a n d ( b ) ) . T h e idea o f g r o u p is f u n d a m e n t a l t o o u r visual p e r c e p t i o n . If w e s t u d y a n u m b e r o f e l e m e n t s i n a g r o u p t h e y w i l l a f f e c t each o t h e r , a p a r t f r o m j u s t s e e m i n g t o b e l o n g t o g e t h e r . We w i l l feel t h e e l e m e n t s are v i s u a l l y m o r e o r less i n b a l a n c e . A visual balance m a y be a c h i e v e d b y s y m m e t r y , or it m a y be a s y m m e t r i c a l . In t h e l a t t e r case t h e c o m p o n e n t e l e m e n t s m u s t be s h a p e d a n d a r r a n g e d i n r e l a t i o n t o each o t h e r i n s u c h a w a y t h a t t h e r e seems t o form be t h e same ' w e i g h t ' (a c o m b i n a t i o n on both sides o f an of and colour) imaginary that
Figure
150
The group
effect
between
two elements
(c, symmetrical;
d, asymmetrical)
and
visual
152
Figure
151
Visual balance
through
symmetry
(Courtesy
of Bruel
&
Kjaer)
Figure
152
Visual balance
without
symmetry
(Coutesy
of DISA
Electronic
Ltd.)
153
Figure
153
Vacuum
pump visual
of
Figure
154
Vertical
drill in visual
balance
154
Rfiytfim
In the section that that of one the aesthetics (page 143) it was of c o n s t i t u t e an u n i n t e r e s t i n g r o w . H o w c a n w e m a k e the g r o u p o f elements m o r e exciting? We can i n t r o duce a certain variation This which we repeat with or suitable intervals. 'order with variation'
mentioned emphasised
important degree of
characteristic necessary
b e a u t i f u l p r o d u c t s is o r d e r . A t t h e same t i m e i t was order d e p e n d s o n t h e degree o f c o m p l e x i t y . T h e idea o f o r d e r is t h u s m o s t p r o n o u n c e d w h e n m a n y e l e m e n t s are p r e s e n t . L e t us c o n s i d e r a great n u m b e r o f s i m i l a r e l e m e n t s as s h o w n in Figure 155a. The arrangement where t h e y are e q u a l l y spaced represents t h e h i g h e s t degree o f order, b u t p u t together in this w a y t h e elements
' R h y t h m ' m a y be c a r r i e d o u t b y u s i n g t h e v a r i a t i o n p a r a m e t e r s f r o m s e c t i o n 2 . 3 . These are a r r a n g e m e n t , d i m e n s i o n , n u m b e r and f o r m o f elements (this includes their c o l o u r ) . Figure 1 5 5 b shows t h e elements i n g r o u p s w h e r e r h y t h m is i n t r o d u c e d i n d i f f e r e n t ways.
NUMBER
ARRANGEMENTS
DIMENSION
O ^
S H A P E A N D COLOUR
^ *0 O Q O Q O O ^ O O
Figure
155
Rhythm
through
variation
of arrangement,
dimension,
number
and form
of the
elements
Appearance T h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h r h y t h n n is i n t r o d u c e d i n t o a g r o u p o f e l e m e n t s d e p e n d s , as a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d , not only on the c o m p l e x i t y (number and dissimilarity of t h e e l e m e n t s ) b u t also o n p e r s o n a l t a s t e . F i g u r e helps to make the appearance exciting, 1 5 6 s h o w s a design o f a s h i p ' s t r a n s m i t t e r w h e r e rhythm R h y t h m has been a c h i e v e d b y v a r y i n g t h e arrangement and the dimensions.
of the product
155
R h y t h m based o n v a r y i n g t h e f o r m o f t h e e l e m e n t s c a n also be a p o w e r f u l t o o l . I n t h e cars s h o w n i n F i g u r e 1 5 7 t h e shape o f w i n d o w s a n d d o o r s is e m phasised b y t h e s y s t e m o f lines w h i c h t h e y f o r m . T h e a r r a n g e m e n t , shape a n d angle o f t h e lines t o g e t h e r f o r m a r h y t h m , t h a t has a d i f f e r e n t c h a r a c t e r f o r t h e d i f f e r e n t cars,
Figure 156 A ship's transmitter. The rhythm is achieved by varying the arrangement and the dimensions of the deals; alternating between rectangular and round elements and making the module heights different
156
Figure
157
the prominent
rhythms
Appearance
of tfie product
157
Proportions
The idea of u n i t y , m e n t i o n e d in the section on A rectangle with this ratio between its sides is
aesthetics is an i m p o r t a n t /ya/zY/. T h e f o r m e l e m e n t s m u s t be s u i t e d t o each o t h e r i n a logical a n d harm o n i o u s w a y , a n d c o m m o n f e a t u r e s in t h e i r s u r f a c e , s t r u c t u r e a n d c o l o u r are t h e r e f o r e necessary. O n e o f t h e p a r a m e t e r s t h a t can h e l p t o u n d e r l i n e t h e o v e r a l l i m p r e s s i o n is t h e p r o p o r t i o n . M a n has a l w a y s been p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h t h e idea of a connection are between p r o p o r t i o n and of ideal beauty. for There examples measurements
b e i n g d i v i s i b l e i n t o a square a n d 1 5 8 . T h r o u g h o u t t h e ages m a n y
r e c t a n g l e w i t h t h e same r a t i o b e t w e e n its
p e o p l e have c o n s i d e r e d t h i s r e c t a n g l e t o be p e r f e c R a t i o s such as 2 : 3 , 3 : 5 , 5 : 8 , 8 : 1 3 e t c are even c l o s e r a p p r o x i m a t i o n s t o t h e G o l d e n S e c t i o n . These p r o p o r t i o n s are a p p l i e d i n a great m a n y areas. F o r instance, textbooks on photography teach the advisability of placing the most i m p o r t a n t part o f t h e p i c t u r e i n s u c h a w a y t h a t i t d i v i d e s t h e sides i n the ratio 2:3 o r 3 : 5 . These p r o p o r t i o n s m a y be recognised in m a n y p r o d u c t s .
T h i s gives: 2 = i / 2 ( i + / 5 ) - 1 . 6 1 8 .
Figure
158
Above,
division
a rectangle
in proportions
corresponding
to the
158
Appearance
of tfie
product i s a t i o n , a n d also f l e x i b i l i t y , b u t a d i s c u s s i o n o f these is o u t s i d e t h e s c o p e o f t h e b o o k . U s i n g m o d u l e s t o d i v i d e an area i n t o s e c t i o n s , e.g. o n c o n t r o l panels, is a convenient way sizes as a w h o l e . F i g u r e 1 6 0 s h o w s a h a e m o d i a l y s i s a p p a r a t u s , i.e. a c o n t r o l u n i t used i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h a n a r t i f i c i a l kidney for treating patients w i t h chronic kidney c o m p l a i n t s . D i a l s , c o n t r o l l a m p s , e t c are g r o u p e d in s e c t i o n s c r e a t e d b y d i v i d i n g t h e o u t e r area i n t o 3 , respectively 5, parts. T h e modules o f height and w i d t h are i n t h e r a t i o o f 5 : 3 . of f i t t i n g elements o f different
R e p e a t e d use o f c e r t a i n p r o p o r t i o n s in t h e elements o f a p r o d u c t m a y , a m o n g other things, result i n t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f s i m i l a r e l e m e n t s . T h i s m a y also contribute where greatly t o the p r o d u c t are f o u r similar a p p e a r i n g as a two harmonious unit. Figure 159 shows a g r a m o p h o n e , there rectangles a n d squares. A c o n v e n i e n t aid t o d e t e r m i n i n g t h e p r o p o r t i o n s is t h e use o f m o d u l e s , t h e basic size o r a basic area, w h i c h i n v a r i o u s w a y s c a n be a s s e m b l e d i n t o larger e l e m e n t s . M o d u l e s can n a t u r a l l y have m a n y other advantages such as r e d u c i n g costs t h r o u g h s t a n d a r d -
Figure
159
Division
of the surface
rectangles
159
Figure 160 Use of modules in dividing up tfie front (Courtesy of the Institute of Product Development, Denmark)
160
Appearance
of the
product
Figure
161
Pumps
(Courtesy
of DAE Pumps
161
Figure
162
A perfusator of similarly
(a box inclined
for preserving
living
kidneys
before
a transplant).
are
found
a number
lines (Courtesy
of Engineering
Design,
The Technical
Denmark)
162
Figure
163
Examples
of lines which
attract
unfavourable
attention
Appearance
of the product
163
Joints
J o i n t s b e t w e e n f o r m e l e m e n t s c a n give rise t o b o t h constructional a n d visual problems. If t w o planes dividing o r edges m e e t t i g h t l y w i t h an uncovered 2. The joint is e m p h a s i s e d a n d d e l i b e r a t e l y methods which the groove used
as p a r t o f t h e f o r m c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e p r o d u c t . T h e r e are several achieve grooving the joint this c a n be used t o dark covering similar. of distance staining with 164 to between the elements or something different
exactitude two
examples
Figure
164
Different
possibilities
for joining
two elements
end-on
Figure
165
Different
possibilities
for joining
two elements
at right
angles
Figure
166
Examples
of joints.
164 and
165)
165
Figure
167
Examples
of joints.
164 and
165)
166
a p r o d u c t . I n o t h e r w o r d s , i t is f e l t t h a t t h e f o r m s c i o u s l y used b y t h e designer, e i t h e r t o emphasise certain o f t h e p r o d u c t ' s characteristics o r t o m i t i gate possible u n d e s i r a b l e ones. One quality that c a n be stressed t h r o u g h t h e f o r m is lightness. F i g u r e 1 6 8 s h o w s t w o s i t u a t i o n s w h e r e a n o b j e c t seems t o have been m a d e l i g h t e r .
o n t h e f o u n d a t i o n . T h e o t h e r e x a m p l e is part which c a n be m a d e l i g h t e r b y
projecting
W///////
/}//////hr
//} / ///7f7
/y>////y/. 7*
\jyy//^/7
Figure
168
Two situations
where
the object
appears
lighter
167
Figure meter.
169 Products where the form expresses lightness (see also Figure 168). The objects shown are: top left, a (Courtesy of Bruel and Kjaer); top right, a teamaker. (Courtesy of Lab. for Engineering Design, The University of Denmark). Below, a workbench. (Courtesy of Brown and Sharpe)
vibration Technical
168
Figure 170 Further products where the form expresses lightness (see also Figure 168). The objects shown are: top left, a photocopier. (Courtesy of Eskofot Ltd); middle and bottom left, front of car and side view of car front (Courtesy of Sunbeam and Opel); middle right, a TV set (Courtesy of Bang and Olufsen); bottom right, an operating console (Courtesy of Digital Equipment Corp.)
Appearance
of tfie product
169
Weight and
stability
s h o w s e x a m p l e s o f w a y s i n w h i c h these t w o e f f e c t s c a n be used t o a c c e n t u a t e t h e s t a b i l i t y o f a b o x s h a p e d b o d y . I n s o m e o f t h e suggestions t h e f o r m is d i v i d e d i n t o t w o f o r m e l e m e n t s , w h i c h at t h e same t i m e gives g r e a t e r f r e e d o m i n c h o o s i n g p r o p o r t i o n s . P r o d u c t s , w h i c h as a r e s u l t o f t h e i r f u n c t i o n are h e a v y a n d s o l i d , c a n be s h a p e d so t h a t t h i s is expressed i n t h e f o r m . F i g u r e 1 7 2 s h o w s s o m e m a c h i n e s that convey stability and strength.
T h e means t h a t c a n be used t o express w e i g h t a n d s t a b i l i t y t h r o u g h the f o r m , aim at placing the centre o f g r a v i t y l o w d o w n . F o r t h i s p u r p o s e s l o p i n g lines o r ' h e a v y ' curves are u s e f u l . I t is a f a c t , as f a r as s l o p i n g lines are c o n c e r n e d , t h a t each shown how other in a single l i n e expresses i n s t a b i l i t y , w h i l e t w o lines l e a n i n g t o w a r d s express a h i g h degree o f s t a b i l i t y , as Figure 171a. Figure 171b slightly demonstrates c o n c a v e sides are h e a v y
bodies w i t h
c o m p a r e d t o b o d i e s w i t h c o n v e x sides. F i g u r e 1 7 1 c
//////////
//////////////
Figure
171
l\/leans of expressing
weight
and
stability
170
Figure Crown);
172 top
Products right,
designed
in a way
tfiat
accentuates
weight
and
stability, right,
left,
two
fork
lift
trucks.
(Courtesy
of
a lathe
(Courtesy
of Drehbank,
Colchester); Excavators
bottom Ltd)
an excavator
(Courtesy
of J. C.
Bamford
Appearance
of tfie product
171
Movement
An impression of movement a n d speed c a n , like s l o p i n g o r s l i g h t l y c u r v e d lines at a r e l a t i v e l y s l i g h t angle t o t h e d i r e c t i o n o f m o v e m e n t , see F i g u r e 1 7 3 . The movement may be further emphasised by a c c e n t i n g lines i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f m o v e m e n t , as w e k n o w f r o m 'speed s t r i p e s ' o n w h i c h are p a i n t e d o n s o m e cars a n d r a i l w a y carriages, e t c .
s t a b i l i t y , be a c h i e v e d b y using s l o p i n g lines, a l t h o u g h i n a n o t h e r w a y . T w o lines t h a t m e e t in a p o i n t give associations w i t h an a r r o w , p r o v i d e d t h a t t h e angle b e t w e e n t h e m is n o t t o o great. I t is t h e r e f o r e possible to let the form underline movement by using
Figure
173
Products
designed
speed
173
d e t a i l e d p i c t u r e o f t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h i t is p o s s i b l e t o a p p l y t h e s y s t e m a t i c m e t h o d s in a design p r o j e c t . I t is o b v i o u s l y u n r e a l i s t i c t o w o r k s y s t e m a t i c a l l y t h r o u g h all t h e e l e m e n t s i n a c o m p l e x p r o j e c t . B u t i f o n e has a b s o r b e d t h e s y s t e m a t i c m e t h o d s t h e r e is a basis f o r an a t t i t u d e t o t h e w o r k o f d e s i g n i n g w h i c h , i n a g i v e n s i t u a t i o n , results i n a m o r e o r less c o n s c i o u s a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e system u p t o a certain manageable stage, w h i l e for especially difficult o r c r i t i c a l elem e n t s o n e uses t h e t h o r o u g h s y s t e m a t i c p r o c e d u r e .
31
m Basic
striActure
Total Jorm
Element
B y m o r e c l o s e l y f o l l o w i n g t h e f o r m design stages i n a single design p r o j e c t i t s h o u l d be possible observe, how in different situations one to changes
b e t w e e n s y s t e m a t i c a l l y d r a w n u p series o f s o l u t i o n s and a m o r e free and relaxed w a y o f w o r k i n g w i t h f o r m design ideas. T h e p r o j e c t , w h i c h is d e s c r i b e d b e l o w , is t h e design o f an a p p a r a t u s f o r c h r o m o s o m e a n a l y s i s . T o e n a b l e t h i s case h i s t o r y t o be seen i n the right perspective the table o n the left shows w h i c h p a r t s o f t h e c o m p l e t e p r o j e c t are b e i n g s t u d i e d . C h r o m o s o m e s carry o u r inherited characteristics. I n each cell i n t h e h u m a n b o d y is a c o m p l e t e c o l l e c t i o n o f t h e s e . T h e y are f o u n d in t h e so-called genes, w h i c h n o r m a l l y e x i s t in a cell n u c l e u s separate f r o m t h e rest o f t h e c e l l . W h e n t h e cell d i v i d e s , w h i c h o f c o u r s e is a c o n d i t i o n f o r a n y g r o w t h a n d l i f e , t h e 175
176
t w o n e w cells. N o r m a l h u m a n beings have 4 6 c h r o m o s o m e s , b u t t h e r e m a y be a b n o r m a l c h r o m o s o m e c o m b i n a t i o n s , which some result analysis in is various carried diseases. out, In cases where a s o m e b o d y ' s c h r o m o s o m e s are e x a m i n e d a c h r o m o which produces so-called k a r y o t y p e d i a g r a m , w h e r e p i c t u r e s o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l c h r o m o s o m e s are a r r a n g e d s y s t e m a t i c a l l y ,
1 1
Figure 174 Miscoscope pictures in a cell of
see F i g u r e 1 7 5 . C h r o m o s o m e analysis is used i n v a r i o u s s i t u a t i o n s , i n c l u d i n g diagnosis a n d e x a m i n a t i o n o f embryonic f l u i d as w e l l as research. T h e reason w h y c h r o m o s o m e analysis c a n be used i n diagnosis is t h a t t h e r e is the a connection patients. between certain of diseases (e.g. of is mongolism) and the chromosome Examination composition fluid
chromosomes
embryonic
ii II If II Ir II nil I II II II
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
10
11
12
13
14
IS
17
18
t i 19 20
t i 21
22
ti
Case history, ascertain w h e t h e r t h i s is n o r m a l o r i f t h e r e is s o m e t h i n g w r o n g . E x a m i n a t i o n o f p a r e n t s - t o - b e is m a d e i f t h e r e is a p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t a c h i l d m a y be b o r n with a chromosome abnormality. From such an e x a m i n a t i o n o n e c a n e s t i m a t e h o w great t h i s p r o b a b i l i t y is. C h r o m o s o m e analysis is used i n research examine whether diseases w i t h comprises so f a r the unknown A following causes m a y be d u e t o c h r o m o s o m e a b n o r m a l i t y . chromosome analysis
chromosome
apparatus
177
a n d g l u e i n g o n t o a s t a n d a r d d i a g r a m all t h e c h r o m o somes. A f t e r t h a t t h e k a r y o t y p e is r e a d y , a n d an a c t u a l assessment o f t h e c h r o m o s o m e c o m p o s i t i o n c a n be m a d e . T h e p r o c e d u r e i n t h e m a n u a l process here d e s c r i b e d is i l l u s t r a t e d in F i g u r e 1 7 6 . I n assessing t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f m a k i n g t h e c h r o m o s o m e analysis a u t o m a t i c , o n e w i l l realise t h a t t h i s may be d o n e at m a n y levels. In m a n y places, f o r i n s t a n c e , p e o p l e are d e v e l o p i n g a s y s t e m t h a t a u t o m a t i c a l l y carries o u t all t h e p a r t i a l processes, f r o m s e e k i n g o u t a s u i t a b l e cell u p t o t h e f i n i s h e d k a r y o type or similar may computer technically material. Even if function they such a systems have
stages: t h e e x t r a c t i o n o f s u i t a b l e cells, p r e p a r a t i o n of the cell, staining (to make the chromosomes more d i s t i n c t ) a n d a n a c t u a l analysis, i n w h i c h t h e k a r y o t y p e is m a d e . O n l y t h e a c t u a l analysis w i l l be discussed h e r e . T h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t is a p r e p a r e d s l i d e , w h i c h is p u t i n t o a m i c r o s c o p e . T h e slide c o n t a i n s several cells, a n d i t is t h e f i r s t j o b o f t h e l a b o r a t o r y assistant t o f i n d a s u i t a b l e cell (i.e. o n e w i t h d i s t i n c t c h r o m o somes t h a t d o n o t o v e r l a p ) . W h e n a cell has b e e n f o u n d a p h o t o g r a p h is t a k e n . F o r s a f e t y , o n e u s u a l l y takes one m o r e p h o t o g r a p h o f a n o t h e r suitable cell. L a t e r , w h e n t h e l a b o r a t o r y assistant gets t h e p h o t o graphs b a c k f r o m d e v e l o p m e n t , t h e k a r y o t y p e c a n be p r e p a r e d . T h i s is d o n e b y c u t t i n g o u t , a r r a n g i n g
n u m b e r of drawbacks. For one t h i n g , they require t h a t a c o m p u t e r is a v a i l a b l e , also t h a t an o p e r a t o r is p r e s e n t , w h o possible. The was basis for the present project that the would manual was t h a t with it a considered than probable either a solution or depending on the system must c a r r y o u t v a r i o u s assessments f o r t h e process t o be
s m a l l e r degree o f vantageous
automation
be m o r e adthe fully
SUde
Kiicroscope
Photogrfipk
7 7 a cr L7
an
17 a
y ^
k(^roti)pe
Figure
176
The manual
process
in mal<ing
Karyotypes
178
SUcLe
Ckromosome
kar
Figure
177
The chromosome
apparatus
as a black
box
carry
out
the
operations
that
the
laboratory
be a k a r y o t y p e d i a g r a m p r i n t e d o n d u r a b l e m a t e r i a l s u i t a b l e f o r a r c h i v e storage. H o w t h e process i n F i g u r e 1 7 7 c a n be s p l i t i n t o p a r t i a l processes w i l l n o t be f u r t h e r discussed h e r e . The division may be made in many ways, and Figure 178 shows the preferred procedure. It w i l l the figure that i t has b e e n clearly
assistant h a d p r e v i o u s l y p e r f o r n n e d , b u t w h i c h m a k e s use o f his a b i l i t y t o i d e n t i f y t h e c h r o m o s o m e s . I n t h i s w a y i t b e c o m e s possible t o p e r f o r m t h e c h r o m o s o m e analyses i n c o n s i d e r a b l y s h o r t e r t i m e , as w e l l as t o m a k e t h e a p p a r a t u s c h e a p e r , because t h e c o m plicated operations chromosomes are t o seek o u t a n d recognise t h e performed by the operator,
be seen f r o m
d e c i d e d w h i c h p a r t i a l processes t h e o p e r a t o r a n d t h e a p p a r a t u s each w i l l p e r f o r m . T h e m a i n f u n c t i o n s t h a t t h e c h r o m o s o m e appara t u s m u s t c a r r y o u t m a y b e seen i n F i g u r e 1 7 8 . These are t o c r e a t e a visual p i c t u r e , t o d e l i m i t t h e p a r t i c u l a r p a r t o f t h e slide, t o o r i e n t a t e i t , t o c l a s s i f y i t ( i n t h e k a r y o t y p e ) , a n d t o e x p o s e i t . I t has been d e c i d e d t o perform the function o f c r e a t i n g a visual picture w i t h a traditional microscope, and the f u n c t i o n of e x p o s i n g as i n an o r d i n a r y c a m e r a w i t h a s h u t t e r . The three central main functions remain: delimitat i o n , o r i e n t a t i o n a n d c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f t h e slide p a r t . I n t h e n e x t s e c t i o n these t h r e e f u n c t i o n s are t a k e n as s t a r t i n g p o i n t s f o r t h e search f o r basic s t r u c t u r e s .
while the trivial, troublesome and t i m e consuming m o r e m e c h a n i c a l o p e r a t i o n s are c a r r i e d o u t i n t h e apparatus. A further advantage over the manual m e t h o d is t h e f a c t t h a t t h e k a r y o t y p e is o b t a i n e d w h i l e t h e slide is i n t h e m i c r o s c o p e i n t h e p o s i t i o n w h e r e t h e cell i n q u e s t i o n is s h o w n . T h i s m a k e s i t possible t o compare the karyotype with the cell p i c t u r e in a n y cases o f d o u b t . T h e task can n o w be f o r m u l a t e d in m o r e d e t a i l . We want to design a s y s t e m w h i c h , b y using h u m a n a b i l i t y t o recognise p a t t e r n s , m a k e s possible an increase o f t h e analysis c a p a c i t y o f a c h r o m o s o m e l a b o r a t o r y . T h e o u t p u t f r o m t h e analyses m u s t
APPA/^ATUS
^^
APPAKAIUS
In/or on wkctke^r used Infor on. cLassLJLcation Inf or. on pos and orientation
SUde
Create
Visual pUtiAre
Information FUm
on ex posare
Expose
Figure
178
Chart showing
apparatus
Case history:
chromosome
apparatus
179
p h o t o g r a p h i c s o l u t i o n s are u s e d , a n d n o t f o r i n s t a n c e electronic F i g u r e 1 7 9 are s h o w n a t a r e l a t i v e l y a b s t r a c t l e v e l , w h i c h keeps t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s d o w n t o a reasonable n u m b e r . T h e n e x t step w i l l n o w be t o c o m b i n e t h r e e functions but other many into different basic s t r u c t u r e s . A great n u m b e r o f c o m b i n a t i o n s are t h e o r e t i c a l l y p o s s i b l e , o f t h e s o l u t i o n s are c o m p l i c a t e d , a n d These m a y be r e j e c t e d is d o n e by straight several have o t h e r o b v i o u s d r a w b a c k s c o m p a r e d t o solutions. a w a y . I n o r d e r t o progress i t is necessary t o d e t a i l
CUsslJ^ chrotn.
examining
Q D QB D
q a a
calculations and experiments, and the criteria which comes into t h e p i c t u r e a t t h i s stage a r e , p i c t u r e q u a l i t y , space r e q u i r e m e n t s , m e c h a n i c a l c o m p l e x i t i e s , special c o s t c i r c u m s t a n c e s , t i m e t a k e n , e t c . T h e f i n a l c h o i c e is o n l y m a d e a f t e r a n u m b e r o f basic s t r u c t u r e s have been d r a w n u p .
KJew ptciure
\PAPEI^lFim
1
paper MampuLeite cut out part picture
>^3
OKIEkllAlE
PAPflC/F/LU ]
01
03
CLASSIFY
PnnUnj
\papei^Jfilm]
K1
Figure
179
Means of realising
tfie functions
of delimitation,
orientation
and
classification
180
F r o m o u r knowledge o f the partial solutions in F i g u r e 1 8 0 t h e n u m b e r o f basic s t r u c t u r e s m a y be r e d u c e d t o f o u r t e e n realistic suggested s o l u t i o n s as s h o w n i n F i g u r e 1 8 1 . In t h e p u r e l y o p t i c a l s o l u t i o n s we part have n o t distinguished between the different solutions w i t h m i r r o r s , lenses a n d p r i s m s i n
Figure 180, b u t solutions t h a t include optical fibres are s h o w n s e p a r a t e l y , as t h e y are essentially d i f f e r e n t f r o m the others. T h e basic s t r u c t u r e w h i c h w a s f o u n d t o be m o s t s u i t a b l e is s h o w n i n d e t a i l i n F i g u r e 1 8 2 . T h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t is t h e s o l u t i o n n u m b e r 2 i n F i g u r e 1 8 1 , a n d the following part solutions from Figure 180
M//^J^0KS
77777 2co-ord
LENSES
1
2co-ord
-T7777?
2 CO-Ord
////
2co-ord P/^/SUS
2 co-ord
2 co-ord
-rrrrr 2CO-ord
777^
TTTTT
2 co-ord
Figure 180 /\/leans of realising the function of "moving" a ray of light
181
OPTICAL
W
1^
5
ra
/////////A
\ OPTICAL/PHfQI^APHIC
fJicroscope
fjam
Figure
181
Showing
the fourteen
best basic
structures
rf > FUm
Figure
182
structure
182
Case history:
chromosome
apparatus
SYMBOLS ffl
Kiicroscope
o 1
Film cassette
F5
EM
5
K^ovinj system
or
Ys
Figure
183
Quar)tified
structures
shown
in Figure
182
Case history The three-dimensional structure models make it possible t o evaluate s u c h aspects as w o r k i n g space f o r t h e operator, mechanical c o m p l e x i t y , heat ( f i l m n o t t o o close t o t h e l a m p ) , h e i g h t , w i d t h a n d d e p t h of the instrument etc. On t h e basis o f s u c h an e v a l u a t i o n t h e q u a n t i f i e d s t r u c t u r e m a r k e d B9 i n Figures 1 8 3 a n d 1 8 5 is c h o s e n . T h e c h o s e n s t r u c t u r e is s h o w n in greater d e t a i l in Figure 184. The operator has in f r o n t of him a screen o n w h i c h is p r o j e c t e d a p i c t u r e o f t h e cell w i t h the chromosomes. Information on the position a n d o r i e n t a t i o n o f t h e c h o s e n c h r o m o s o m e is t r a n s ferred mechanically to the movable lens (three
: chromosome
apparatus
183
d i f f e r e n t p r o j e c t i n g lenses) a n d t o t h e A b b e ' s p r i s m . In this w a y t h e picture o f the desired c h r o m o s o m e is f o c u s s e d a n d o r i e n t a t e d . T h e t i l t i n g m i r r o r , w h i c h performs the classification of the chromosome p i c t u r e , is p o s i t i o n e d t h r o u g h a m o v i n g s y s t e m t h a t is a c t i v a t e d b y a k e y b o a r d w i t h a c o n t r o l k n o b f o r each c h r o m o s o m e . Apart from the karyotype, the chromosome a p p a r a t u s m u s t also be able t o p h o t o g r a p h t h e w h o l e c e l l . T h i s t o t a l p i c t u r e c a n be t a k e n w h e n t h e d i a p h r a g m is r e m o v e d a n d t h e t i l t i n g m i r r o r is p u t in the mid position.
Tilting
Moveable lens
Film cassette
Keyboard
Moving system
Figure
184
The ciiosen
quantified
structure
184
Figure
185
structures
modelled
in plastic
185
Figure
185
(continued)
186
Case history:
ctiromosome
apparatus
o f f o r m c o n c e p t , see
The criteria that c o u n t w h e n choosing between a l t e r n a t i v e designs, s t e m f i r s t o f all f r o m t h e user a n d f r o m t h e p r o d u c t i o n . A s f a r as t h e user is c o n c e r n e d , i t is a q u e s t i o n factors (how of working posture, accessibility, and the procleaning, adjustment and maintenance, psychological is t h e apparatus experienced?) in c o n n e c t i o n of with a p p e a r a n c e ( u n i t y , o r d e r , visual b a l a n c e ) . F r o m t h e production come criteria manufacturing process, choice material,
187
SCALE
1:10
Operativy area
Figure
186
The starting point for form designs is obtained by drawing contour lines closely around screened. Varying the form geometry gives the first rough form design suggestions
the elements
to be
188
FOm
Figure
187
Variation
of form
division.
the starting
point
for a number
of the suggestions
on
the
pages
Figure
188
concepts
Figure
189
A general
problem
is examined, namely the form design of the screen around geometry and form division are used as variation parameters
the operator's
mirror.
Form
Figure bottom
190 A number of detailed form concepts which appear right showed, however, the unfortunate psychological like a wall in front
fairly realistic. A three-dimensional effect that the apparatus is felt of the operator
192
On the basis of the experience gained from the previous suggestions we can examine the possibilities of more designs. At the top can be seen the areas the elements occupy, and three possible areas of material are shown
Figure
192
Examination
of tfie problems
surrounding
a partly below
open
framework.
Variation
of the form
division
is
shown
194
Figure
193
Two
realistic
design
suggestions
195
Form models corresponding to the two suggestions in Figure 193. Before the final choice can be made must be painted. This makes it possible to assess whether the problems of the visual balance indicated Figure 192 can be overcome by an appropriate choice of colour
one in
196
Case history:
chromosome
apparatus
a r r a n g e m e n t o f t h e areas o f m a t e r i a l is v a r i e d . T h e f r a m e is an e x a m p l e o f t h e w a y in w h i c h t h e f o r m o f an e l e m e n t is c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e e x t e r n a l form o f t h e a p p a r a t u s , as p a r t o f t h e f r a m e is v i s i b l e a n d even c o n s t i t u t e s form. T h e f u r t h e r o n e advances i n d e t a i l i n g t h e e l e m e n t s of the c h r o m o s o m e apparatus, the more the character o f t h e f o r m design w o r k is a l t e r e d t o w a r d s d e c i d i n g on a number of details in connection with the of functional surfaces. I t is f i r s t o f all a q u e s t i o n an essential part of the external
d e c i d i n g o n t h e p o i n t s w h e r e t h e e l e m e n t s are t o be j o i n e d t o g e t h e r , as s h o w n , f o r i n s t a n c e , i n Figure 1 9 9 , w h i c h deals w i t h t h e base b o x a n d t h e c o v e r i n g screens. O n e o f t h e e x t e r n a l f u n c t i o n a l areas o f great i m p o r t a n c e is t h e v i e w f i n d e r s h o w n in F i g u r e 2 0 0 . T h e c r i t e r i a f o r t h e design o f t h e e l e m e n t s are m o s t l y concerned w i t h t w o things. First the f u n c t i o n , i.e. precision, reliability, stability, strength and rigidity, and secondly the p r o d u c t i o n , manufacturing
e x a c t l y t h e same w a y as t h e t o t a l s y s t e m , t h a t is t o that stages basic An structure, q u a n t i f i e d structure, etc. corresponding t o new product synthesis a s m a l l e r scale. e x a m p l e is s h o w n i n F i g u r e 1 9 5 , w h i c h deals w i t h transmission mechanisms t o the t i l t i n g m i r r o r . Figure 1 9 6 s h o w s h o w s t r u c t u r e v a r i a t i o n can be a p p l i e d t o such a s u b - s y s t e m . The form design o f t h e f r a m e is i l l u s t r a t e d in Figures 1 9 7 a n d 1 9 8 . These s h o w h o w t h i n k i n g i n terms of functional surfaces gives a clear s t a r t i n g
197
PUr\ of siiniir(f
be
filhi
cassette
TKANSMISSIOKJ SJECHAKJISMS: Transmission of a morement in the fiimpLfine to tke m error-with tke tutrnin^ angle halted
Figure
195
Basic structures
for transmission
systems
for a tilting
mirror
198
Figure
196
Variation
of quantified
structure
structure
is shown
at the bottom
right
on
199
130
Space needed f(?r kands Possible arrangement of tke lomr part of tkefrange o.^.
Figure
197
The first stages in the form design areas made clear. Bottom,
of the frame. Top, the functional surfaces are indicated arrangement of the areas of material are examined
and the
banned
200
Figure a total
198 form
The form design of the frame and the total form design are closely connected. design is chosen where part of the frame in the shape of a column is visible. column are shown above. Below, the chosen frame
201
J'
1
CT Joint here
Figure
199
base box
and
covering
screens.
Examination functional
of possibilities surfaces
of lightproof
joints
tfirough
varying
the
202
Variatton
of
JtAyictoyicil
surfaces for
/infers form.
dLmenscon^
o)mo)C)o io)
Dimenscon
Fotm
qeometrti
Figure
200
Variation
of functional
surfaces
is shown
in the
photograph
203
Figure
201
Tlie completed
chromosome
apparatus
of Engineering
Design,
The
Technical
University
204
T h e design o f all t h e e l e m e n t s i n t h e c h r o m o s o m e a p p a r a t u s is d e c i d e d a f t e r d r a w i n g u p sketches a n d plans, a n d t h e e l e m e n t s are f i n a l l y s p e c i f i e d i n a set o f w o r k i n g a n d assembly d r a w i n g s w h i c h f o r m t h e basis f o r the production. When the apparatus is assembled t h e t i m e has c o m e f o r t e s t i n g , a n d f o r a realistic e v a l u a t i o n o f w h e t h e r i t a c t u a l l y possesses the expected qualities. Small corrections and i m p r o v e m e n t s are a d d e d , a n d t h e c o m p l e t e d c h r o m o s o m e a p p a r a t u s appears f i n a l l y as s h o w n i n F i g u r e 201. I t m u s t o n c e m o r e be e m p h a s i s e d t h a t n o t all t h e stages i n t h e p r o j e c t have been d e s c r i b e d i n t h i s case h i s t o r y , (see t h e d i a g r a m i n t h e m a r g i n o n page 1 8 3 ) . A number of the experiments electrical concerning system, physical various feasibility, omitted. T h e case h i s t o r y as o u t l i n e d a b o v e has a n essential a i m w h i c h is t o f o r m a c o n t r a s t t o t h e s y s t e m a t i c a l l y drawn up but unconnected examples throughout control
c a l c u l a t i o n s , as w e l l as w o r k i n g d r a w i n g s have been
critical situations.
Index
Abacus, 19 Abbe's p r i s m , 180, 185 Accessibility t o machine, 126 Aesthetic criteria, 12, 6 0 , 134, 143, 144, 154 A n t h r o p o m e t r y , 124 Appearance, 5 , 4 2 . 7 8 , 8 4 , 9 0 , 9 1 , 100, 134, 140, 143, 1 7 1 , 184 A s s e m b l y processes, 1 0 2 , 1 0 6 , 1 1 4 , 1 1 5 , 1 8 4 sub-operations, 114, 115 A u t o m a t i c lathe, 169 Automatic teamaker, 9 - 1 3 , 1 5 , 4 2 - 4 6 , 7 7 , 9 0 , D i m e n s i o n s , 7, 9 , 1 3 , 2 2 , 3 6 , 5 2 . 6 0 - 6 2 , 6 6 , 6 8 , 8 4 , 9 5 , 9 7 , 107, 116, 130, 153, 154 Dirt, 116, 117, 138 Distribution factors, 116 Durability, 7
Economics criteria, 1 3 , 7 5 , 99, 106, 108, 109, 114, 125 Effectiveness, 4 2 Elasticity, 122 Electricity meter, 104 Elements, arrangement of, 32, 34, 4 2 , 4 6 , 60, 6 8 , 1 5 1 , 154, 155 design o f , 13, 2 2 , 2 4 , 2 6 , 2 8 , 3 2 , 3 4 , 3 6 , 4 8 , 6 3 . 7 7 , 8 9 , 118,196 division of, 7476, 102 Emergency stopping, 125, 130 E n v i r o n m e n t , 3, 1 3 7 , 139 Ergonomics, 123, 126 Excavator, 4 0 , 4 1 , 150, 170
167
Calculators, 19, 7 8 - 8 0 Car j a c k s , 1 9 Chromosome apparatus, 175204 Clamps, 6 2 Cleaning, 7 8 , 1 2 5 , 1 3 2 Coffee makers, 2 1 - 2 3 Cogwheels, 9 8 Colour, 154 Company identity, 100 Contracts, 99 C o n t r o l areas, 1 3 0 - 1 3 4 design o f , 1 3 3 - 1 5 8 Conveyor belts pulleys, 8 5 - 8 8 , 103 Corroding fumes, 116
Fashion, 135 Fire, 125 Fork joints, 66, 67 F o r m , 3, 4 , 7 , 9 , 13, 15, 3 6 , 4 8 , 9 5 , 9 8 , 9 9 . 118. 1 2 1 . 143 concepts, 64. 66. 67, 70, 7 1 , 75, 76. 86. 87, 88, 102, 104, 105, 106 design, 1 9 , 9 4 - 9 6 , 1 0 0 , 108, 109, 1 1 5 - 1 1 7 , 1 2 2 , 196, 200 division m e t h o d , 7 4 - 7 8 , 8 1 , 8 4 , 104, 105. 193 elements, 13, 147, 148. 1 5 1 . 160, 163, 186 restriction o n , 6 0 synthesis m e t h o d s , 2 1 , 8 9 variation, 48. 50. 6 1 , 66, 68, 89, 90, 102 F u n c t i o n (of p r o d u c t ) , 5, 7, 9 , 19, 2 1 , 3 6 , 6 2 , 7 4 , 9 5 , 1 0 9 , 118, 1 2 1 , 122. 132 sub f u n c t i o n s , 19, 2 6 Function factors, feasibility o f , 121 interval, 121 quality of, 1 2 1 , 122 F u n c t i o n a l surfaces, 4 8 - 5 0 , 5 2 , 5 6 , 5 7 , 6 0 , 6 1 , 6 3 , 6 6 , 6 8 , 69, 75, 8 4 , 8 5 , 8 9 , 106, 118, 1 2 1 , 196 arrangement of. 5 2 - 5 6 , 6 1 , 8 4 , 8 5 , 86 dimension of, 5 2 - 5 6 , 6 0 , 6 1 , 6 2 , 66, 68. 84, 85, 87
Damp, 116, 117, 138 D a m p vibrations, 137 Delimitation, 177, 180 Design, 6 , 7, 1 2 , 13. 2 1 , 4 2 . 5 0 . 6 0 , 6 6 , 9 6 , 9 9 . 1 0 6 . 1 2 3 . 124, 126, 137, 138 solutions, 2 1 , 22 Designer, 6 , 1 4 , 8 9 , 9 0 , 9 5 , 9 9 , 1 0 6 , 1 2 1 , 1 2 3 , 1 4 3 , 147 Destruction, 6. 9 6 . 139 Dialysis ceil, 1 3 2
205
206
Index
continued Operation of machinery, emergency, 125 normal, 1 2 5 - 1 3 3 occasional, 125, 132 Operation of product, 9 2 , 187 Operator situation, 106, 108, 114, 125, 126, 180 Order, 144, 154, 186 Orientation, 177, 180
F u n c t i o n a l surfaces
external, 48, 50, 5 2 , 1 2 2 geometry, 52, 53, 55, 56, 60, 6 1 , 62, 66, 68, 84, 85, 87 internal, 48, 50, 52 maximum, 55, 56, 58, 59, 60, 84, 85 m i n i m u m , 55, 56, 58, 59, 60, 84, 85 number, 5 2 - 5 6 , 6 1 , 84. 85, 86 variation parameters, 5 2 , 5 5 , 6 3 , 6 6 , 77, 84
Geometry of f o r m , 106, 107 Grinding machine, 129 Packing, 116 Parameter sensitivity, 122 Parts, 1 0 2 Pattern registration, 100 Pawl, 75 Perception, 130, 133 Petrol p u m p s , 8 3 Photocopier, 1 0 1 , 108, 114, 168 Physical d i v i s i o n , 7 4 Planes, 1 6 0 Pneumatic motors, 81 Precision, 196 Prices, 4 2 , 9 8 Process t e c h n i c i a n , 8 9 , 1 0 6 Product, design o f , 7 7 , 8 9 , 9 9 , 1 0 0 factors, 9 5 , 9 6 , 9 9 , 118 life of, 6, 9 5 , 9 6 properties o f 7, 9 5 , 9 7 , 143 quality of, 107, 108 synthesis, 8 , 9 , 1 4 , 2 1 , 9 5 , 186 weight, 116 Production, a s s e m b l y processes, 1 0 2 costs, 1 9 6 factors, 9 6 , 102 manufacture of parts, 102 Proportions, 157, 158 Psychological factors, 134
Input materials, 107, 108 installation, 125 Investment, 108 Irons, 119
Joints, 1 6 3 - 1 6 5
Machinery, 107, 108, 124, 125, 130 Maintenance o f machine, 125, 132 M a n u f a c t u r i n g p r o c e s s , 5, 6 , 6 6 , 7 5 , 7 6 , 7 8 , 8 4 , 8 9 , 1 0 2 , 106, 107, 109, 114, 138, 145, 147, 187, 196 economics o f . 1 1 1 , 113, 1 1 4 - 1 1 7 Market conditions, 116 Materials, 7, 1 3 , 8 4 , 9 0 , 9 7 , 9 9 , 1 0 0 , 1 0 2 , 1 0 5 , 1 1 0 , 1 1 1 , 113, 146, 1 5 1 , 195 M a x i m u m f u n c t i o n a l surfaces, 5 5 , 5 6 , 5 8 , 5 9 , 6 0 , 8 4 Microscope, 26, 27, 6 8 - 7 4 , 134, 150 M i n i m u m f u n c t i o n a l surfaces, 5 5 , 5 6 , 5 8 , 5 9 , 6 0 , 8 4 Models, 4 6 , 9 0 - 9 3 , 134, 140, 148, 147, 182, 186, 196, 203 Modules, 158 M o v e m e n t , 171
Recycling material, 139 Reliability,7, 122, 196 Repairs, 1 2 5 , 132 R h y t h m , 154, 155 Rigidity, 122, 196 Road rollers, 2 8 - 3 3
Noise, 1 2 6 , 141
S a f e t y , 7, 1 0 0 , 1 2 2 , 1 2 6 Sales, 9 6 , 1 1 6 Service p o l i c y , 9 9 , 1 3 2 S h a p e , see F o r m Society, 100 Solutions, 14, 1 5 , 2 1 , 2 2 , 28, 3 4 , 3 6 , 4 2 , 66, 9 5 , 140, 180 range o f , 3 4 Space, 4 2 , 6 0 , 9 2 , 117 Springs, 103 S p r i n k l e r valves, 6 1 Stability, 124, 169, 196
Index
Storing c o n d i t i o n s , 117 Strength, 122, 196 143 V a c u u m cleaners, 2 4 , 2 5 V a c u u m p u m p , 153 Valve, 3 Variation parameters, 52, 55, 63, 66, 77. 84 Vertical d r i l l . 153 V i b r a t i o n meter, 167 Visual balance, 1 5 1 - 1 5 3 , 160, Visual division, 74 186 197 S t r u c t u r e , 7, 8, 9 , 13, 19, 2 2 , 3 6 , 8 9 , 9 5 , 1 0 3 , basic, 3 9 , 4 0 , 4 2 , 4 4 , 4 8 , 1 7 9 , 1 8 0 , 1 9 6 , modelling, 46 quantified, 12, 2 1 , 22, 24, 26, 28, 3 4 - 4 4 , 4 6 - 4 8 , 6 8 , 191,194, 205, Style, 135 207 variation, 2 1 , 22, 24, 26, 36, 38, 42, 89 U n i t y , 144, 158, User, 1 1 8 187
207
Telephone, 93 Test t u b e f i l l i n g m a c h i n e , 4 6 , 4 7 , 5 6 , 5 7 , 5 8 , 5 9 , 6 0 , 9 2 . 121 Thread spindles, 113 Tolerance requirements, 107 Tools, 1 0 7 - 1 0 9 Transporting p r o d u c t , 116
Warehousing, 116, 117 W a t e r i n g cans, 8 2 Weight, 116, 132, 169, 170 Working posture, 123, 126