CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT RECOMMENDATIONS FOR

LOWLAND ANOA (Bubalus depressicornis) IN SULAWESI

Abdul Haris Mustari1, Peter Jarman2

1
Department of Forest Resources Conservation and Ecotourism, Faculty of Forestry, Bogor
Agricultural University, PO Box 168, Bogor 16001, E-mail: haris.anoa@yahoo.com
2
Division of Ecosystem Management, University of New England, Armidale, NSW, Australia

ABSTRACT
Conservation issues related to anoas include illegal hunting, illegal logging and
cutting of trees, rattan collecting and forest encroachment. Management
recommendations should aim to conserve anoas in their natural habitats. This in-situ
conservation will benefit not only the target species or genus but also all species of
wildlife inhabiting the same rain forest. Gazetting areas of remaining suitable habitats of
anoas is needed, particularly areas of lowland rain forests that have the highest pressure
from people’s activities, such as converting the forests into settlements and plantations or
others anthropogenic environments. Stricter law enforcement should be imposed and the
Indonesian Environmental Act (Republik Indonesia 1990) should be applied in order to
stop illegal hunting and illegal logging; the authorities should apply the law and punish
people or groups convicted of breaking the law. Increasing awareness of the people is one
of the keys for conserving the endemic species and their habitats. Anoa in Tanjung
Amolengo were only seen more than 1 km from the settlement and roads indicating that
the animals avoid forests near this settlement and any anthropogenic environment.
Settlement on the boundary of a conserved area will reduce the capacity of that reserve to
support anoas. Thus, settlements on the boundary of reserves should be avoided.

INTRODUCTION

Despite anoa having been listed as an endangered species and hence being formally
protected by Indonesian law, the animals are still under the threats of hunting and habitat
loss that occur throughout Sulawesi and pressures on the habitat and population of anoas
are intensifying as the number of people inhabiting the island increases. People’s
activities have resulted in anthropogenic environments in areas that were formerly
inhabited by the animals. Habitats of lowland anoa include lowland rainforest, beach and
mangrove forests, although the animals also inhabit forests at higher altitude up to 900 m
above sea level. Having population ranges in lowland areas, the animals are facing
bigger threats since settlements and plantations are concentrated at low altitudes along the
coastal areas, which are also the main distribution ranges of lowland anoa. Therefore,
efforts are needed to stop and/or to minimize the negative impacts of people’s activity.
 Anoas need to be protected for many reasons. First, the two anoa species, lowland
and mountain anoa (Bubalus depressicornis and B. quarlesi), have been protected in
Indonesia since 1931 and are listed as endangered species by IUCN (2006). The animals
are also listed on Appendix I of CITES, meaning that it is illegal to catch, kill or trade the
animals. Second, anoa are endemic to Sulawesi; wild populations of anoa can only be
found on the island, where they are at risk of extinction if the remaining populations are
exterminated either by human activities in altering and/or destroying the animals’
preferred habitats or by natural disasters such as volcanic eruptions and earthquakes, both
of which could lead to local extinction of anoas. Third, although anoas inhabit a wide
range of habitats, ranging from lowland to mountain forests, they prefer primary rain
forests, which are diminishing throughout the island, rather than secondary forest of
modified habitats. Fourth, anoas occur at very low densities, indicating that vast suitable
forested areas are needed to conserve viable populations. Despite anoas being the
smallest of the living buffalo species, they are the largest of Sulawesi’s endemic
ungulates; they need a relatively wide forested area to preserve a viable population.
Finally, the two anoa species have become fauna mascots and are flagships for
conservation in Sulawesi.

This study aims to address conservation issues associated with lowland anoa such
as hunting, logging and rattan collecting, settlement encroaching into the forests, and lack
of people’s awareness for conserving the habitat and populations of the animals. These
conservation problems stem from the lack of law enforcement in implementing the
existing Environmental Acts. By recognizing the conservation issues affecting the
lowland anoa, strategies for better management of lowland anoas are proposed. aa
The data used in formulating these management recommendations are based on
previously reported information on anoa, ecological information on anoa generated from
this study, and information gathered from the local people during AHM’s study in the
region in the last nine years (since 1994). Conservation issues and management
recommendations that will be addressed in this chapter are primarily aimed at conserving
lowland anoas. However, many other wildlife species sharing the rain forest with
lowland anoa, such as mountain anoa, babirusa, Sulawesi warty pig, seven of Sulawesi’s
endemic macaques and other endemic species, will also be protected by their
implementation.
 CONSERVATION ISSUES ASSOCIATED WITH LOWLAND ANOA
Illegal hunting
Anoa are hunted mainly for their meat, which is said to taste similar to the meat of
water buffaloes. Although anoa horns are apparently not the main reason for their being
hunted, the horns are appreciated as trophies, as can be seen in houses of the locals.

The animals are hunted using traditional methods, such as hunting with the
assistance of dogs, using spears and setting leg-snares. Another method is to set up sharp-
tipped bamboo stakes, 0.7-1.0 m high, along the natural paths of the animals in the forests
and surrounding the plantations. However, leg snares are preferred by the locals since
they require minimum effort to catch the target animals and are difficult for the forest
guards to detect.

The snares were set up along the natural paths of the animals, around wallowing
sites and springs, and on forest borders targeting animals coming out from the forests at
night looking for food such as crops, young leaves and the new sprouts of undergrowth
that has been recently cut by the farmers. As the leg snares are non-selective, any of the
forest ungulates passing the snares, such anoa, Babirusa, Rusa deer and Sulawesi warty
pig, may be captured. As an example of the intensity of snare-setting, during this study
fifteen snares were found around the small feeding ground of Tanjung Amolengo in 1
visit
Nevertheless, it was quite difficult to assess numbers of anoas hunted by the locals
since they know that the animals are protected by Indonesian law. Thus, it was also
difficult to track anoa meat entering the traditional markets because of people’s fear of
punishment for engaging in this illegal hunting. The meat is usually sold door to door in
the villages or the meat is simply shared in the community.
The only possible mean of recording the hunting of anoas was by checking the
animals’ skulls owned by villagers, which were usually hung on the walls of their houses
as trophies. However, numbers of anoa skulls recorded in the villages very often do not
reflect the real rate of hunting the animals since most of the anoa captured were not
reported to the authorities and many of the skulls were hidden by the locals since they
knew that anoa are protected (Mustari, personal observation). That most of the anoas
killed were not reported to the authorities has also been admitted by La Ondu (personal
communication), a veteran Forest Ranger in Tanjung Amolengo.
The limited previous studies on anoa hunting in Central Sulawesi showed a catch
rate of 1.5 anoa per village per year (Kasim 2000). Kasim also reported that in his study
area a total of 161 skulls were observed and 443 anoas (based on the skulls) had been
killed over a 40-year period.
In Morowali Nature Reserve (225,000 ha), which is in the eastern coast of Central
Sulawesi, Alvard (2000) reported that from January 1, 1995 to March 31, 1996 (455
days), the Wana People, the hunter-gatherers of the uplands in this region, captured 9
anoas, 57 Sulawesi warty pigs, 3 Sulawesi black macaques and 1 Rusa deer. For Wana,
Sulawesi warty pig and anoa play an important role in their diet; wild pigs and anoa
provided 58% and 40% by weight respectively, of the bush meat they hunted (Alvard
2000). Despite anoas being taken in smaller numbers than wild pigs by the Wana, they
contributed disproportionately to the harvest because of their larger size (Alvard 2000).
Burton, Hedges and Mustari (2005) reported that, of 14 hunters that were
questioned by them, the majority hunted occasionally, killing between one and ten anoas
each over the last five years. They also reported that five of the hunters sold the meat,
while the others consumed it in the forest or within the local community.
A total of 23 anoa skulls have been collected and inspected by me in Amolengo
village and its surrounding area. The oldest skull was that of an anoa captured by the
people in 1972 and the newest individual was an anoa captured in 2002. This number of
anoa killed by the villagers, however, is the minimum since many of the animals captured
were not reported to the authorities.
AHM’s personal observation in Tanjung Amolengo and its surrounding areas
revealed that hunting with firearms was being conducted (especially during the dry
season) by some of the police and military personnel whose base was 40 km away from
the reserve. They usually hunted in groups of 3-5 people, using cars at night along the
village roads between 12:00h midnight and 05:00 h am. Their targets included anoa, Rusa
deer and wild pig, since they were from several different religions and included Moslems,
Christians and Hindus. Among the three ungulates, Sulawesi warty pigs were the easiest
to capture or kill by this method since the animals were less secretive than the ruminants.
In each hunting trip, on average 3-5 wild pigs and 1 Rusa deer might be captured, and
anoas were occasionally killed by these opportunistic hunters.
Hunting with a group of 15-20 people using nets was just recently introduced by
Balinese transmigrants whose settlement is about 60 km from Tanjung Amolengo. They
used a truck traveling along the village’s roads in search of wild pigs, which usually came
out from the forest immediately after dusk visiting sago stands, swampy areas,
plantations and secondary forests alongside the roads. The wild pigs were easily found
by the hunters, feeding on fibre and/or remnants of sago starch, tubers or bulbs of the
crops. The tools used by the hunters were very simple, and included nets, torches,
machetes and wooden poles/sticks for setting the nets. Nets about 40 m long and 1 m
high were set up in the sago swamps and, after detecting the presence of the animals
within the area, the hunters drove the pigs into the net where the animals were cornered;
then the wild pigs were captured alive. At least 30 wild pigs could be captured per night.
The live wild pigs then were transported to Kendari, the nearest city, to be sold to the pig
dealers. The dealers then transported the live animals either to Surabaya in East Java or
to Central and North Sulawesi where people are predominantly Christian.
Unlike in the northern part of the island, hunters in Southeast Sulawesi are mainly
not professional hunters, since they are mostly farmers and mostly captured the forest
ungulates while working in their plantations. By contrast, in northern Sulawesi hunting
the larger forest mammals, including babirusa, anoa, Sulawesi warty pig and Sulawesi
black macaque, has become more commercialized (Clayton 1996).
Forest encroachment
There are no data available on the deforestation rate on Sulawesi, although the
deforestation rate for the whole country is 1.7 million hectares per year from a total
forested area of 120 million hectares (World Bank 2001). As any other part on the
country, Sulawesi Island is facing a high rate of deforestation. The key conservation areas
on Sulawesi, such as Rawa Aopa Watumohai, Lore Lindu and Bogani-Nani Warta Bone
National Parks which are in the south-east, central and north of the island, are no longer
safe ‘homes’ for anoa and others of Sulawesi’s endemic species because of illegal
hunting and habitat loss caused by the forest encroachments. Gold mining has been the
major threat to habitat of anoa in Bogani Nani Warta Bone National Park (287,100 ha),
while forest encroachments and illegal cutting have been threatening Lore Lindu National
Park (231,000 ha). An area of about 4,000 ha in the wilderness zone of Lore Lindu
National Park in Dongi-Dongi forest block has been clear-cut recently (2000) and is now
occupied by about 1500 families from nearby areas. Although the cleared area was only
about 2% of the park, the illegal settlers are still encroaching further into the park and
doing other illegal activities such as logging and hunting.
Significant habitat loss is happening in Rawa Aopa-Watumohai National Park
(105,000 ha) where about one-third of the park in Ladongi area has been cleared by
people mainly coming from South Sulawesi province planting cocoa and cashewnut in
the last ten years (Mustari, personal observation).
Another example of encroachment of settlement upon a wildlife reserve was in
Tanjung Peropa where, of 194.7 km length of its border, less than 20 km could be
controlled by the Forest Rangers. An area of about 100 ha was encroached upon in
Tambeanga in 2000 by a group of 20 people coming from Kolaka Regency, which is in
the northern part of the province, intending to grow crops of clove, coffee and maize.
Fortunately, their activities were detected by the rangers; thus their illegal activity could
be stopped and the people were chased out of the forest. However, as they were still
around the forest borders, establishing their simple houses there, these people are still
potentially cutting trees and encroaching upon the reserve since the Forest Rangers (only
two Rangers were in Tambeanga) rarely patrol the forest to check illegal activities. In the
same year (2000), forest around Molinese spring, which is the most important water
source in Kalobo forest, was cut by the locals, threatening the permanent spring that has
been used by the people as drinking water.

Illegal cutting of trees and rattan collecting

Illegal cutting of tree
Both legal and illegal logging have long been destroying habitats of anoa and
other endemic species living in the rain forests. Legal logging is defined as logging done
by forest concession holders (who have permits from the authorities), while illegal
logging is logging done by individuals or groups of people without permits from the
authorities, both in protected and unprotected forests. A total of 49 forest concession
holders have been exploiting 3,047,037 ha (Ditjen PHPA 1996) of rain forest on
Sulawesi, while conservation areas including wildlife reserves, nature reserves and
national parks combined only cover 1,488,696 ha (Ditjen PHPA 1996). Forest concession
holders have been exploiting the rain forest during the last thirty years; and most of the
exploited forests are below 700 m above sea level, and these are the main suitable
habitats for lowland anoa.

Rattan collecting
The most common undergrowth community in Sulawesi’s rain forest is the thorny
palm, rattan Calamus spp. For example, 22 rattan species have been recorded in Tanjung
Peropa Wildlife Reserve (Mustari, personal observation). No data are available on rattan
harvesting throughout the island, although local examples of rattan collecting were
briefly observed in Tanjung Peropa. Rattan harvesting occurs throughout Sulawesi’s rain
forest and to some extent has affected habitats of the wildlife; yet this forest commodity
has played an important role in the local econo. Thus, a brief local example of this
activity is given in this section. Rattan collecting is illegal in protected forests including
wildlife reserves, nature reserves, recreational forests and national parks.
Rattan species that were usually harvested were rattans yielding good prices in the
market such as Calamus zollingeri, Calamus inops, and an undescribed Calamus species.
In Tanjung Peropa, people collecting rattans usually left their homes early in the morning
at 05:00 h and arrived in the forest at 08:00 h and then started cutting the rattans,
continuing till 13:00 h and then returning homes at 14:00h. When entering the forest,
they formed groups of 5-7 people, although each of them collected and sold rattans
individually. However, in areas where forests for collecting rattans were far from the
villages, the rattan collectors usually spent four weeks in the forest staying in simple
shelters at nights; this was done by the rattan collectors in the upper Paguyaman River
and Boliyohuto Mountain in North Sulawesi (Mustari, personal observation).
The rattans were cut into 6 m lengths, then 8-10 cut rattans were bundled and tied
together. The rattans then were drag down the rivers (0.5-1 m depth) to the rivers’ mouths
near the beaches where rattan traders were waiting. During the study, 50 and 30 rattan
collectors were operating in Amolengo and Batu Mati catchment areas respectively. If
each of them could collect 80-120 kg per day (as I estimate), at least 4.0 and 2.4 ton of
rattans were extracted every day in the catchment areas. The rattans were sold for Rp
100,000 (Aus$ 20) per 100 kg in the villages. The rattan collecting occurred not only in
these two catchment areas, but also in Roda, Ulu Sena and Tambeanga catchment areas.
The stem of the rattan will die after the cutting. However as most of the rattan
species form clumps, which are similar to bamboos, new individual stems will grow
replacing the old ones. Normally, there are only one or two old stems (length varies from
10-50 m depending on the species) that are old and long enough to be harvested in each
clump. A clump can be harvested every six months as new stems get old enough to be
suitable for the next rattan harvest. Therefore, the rattan collectors repeatedly use certain
forest blocks (mainly riverine and lowland forests) for the rattan harvesting; yet as the
intensity of the harvesting increases as well as the increasing number of people involved
in this activity, new rattans in the clumps are no longer old enough to be harvested in a
sustainable way and this has forced the rattan collectors to move to other forest blocks,
widening their harvesting areas. This is likely to increase pressure on the habitat of the
anoa.
The rattan collecting causes negative impacts on habitats and populations of
wildlife species. First, people entering the forest for collecting rattans will disturb elusive
animals such as anoas; the animals will move from the rattan sites. Second, the people
make paths and gain familiarity with the forest, both of which may increase the
probability that they or other people may enter those parts of the forest that affect the
wildlife. Third, not only rattans are cut off, but so are the trees that support them. Such
tree-cutting further affects the quality and quantity of the habitats of the anoa.
Additionally, extraction of the rattans reduces coverage of the undergrowth community,
increasing the risk of surface erosion in the forests; in the long term that would reduce
quality of the habitats.
To some extent, rattan harvesting would promote growth of the undergrowth
community, especially herbs and other lianas such as Merremia peltata; yet the negative
impacts of rattan harvesting upon the habitat and population of the secretive animals are
much worse. As mentioned above, the removal of rattans would decrease cover for the
animals; trees up which rattans climb are also removed; and the increasing number of
people entering the forest building temporary shelters (especially those who spend weeks
in the forest) affect the wildlife. During their stay in the forests, these rattan collectors
very often do other illegal activities such as illegal cutting of trees and poaching.
 MANAGEMENT RECOMMENDATIONS FOR LOWLAND ANOA

These management recommendations for lowland anoas are aimed to conserve this
endangered species in its natural range in rain forest on Sulawesi; i.e. they promote in-
situ conservation. This kind of conservation should be given priority since many
institutions in the country including the zoos (Ragunan Zoo, Surabaya Zoo and Taman
Safari Indonesia) (Manansang et al. 1996), local universities and individual animal
scientists in Sulawesi (Mustari, personal observation) favour and have proposed ex-situ
conservation for anoa; i.e. conserving the animals outside of their natural habitats. One of
the main advantages of in-situ conservation is that, not only will it protect one species
with very low numbers of individuals, but it will also protect the whole of that species’
wild population and, more importantly, the whole wildlife community of species and
their habitats in the rain forest.

This study showed that lowland anoas in the study sites are still capable of
producing healthy young in the wild, indicating that the major threats to conservation of
anoas are not ones of reproductive and breeding failure, but are ones that arise from loss
of suitable habitats, habitat fragmentation and illegal hunting. Thus habitat and
population management for lowland anoa should be put into a context of conserving the
rain forest and providing suitable reserves for anoa covering many habitat types ranging
from mangrove forest to forests at high altitudes.

The following management recommendations include stricter law enforcement,

gazettal of remaining suitable habitats of anoas, conducting an island-wide survey of
distribution and population abundance of anoas, and increasing people’s awareness of the
need to conserve the rain forest upon which anoas and other wildlife species rely.

Relevance of the study’s findings

This study has added to our understanding of the ecology of lowland anoas,
including their population density, distribution among habitat types, habitat occupancy,
sociality and behaviour, their food plants in their natural habitats, the proportions of
different food plants eaten by the animals, seasonal changes in their diet,
similarity/dissimilarity of diets among the forest ungulates, and food intake of anoas in
captivity. All of these study’s findings will contribute significantly to a management plan
for anoas in their natural habitats. These study’s findings are as follow:
Lowland anoas occur at low density- Previous studies (Syam 1977; Lee 2000;
Riley 2001a, 2001b) and this study revealed that anoas live at low densities (0.9-1.1
anoas/km2 in the studied sites), indicating that a large area is needed to conserve a viable
population. Although it is not known yet how many anoa individuals are needed for a
viable population in a conservation area, the fact that the animals occur at very low
density suggests that large forested areas are needed in order to conserve them and
prevent inbreeding. For example, a population of 500 anoas would require an area of
about 500 km2 or 50,000 ha. This is larger than Tanjung Peropa Reserve.
Lowland anoas occupy many habitat types-The animals inhabit a wide range of
forested habitat types, ranging from mangrove forest, through beach forest, and lowland
forest, and rocky-lowland forest, to mountain forest, in altitude from the seashore to the
top of the mountains. These diverse habitat types provide food sources, water, wallowing
sites and cover for the animals. These habitat types complement each other in providing
these resources. Food plants and water sources such as rivers, water holes, springs, and
wallowing sites are found mainly in the lowland and riverine forests. Bamboo forest is
also important in providing food since anoas consume young leaves and shoots of the
bamboos, which also provide cover for anoas. Mineral sources and food plants can be
found in the mangrove and beach forests. The animals take refuge in the rocky-lowland
forests in caves and in rocky-cliffs forests, which are rarely entered by local people
because of their rugged terrain. Therefore an uninterrupted set of habitats ranging from
mangrove and beach forests to forests at high altitude and in mountainous areas needs to
be considered in any management plan for anoa.
Lowland anoas do not show strong seasonal movements between forest types-
This indicates that anoa can be found all year round in any of the habitat types in the
reserves. This implies that anoas utilize all of these habitat types for their population
ranges in getting their daily needs such as food plants, drinking water, wallowing sites
and for traveling and interacting socially. Thus ideally the full set of forested habitats
should be conserved in reserves. This finding also means that surveys can be conducted
at any time of year with similar chances of detecting anoas.
 Lowland anoas show local mobility-The animals are mobile within their
population ranges, foraging, traveling and engaging in social relationship. At night, anoas
may come out of the reserve searching for food plants in the forest edges and sometimes
in the plantations. This makes anoas vulnerable to capture even by passive hunters who
set up snares along the forest borders and in plantations close to the forests. Therefore,
frequent patrolling by Forest Rangers is needed not only in the forest itself, but also along
forest edges and even in plantations.
Lowland anoas are water-dependent animals - Anoas need water every day for
drinking and wallowing. Distribution of the animals is associated with closeness to water
sources such as rivers, springs, water holes, and wallowing sites particularly during the
dry season. The animals frequently visited these water sources, both by day and by night,
as indicated by direct sightings and indirect signs such foot-prints and dung of anoas
found around water sources. As in their wild habitats, the captive anoas studied needed
drinking water during the day and at night. Also in the zoo, the animals wallowed in
pools during the hot hours. That the animals are water-dependent indicates that water
sources in wildlife reserves and other protected areas need to be conserved and salt licks
that are frequented by forest ungulates should be protected from forest encroaching and
logging.
Lowland anoas display solitary behaviour-The solitary nature of anoas means
that the animals maintain a relatively constant social distance, avoiding big congregations
at certain sites such as water holes, wallowing sites, and feeding ground. This is different
from the sociality of water buffalo, for example, which may form herds of 30-500
animals that gather at the same nightly resting area (Tulloch 1978). The solitary
behaviour of anoas prevents them from over-using the resources, which might be an
adaptation to the fragile ecosystem of the rain forest.
Lowland anoas use regular paths-This study revealed that anoa regularly used
paths connecting habitat components such as feeding sites, wallowing sites and water
holes, and cover; and this makes them vulnerable to be captured by hunters using snares.
The hunters usually take advantage of this behaviour by following the paths. Therefore,
Forest Rangers and park/wildlife reserve managers should concentrate on patrolling the
key habitat components for anoa such as water holes, springs, wallowing sites and the
paths that are frequented by the animals.
 Lowland anoas are browsers- The Anoa’s diet covers a wide variety of food
plants including dicots, monocots, ferns and fruits, which are available from the
mangrove forest to the forest at high altitude, indicating that all of the habitat types are
important as food sources for anoa. The chief foods of the animals were dicotyledonous
plants, which constituted more than 70% of their diets. This suggests that anoa do not
need feeding grounds that are dominated by grasses and other monocot species. The
animals’ diets included monocots, yet the monocots were mainly bamboos and sedges
that grow in forest gaps and forest edges, not on the feeding grounds.
Artificially creating tree-cleared, grassy, feeding grounds within the protected
areas, as is sometimes proposed by the authorities to conserve anoas, will benefit only the
deer, not anoas; I do not recommend that this should be done. The two small feeding
grounds in Tanjung Amolengo that are frequented by forest ungulates are natural feeding
grounds. Lowland anoas visit these sites because they provide wallowing sites and water
holes, since the feeding grounds, situated at the lowest parts of the reserves, are
frequently inundated, particularly during the rainy season. For the anoas, the water
sources are more interesting than the grasses on the feeding grounds, while for the deer
the grasses and sedges are important since the deer are mainly grazers instead of being
browsers like the anoas. For the omnivorous Sulawesi warty pigs, the feeding grounds are
used both as food sources (where they eat grasses and sedges including their stems and
roots) and as wallowing sites, as well as water sources.
Lowland anoas’ diets include many species of fruits- This study also revealed
that the anoas’ diets included many species of fruits, which formed 22% of the diet of
anoa in Kalobo forest in Tanjung Peropa Wildlife Reserve. This implies that fruit-
bearing trees such as figs Ficus spp., Diospyros malabarica, Pangium edule, Artocarpus
sp., Dracontomelon mangiferum, Parkia roxburghii, Kjellbergiodendron celebicum, and
Dillenia ochreata are important as food sources for anoas. However, the animals
repeatedly visited the fruiting trees, making them vulnerable to capture by hunters who
know the habits of the animals. Thus, frequent patrols should be made around the trees,
removing and destroying the snares set up by hunters under the trees.

Lowland anoas are ecologically separated from sympatric ungulates. Although

Rusa deer can be found coexisting with the endemic ungulates in many parts of Sulawesi,
the deer are mainly found where they have access to open grassland and in relatively flat
areas. The three forest ungulates have different diets: anoa and Rusa deer are ruminant
herbivores, while Sulawesi warty pigs are monogastric omnivores. Although anoa and
Rusa deer are ruminants, they have different food plants and habitat preferences; anoas’
food plants are predominantly dicots while the deer prefer monocots; anoas occur mainly
in the primary forests while the deer occupy grasslands, secondary forests and forest
borders. Moreover, anoa could be found in the rocky-cliff lowland forests, which are not
suitable for the deer. Anoas are ecologically separated from Sulawesi warty pigs by their
distinct diets. Therefore there is no reason to cull either deer or pigs in order to conserve
anoas.
Lowland anoas avoid forest near settlement- Anoas showed a trend towards
being seen far from settlements and modified habitats (more than 1 km in Tanjung
Amolengo) indicating that settlement on the boundary of a conserved area will reduce the
capacity of that reserve to support anoas. Thus, settlements and other modified habitats
such as roads and plantations, on the boundary of reserves should be avoided.

Protect anoa from hunting

Lack of law enforcement is the biggest conservation problem on the island.
Clayton (1996) and Lee (2000) claimed that conservation problems in North Sulawesi
stem mainly from hunting, so management should resolve to deter such activities through
effective law enforcement. For law enforcement, patrols by Forest Rangers of BKSDA
(Natural Resources Conservation Bureau of the Ministry of Forestry) in collaboration
with local police should be given the first priority. Regular patrols should be performed
along existing trails to catch hunters and their hunting tools such as traps and snares.
Focal points for anoas, such as springs, wallowing sites and riverine forests and forest-
plantation borders, should regularly be patrolled, since these points are used by poachers
to capture anoas and other wildlife using snares. All snares found in the forests should be
destroyed or removed from the forests and poachers encountered must be arrested and
charged in court, and realistic fines should be imposed. The fines should be set to deter
hunters from committing future illegal activities. Collaboration with the military police
should be developed in cases in which military personnel are involved in these illegal
activities.
Protecting suitable habitats for anoa
Any remaining rain forests that are still inhabited by viable populations of
lowland anoas should be gazetted as wildlife reserves or national parks. Forest areas that
have been poorly managed by forest concession holders, such as in Asera, Abuki and
Kolaka regions in the northern part of Southeast Sulawesi province, but that are still
inhabited by anoas and other endemic species of the island, should be protected as soon
as possible before being further destroyed by the logging companies or being encroached
upon by the local transmigrants aiming to grow crops such as cocoa and cashewnut.
Primary rain forests that could be proposed as protected areas for the animals might still
be found in Gorontalo and Central Sulawesi provinces. Surveys to identify primary rain
forests containing anoas should be undertaken as a matter of urgency.

Conducting an island-wide population survey

Very little is known about the population densities and distributions of anoa both
in protected and unprotected areas. A general map of recent distribution of anoa on the
island has been prepared by Burton, Hedges and Mustari (2005) but it is only based on
presence/absence records of anoa within protected areas. An island-wide survey of
population distribution and population density of anoa is urgently needed as basic
ecological data for management planning for the animals, and to target future
management most effectively.
This project has shown that repeated patrolling of transects traversing several
habitats, undertaken by observers trained to identify anoa faeces, forms a cheap yet
reliable technique for gathering data on local distribution and relative density of anoa
(and similar forest ungulates). Such a technique could be developed as the basis for the
island-wide survey. The survey could be conducted by BKSDA staff in collaboration
with wildlife ecologists and/or biologists of the local universities.

Environmental education and training

People on Sulawesi are unaware that the rain forests and their ecosystem are
invaluable natural heritage that should be protected. Increasing the awareness of people
regarding the importance of the rain forest and its biodiversity, particularly of the
endangered species, is needed. The local universities and conservation-oriented NGOs in
collaboration with BKSDA offices should facilitate environmental education targeting
community groups, religious leaders, local teachers, youth and groups of those people
who frequently enter the forests, extracting forest products such as rattans and doing
illegal activities such as cutting trees and establishing cultivation that encroaches upon
the forests. In many parts of the island, informal leaders such as the religious leaders are
more respected than are the formal leaders of the government. Thus, involving the
religious leaders and their traditional institutions, such mosques and churches, in the
environmental education and conservation efforts would be a pivotal tactic.
The education should emphasize and convey messages to the locals that tangible
forest products such as timber are not the only values, but that forests also have intangible
values such as their role in protecting watersheds that prevent villages, towns or cities
downriver from the disasters of flooding during the rainy season and drought during the
dry season. Clean rivers are maintained by intact rain forest and the rivers are important
as water sources for village households and for irrigation of agriculture alongside the
rivers.
For example, people in Amolengo and Langgapulu use a spring in the forest as a
source for drinking water and water for household use. People in Tambeanga use springs
in the forest for their daily life. Other springs that supply water for people include
waterfalls in Moramo and Woru Woru both of which are located in Tanjung Peropa. The
latter spring has supplied fresh water for ships and boats of fishermen in Kendari Bay for
many decades. Clean air surrounding the forests is another product of healthy forests. So
far people have taken for granted this invaluable commodity and it should be explained to
people that destroying forests will affect their own health and that the social cost of a
polluted environment will be very high.
Other non-timber forest products include bee-honey and medicinal plants, which
are important in generating income for the local people. A middle-size comb of the
honey-bee (Apis spp.) can produce as many as 40 jars (each 600 ml) of honey. A 600-ml
jar of bee-honey sells for at least Rp 25,000 (Aus$ 5) in the villages. Thus a medium-size
comb is worth at least Rp 1,000,000 (Aus$200), which is a good price for people living in
the villages. In this region honey-bees produce combs twice a year. At least four families
in Amolengo have been making a living from harvesting bee-honey from the reserves. In
Indonesia, the harvesting of bee-honey is illegal in the wildlife reserves and nature
reserves, but is legal in protection forests and in the buffer zones of national parks.
Additionally, the rain forests that are inhabited by many endemic species of flora
and fauna, such as anoa, babirusa, Sulawesi black macaque and hundreds of species of
birds, could be developed as ecotourism ventures in which the locals could actively
participate. Such ecotourism ventures could benefit local people who could provide
home-stays, and act as local guides and porters for the tourists. Since local people will
benefit from the protected forests, they will actively participate in protecting the forests.
Thus, the responsibility for conserving wildlife species and their habitats will be shared
by the authorities and the locals. The more benefit (in sustainable ways) the locals can get
from the forest, the more responsibility they can share with the authorities particularly
with the Forest Rangers who are directly guarding the protected forests.
Educational materials, such audio-visual equipment, pamphlets, leaflets, booklets,
and posters, could be used for environmental education. These education materials could
be provided by the government or by local NGOs in collaboration with the government.
Short training sessions and interactive discussions addressing the importance of forests
and wildlife should involve the local teachers, religious leaders and community groups.
This training could be facilitated by the government or by the local NGOs in
collaboration with the local governments.
Lack of skill and experience of the Forest Rangers and BKSDA staffs has become
a limiting factor for conservation of protected areas. Forest Rangers should be given
basic training in identifying, surveying, monitoring and reporting of wildlife and more
specifically of the endemic species such as anoas. This training could be provided by the
local universities in collaboration with the Ministry of Forestry.

Domestic and feral animals

Introduction of domestic animals such as cattle into reserves will reduce the quality
of the habitats and might also transmit diseases to populations of wild ungulates.
Domestic animals compete with the forest ungulates for food, space, cover and other
resources such as water.
Domestic water buffalo and other livestock should not be released into
conservation areas. Strict regulation and realistic fines should be imposed on people
encountered deliberately releasing their domestic animals into the forests. Regular patrols
should be performed by the Forest Rangers to ensure that domestic animals do not enter
the protected areas containing anoas and other forest ungulates that would be susceptible
to parasites and diseases transmitted by the domestic and feral animals.
Planting multipurpose trees
Illegal cutting of trees in protected forests can be stopped or be steadily reduced by
promoting multipurpose tree planting outside the forests, using species such as teak
Tectona grandis and Vitex cofasus (Verbenaceae), Michelia campaka (Bignoniaceae) and
Antocephalus macrophyllus (Rubiaceae) which are known to grow successfully on the
island. However, as the villagers’ gardens/plantations are intended for growing crops
such as maize, cassava, sweet potato, cashewnut, coconut, coffee and cacao, the multi-
purpose trees should be planted at the periphery of the plantations or be planted on
marginal lands that are not suitable for crops; these are usually occupied by sword grass.
Seeds of Vitex, Michelia and Antocephalus are abundant in the reserves and can be easily
collected by the villagers while teak seeds can be collected from teak provenance sites,
such as on Muna Island, which is very close to Sulawesi mainland.

By planting such trees, pressures on protected areas from illegal cutting should
slowly be reduced or even stopped and the locals would have an alternative, legal source
of timber. Furthermore, branches, twigs and waste of these trees can be used as
firewood. Although the trees need a long time to be harvested, they are actually green
savings for the villagers; trees that are planted today will become the timber source for
the villagers’ next generation.

CONCLUSION

Anoa are still hunted throughout Sulawesi by people using traditional methods
such as leg snares, hunting with spears with the assistance of dogs or setting sharp-tipped
bamboo stakes along the natural paths of the animals. Some anoas are also at risk of
being shot. Loss of suitable habitat for anoas through illegal and/or legal logging by
forest concession holders, and encroachment of settlements into forest, is continuing to
reduce both quality and quantity of habitat for this endangered species. Habitat and
population management for anoas should be undertaken with the aim of conserving the
animals in their natural habitats; such in-situ conservation would benefit anoas and all
wildlife species that share habitat and resources with the anoa. Our management
recommendations include stricter law enforcement, gazettal of remaining suitable habitats
of anoas, conducting an island-wide survey of distribution and population abundance of
anoas, and increasing people’s awareness of the need to conserve the rain forest upon
which anoas and other wildlife species rely.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Financial supports for this study were provided by the Australian Development
Scholarship (ADS) and Edinburgh Zoo. I would like to thank the appreciation and
interest of the staff of the Bureau of Natural Resources Conservation (KSDA) of Kendari.
This study would never have been completed without the assistance of many people in
the forests, especially La Tie, Ahmad S.Si., Pak La Uno, Pak Kadir, Pak Sungkono, Antu,
Engu, Idar and Tia for their help and for spending unforgettable days and nights in camps
deep in the rain forests during the field work.

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