Brandon Costantino Eng202C

Subsurface Investigation: Seismic Refraction Method

Audience and Scope The following description of the seismic refraction method is intended for geotechnical engineers or anyone in the field of geology looking to broaden their knowledge of subsurface investigations. In order to get the most from the description, knowledge of soil classifications and their characteristics is imperative. Throughout this document, the process of the seismic refraction method is discussed, including the components needed to perform the method and limitations that can hinder its accuracy. By reading the description, you should have a good understanding of how the method works and whether or not it is applicable to your subsurface investigation. Overview In the field of geotechnical engineering, a subsurface investigation is often performed to obtain data about the underlying soil layers. It is important to know what lies beneath the surface to ensure it can support what will be placed above it. One of the most common investigation methods used by professionals is seismic refraction. The seismic refraction method involves measuring the travel time of seismic waves from the energy source to the ground motion sensors called geophones. An instrument known as a seismograph reads the raw data from the geophones where experts further interpret the data. From this data, many characteristics of the ground can be found, including the number of soil layers, the depth of the soil layers, and the depth to bedrock. By obtaining these important characteristics, engineers can take the next step into preparing the ground for overlaying structures. The Energy Source The first step in the seismic refraction method is the creation of the seismic waves. These waves can be created by a heavy impact on the ground or by explosion. The heavy impact involves placing a metal plate on the ground and slamming down on it with a hammer. A typical hammer and source plate is shown in figure 1. The explosion can be done using any form of explosives placed at ground level. By performing Figure 1. Source Plate and Hammer (Springston).

any of these two methods, seismic waves will be sent into the ground. Seismic Refraction The method of seismic refraction is made possible by the interaction between the seismic waves produced by the energy source and the underlying soil layers. When seismic waves pass through a new soil layer they refract, or bend, back up to the ground surface. This happens because, with each new layer of soil, a new density is encountered causing the waves to refract. Once refracted, the waves travel back up to the surface where they are captured by the strategically placed geophones (see fig. 2.).

Figure 2. (Geological Resources). The Geophones Geophones are a form of detectors that can capture ground waves and measure their data. A typical set of geophones is shown in figure 3. The geophones must be lined in a straight line and located at a distance 4 to 5 times greater than the depth of exploration from the energy source. They have the ability to measure the speed at which seismic waves travel, which is then used to determine the depths at which they refracted. The Seismograph When the geophones collect data from the seismic waves it is sent to a seismograph to be analyzed and interpreted by professionals. There are some key takeaways from the data that engineers are most interested in. First, it is important to determine how many layers of soil are present. This can be determined by examining the different number of velocity ranges picked up by the geophones. Each soil type has a known wave velocity range so if 4 different ranges are received then we know there are 4 different layers. Next, further examination of the velocity Figure 3. Geophones (Anderung).

ranges can show which types of layers are present. The two layers that are of most importance to find are water tables and bedrock. By knowing the soil layers present and the depths to water and bedrock, engineers can prepare a more accurate design for overlaying structures. Limitations Certain limitations must be kept in mind when considering the seismic refraction method. In order to receive the most accurate results, a few conditions of the soil must be met. First, the seismic velocities of the geological layers must increase with depth. This would be the case where you have a higher velocity layer (e.g. clay) over a lower velocity layer (e.g. sand or gravel). Second, the seismic velocity contrast between layers must be sufficient to resolve the interface. If you have many layers of soil that have similar seismic velocities then it will be difficult to differentiate between them when the data is received. Last, the dip of the layers must be less than 15 degrees. If the layers have a dip greater than 15 degrees, the seismic waves will be refracted at a distance further than that of the geophones. If the results of the seismic refraction method do not seem accurate or are not received at all, there is a good chance one of these conditions is present and another method must be explored. Conclusion Now that each step of the seismic refraction method has been addressed, lets look at how they each come together to yield a final result. An energy source linearly aligned with the geophones is released into the ground. The energy source creates seismic waves that pass through each layer of soil. When the waves pass through a layer, they are refracted back up to the surface where they are received by the geophones. The seismograph, connected to the geophones, reads these waves and produces a set of raw data. Professionals further analyze this data and the desired results are recorded. If there is reason to believe these results are inaccurate or incomplete, then the soil may not follow the necessary conditions and another method should be considered. By successfully completing the seismic refraction method, a geological profile can be completed and the site can be further prepped for design.

References Anderung, Letzte. Geophone Strings SM-6. Photograph. 2014. GFZ German Research Centre. GFZ Potsdam. Web. 26 Mar. 2014. Seismic Refraction Method. Photograph. Geologic Resources. Web. 25 Mar. 2014. Springston, George. Geological Surveying Methods Used in the Newbury Quadrangle. Photograph. 2000. Department of Environmental Conservation. Vermont Geological Survey. Web. 25 Mar. 2014.