How To Analyze Gear Failures

T To UAnalyze T Gear O Failures R I How
(continued)
by Robert Errichello
How To Analyze Gear Failures

Failure Conditions
When gears fail, there may be incentive to repair or replace failed components quickly and return the gear system to service. However, because gear failures provide valuable data that may help prevent future failures, a systematic inspection procedure should be followed before repair or replacement begins. The failure investigation should be planned carefully to preserve evidence. The specific approach can vary depending on when and where the inspection is made, the nature of the failure, and time constraints. mine when and how to conduct an analysis. It is best to shut down a failing gearbox as soon as possible to limit damage. To preserve evidence, carefully plan the failure investigation and conduct in-situ inspections and plan to become involved in gearbox removal, transport, storage, and disassembly. If the gears are damaged but still functional, the company may decide to continue operation and monitor damage progression. In this case, be certain to become involved in establishing the gear system monitoring process. In most applications, inspection and monitoring include visual inspection and temperature, sound, and vibration measurements. Additionally, for critical applications, nondestructive inspection of the gears (e.g., magnetic particle inspection) should ensure the absence of cracks before operation is continued. Before the system is restarted, be certain to collect samples of lubricant for analysis, drain and flush lubricant reservoirs, and replace the lubricant. Examine the oil filter for wear debris
Class/Mode: Bending fatigue/high-cycle/tooth end cracks Definition: High cycle fatigue with cracks at end of teeth Morphology: Crack origin at end of teeth Cause: Misalignment. Stress concentration, flaws, or low fatigue strength at ends of teeth Remedy: Improve alignment. Avoid stress concentration and flaws. Increase fatigue strength.
When and Where Ideally, the analyst should visit the site and inspect failed components as soon after failure as possible. If an early inspection is not possible, someone at the site must preserve the evidence based on instructions from the analyst. Getting Started The failure conditions can deter-
and contaminants, and inspect magnetic plugs for wear debris.
Time Constraints The high cost of shutdown frequently limits time available for inspection. Such cases call for careful planning. Dividing tasks between two or more analysts may reduce time required and provide varied insight into the failure analysis task. In most
Class/Mode: Overload/brittle fracture Definition: Fracture by rapid crack propagation without appreciable plastic deformation Morphology: Bright, flat, granular surface. Scanning electron microscopy shows cleavage facets or intergranular facets. Cause: Stress intensity (tensile stress and flaw size) exceeds fracture toughness. Remedy: Increase toughness. Avoid flaws and shock loads. Reduce tensile stress.
Class/Mode: Overload/ductile fracture Definition: Fracture by tearing of metal with appreciable plastic deformation Morphology: Gray, fibrous surface with shear lips. Scanning electron microscopy shows shear dimples. Cause: High load, low yield strength, or both. Remedy: Reduce load. Increase yield strength.
Class/Mode: Overload/mixed-mode fracture Definition: Fracture by both cleavage and microvoid coalescence. Morphology: Surface exhibits both ductile and brittle characteristics. Cause: High load, low yield strength, or low fracture toughness. Remedy: Reduce load. Increase yield strength. Increase fracture toughness.
Excerpted from Gear Failure Analysis: A Textbook for the Gear Failure Analyst, used in the GEARTECH seminar Gear Failure Analysis and Troubleshooting. Photographs reprinted from Gear Failure Atlas (GEARTECH, 1999). Text and photographs used with permission from GEARTECH.
Volume 2(6) December 2002
Practical Failure Analysis
cases the old saying time is money is worth remembering.
Prepare for Inspection

Before visiting the failure site, the analyst should interview a contact person and explain the failure analysis process and outline specific needs. Work to develop a good relationship with the contact person, avoid any perception that you might be attempting to place blame, and emphasize the need to inspect the gearbox, interview personnel, examine equipment, and assess working conditions. A skilled technician should be requested to disassemble the equipment under the direction of the analyst. However, if safety permits, it is best if no work is done on the gearbox until the analyst arrives. This means no disassembly, cleaning, or draining oil. Other wise, a well-meaning technician could inadvertently destroy evidence. Emphasize that failure investigation is different from a gearbox rebuild, and the disassembly process may reveal significant facts to a trained observer. Verify that gearbox drawings, disassembly tools, and adequate facilities are available. Inform the contact person that privacy is required to conduct the investigation, and access to all available information is necessary. Ask for as much background information as possible, including specifications of the manufacturer, service history, load data, and lubricant analyses. Send a questionnaire to the contact person to help expedite information gathering.
Class/Mode: Overload/plastic deformation/cold flow Definition: Plastic deformation at temperature lower than the recrystallization temperature Morphology: Permanently deformed gear teeth Cause: High load, low yield strength, or inadequate lubrication Remedy: Reduce load. Increase yield strength. Improve lubrication.
person. Try to interview those involved in design, installation, startup, operation and maintenance, and anyone present when failure of the gearbox occurred or was discovered. Encourage the interviewees to share ever ything they know about the gearbox and associated systems even if they feel it is not important.
External Examination Before removing and disassembling the gearbox, take photographs and thoroughly inspect the exterior. Use an inspection form to ensure that important data (data that may be lost once disassembly begins) is recorded. For example, the condition of seals and keyways should be recorded before disassembly or it may be impossible to determine when these parts were damaged.
Before cleaning the exterior of the gear housing, inspect for signs of overheating, corrosion, contamination, oil leaks, and damage, and photograph the areas of interest. Photographic documentation is frequently a key to any good failure analysis, including a gear failure analysis.
Class/Mode: Overload/plastic deformation/hot flow Definition: Plastic deformation at temperature higher than the recrystallization temperature Morphology: Permanently deformed gear teeth covered with black ferrous oxide Cause: Overheating. Lubrication starvation Remedy: Reduce heat input. Improve cooling. Increase flow of lubricant.
Gear Tooth Contact Patterns To observe the condition of the gears, shafts, and bearings, clean the inspection port cover and the immediate area around it, and then remove the cover. Be careful not to contaminate the gearbox during cleaning or during the removal of the port cover.
The way gear teeth contact indicates how they are aligned. Record tooth contact patterns under loaded or unloaded conditions. No-load patterns are not as reliable as loaded patterns for detecting misalignment, because marking compound is relatively thick and no-load tests do not include misalignment caused by load, speed, or temperature. Therefore, fol-
Inspect In Situ
Before starting the inspection, review background information and ser vice histor y with the contact
Class/Mode: Overload/plastic deformation/ indentation Definition: Local plastic deformation of active tooth surface due to subsurface yielding Morphology: Shallow scattered dents or shallow grooves along lines of contact Cause: Foreign material trapped between gear teeth. High stress due to tooth impact Remedy: Remove foreign material. Avoid tooth impact. Avoid vibration resonance.
(continued)
low no-load tests with loaded tests whenever possible. See ANSI/AGMA 2000 Appendix D for information regarding contact pattern tests.
Class/Mode: Overload/plastic deformation/ rolling Definition: Plastic deformation and displacement of tooth surface material Morphology: Groove at pitchline and burrs at tips and roots of driver. Ridge at pitchline of driver Cause: High contact stress. Inadequate lubrication Remedy: Reduce contact stress. Increase yield strength. Improve lubrication.
No-Load Contact Patterns For no-load tests, paint the teeth of one gear with soft marking compound and roll the teeth through mesh so compound transfers to the unpainted gear. Turn the pinion by hand while applying a light load to the gear shaft by hand or brake. Lift transferred patterns from the gear with clear tape and mount the tapes on white paper to form a permanent record.
The compound P T-650 Tooth Marking Grease (available from Products/Techniques, Inc., Rialto, CA; tel: 909/877-3951) works best. Scotch No. 845 Book Tape (2 in. wide) works well for lifting contact patterns.
Class/Mode: Hertzian fatigue/subcase fatigue Definition: Cracking in case-hardened gears in transition zone between case and core Morphology: Fine longitudinal cracks. Longitudinal craters with sharp, perpendicular edges Cause: Contact stress exceeds subsurface fatigue strength. Inclusions near case/core Remedy: Reduce contact stress. Increase case hardness, case depth, and core hardness.
Class/Mode: Wear/erosion Definition: Removal of surface material due to repeated impact of small, solid particles Morphology: Smooth, longitudinal craters near ends of teeth Cause: Relative motion between tooth surface and a fluid containing hard particles Remedy: Remove abrasives.
Loaded Contact Patterns For loaded tests, paint several teeth on one or both gears with machinists layout lacquer (DYKEM, ITW Dykem Dymon, Olathe, KS; 800/4439536). Thoroughly clean teeth with solvent and acetone, and brush paint with a thin coat of lacquer. Run the gears under load for sufficient time to wear off the lacquer and establish the contact patterns. Photograph patterns to obtain a permanent record.
Record loaded contact patterns under several loads, for example, 25, 50, 75, and 100% load. Inspect patterns after running approximately 1 h at each load to monitor how patterns change with load. Ideally, the patterns should not change much with load. Optimum contact patterns cover nearly 100% of the active face of gear teeth under full load, except
Class/Mode: Wear/adhesion Definition: Material transfer between mating tooth surfaces due to microwelding and tearing Morphology: Teeth appear undamaged. Scanning electron microscopy shows smooth microplateaus between furrows. Cause: Normal wear on asperities during run-in Remedy: Use smooth surfaces. Run-in new gears. Drain, flush, and replace oil after run-in.
Class/Mode: Overload/plastic deformation/ ridging Definition: Deformation on active tooth surface in the form of peaks and valleys Morphology: Pronounced ridges and grooves on active tooth surface in direction of sliding Cause: Scuffing followed by polishing Remedy: Use high viscosity antiscuff oil. Improve cooling. Reduce load.
Class/Mode: Wear/abrasion Definition: Removal and displacement of surface material by hard particles or hard asperities Morphology: Scratches or gouges in direction of sliding. Scanning electron microscopy shows smooth, clean, furrows. Cause: Contamination by hard, sharp particles (3-body). Hard asperities on mate (2-body) Remedy: Remove abrasives. Use surfacehardened teeth and smooth surfaces.
10 Volume 2(6) December 2002
at extremes of teeth along tips, roots, and ends, where contact is lighter as evidenced by traces of lacquer.
Endplay and Backlash Inspect endplay and radial movement of the input and output shafts and gear backlash.
Class/Mode: Hertzian fatigue/macropitting Definition: Cracking and detachment of surface fragments due to cyclic Hertzian stresses Morphology: Pits on active tooth surface. Cracks at boundaries of pits. Beach marks in craters Cause: High contact stress. Low fatigue strength. Inadequate specific film thickness Remedy: Reduce contact stress. Increase fatigue strength. Increase specific film thickness.
Remove Gearbox
Mounting Alignment Measure alignment of shaft couplings before removing the gearbox. Note the condition and loosening torque of all fasteners including coupling and mounting bolts. To check for possible twist of the gear housing, measure movement of the mounting feet as mounting bolts are loosened. Install four dial indicators, one at each corner of the gearbox. Each indicator will record the same vertical movement if there is no twist. If not, calculate the twist from relative movements.
Class/Mode: Overload/plastic deformation/root fillet yielding Definition: Permanent bending of teeth due to yielding in root fillets Morphology: Initial yielding may not be visible. Large yielding causes tip-to-root interference. Cause: Bending stress exceeds yield strength. Remedy: Reduce bending stress. Increase yield strength.
Class/Mode: Cracking/hardening cracks Definition: Cracking in gears during or after heat treating Morphology: Intergranular cracks running from surface toward center of mass Cause: Thermal stresses due to nonuniform heating or cooling Remedy: Use proper heat treatment. Avoid stress concentrations.
Transport Gearbox
Fretting corrosion is a common problem that may occur during shipping. Ship the gearbox on an air-ride truck, and support the gearbox on vibration isolators to help avoid fretting corrosion. If possible, ship the gearbox with oil. To minimize contamination, remove the breather and seal the opening, seal labyrinth seals with silicone rubber, and cover the gearbox with a tarpaulin.
Class/Mode: Overload/plastic deformation/tipto-root interference Definition: Interference between tips of one gear and roots of mate Morphology: Plastic deformation, adhesion, or abrasion on tips of one gear and roots of mate Cause: Geometric errors. Inadequate tip/root relief. Short center distance Remedy: Improve geometry. Improve accuracy. Increase center distance.
Store Gearbox
Class/Mode: Cracking/grinding cracks Definition: Cracking of tooth surfaces during or after grinding Morphology: Fine shallow cracks in parallel or crazed mesh pattern Cause: Excessive heat or stress due to grinding. Sensitive microstructure. Remedy: Use proper grinding technique. Use proper microstructure.
It is best to inspect the gearbox as soon as possible. However, if the gearbox must be stored, store it indoors in a dry, temperature-controlled environment.
Disassemble Gearbox
Explain analysis objectives to the attending technician. Review the
Class/Mode: Bending fatigue/low-cycle Definition: Fatigue dominated by plastic strain with failure in less than 10,000 cycles Morphology: Rough fracture surface Cause: High bending stress. Low toughness Remedy: Reduce bending stress. Increase toughness. Use proper microstructure.
11
(continued)
After the external examination, thoroughly clean the exterior of the gearbox to avoid contaminating the gearbox when opening it. Disassemble the gearbox and inspect all components, both failed and undamaged.
Inspect Components
Class/Mode: Bending fatigue/high-cycle Definition: Fatigue dominated by elastic strain with failure in more than 10,000 cycles Morphology: Smooth fracture surface with beach or ratchet marks. Scanning electron microscopy may show striations. Cause: High bending stress. Low fatigue strength Remedy: Reduce bending stress. Increase fatigue strength. Use proper microstructure.
gearbox assembly drawings with the technician, checking for potential disassembly problems. Verify that the work will be done in a clean, welllighted area, protected from the elements, and that all necessary tools are available. If working conditions are not suitable, find an alternate location for gearbox disassembly. Because technicians usually are trained to work quickly, it is wise to remind him or her that disassembly must be done slowly and carefully.
Inspect Before Cleaning M ark relative positions of all components before removing them. Do not throw away or clean any parts until they are examined thoroughly. If there are broken components, do not touch fracture surfaces or fit broken pieces together. If fractures cannot be examined immediately, coat them with oil and store the parts so fracture surfaces are not damaged.
Examine functional surfaces of gear teeth and bearings and record their condition. Before cleaning the parts, look for signs of corrosion, contamination, and overheating.
Class/Mode: Bending fatigue/high-cycle/profile cracks Definition: High cycle fatigue with cracks on active surface of teeth Morphology: Crack on active profile. Origin at stress concentration or flaw Cause: Stress concentration due to macropits, material flaws, or preexisting cracks Remedy: Avoid stress concentration. Reduce contact stress. Increase fatigue strength.
Gear failure often follows bearing failure.
Inspect After Cleaning After the initial inspection, wash the components with solvents and reexamine them. This examination should be as thorough as possible because it is often the most important phase of the investigation and may yield valuable clues. A low-power magnifying glass and 30 pocket microscope are helpful tools for this examination.
It is important to inspect bearings because they often provide clues to the cause of gear failure. For example:
Document Observations Identify and mark each component (including gear teeth and bearing components) so it is clearly identified in written descriptions, sketches, and photographs. It is especially important to mark all bearings, including inboard and outboard sides, so their locations and positions in the gearbox are identified.
Describe components consistently. For example, always start with the
Class/Mode: Bending fatigue/high-cycle/root fillet cracks Definition: High-cycle fatigue with cracks in root fillets Morphology: Crack across base of tooth. Origin on root fillet at point of max bending stress Cause: High bending stress. Low fatigue strength Remedy: Reduce bending stress. Increase fatigue strength.
Bearing wear can cause excessive radial clearance or endplay that misaligns gears. Bearing damage may indicate corrosion, contamination, electrical discharge, or lack of lubrication. Plastic deformation between rollers and raceways may indicate overloads.
Class/Mode: Hertzian fatigue/macropittting/ nonprogressive Definition: Macropits that arrest after high asperities are removed and load is more uniform Morphology: Localized pits less than 1 mm diam. Cause: Load concentration on high asperities Remedy: Self limiting. To avoid, improve accuracy and reduce surface roughness.
Document what is visible. List all obser vations even if some seem insignificant or if the failure mode is not easily recognizable. Remember there is a reason for everything, and some details may become important later when all the evidence is considered.
Class/Mode: Overload/plastic deformation/ rippling Definition: Periodic, wavelike deformation on active tooth surface Morphology: Fish-scale appearance. Peaks of waves perpendicular to direction of sliding Cause: Subsurface yielding due to high contact stress and boundary lubrication Remedy: Reduce contact stress. Increase yield strength. Increase specific film thickness.
Document what is not visible. This step is helpful to eliminate certain failure modes and causes. For example, if there is no scuffing, it can be concluded that gear tooth contact temperature was less than the scuffing temperature of the lubricant. Search the bottom of the gearbox. Often, this is where the bestpreserved evidence is found, such as when a tooth fractures and falls free without secondary damage. Use time efficiently. Be prepared for the inspection. Plan work carefully to obtain as much evidence as possible. Do not be distracted by anyone. Control the investigation. Watch every step of the disassembly. Do not let the technician proceed too quickly. Disassembly should stop while the analyst inspects and documents the condition of a component; then move on to the next component. Insist on privacy. Do not let anyone distract attention from the investigation. If asked about conclusions, answer that conclusions are not formed until the investigation is complete.
Class/Mode: Scuffing Definition: Severe adhesion and transfer of metal between teeth due to welding and tearing Morphology: Rough, matte streaks along direction of sliding in addenda, dedenda, or both Cause: Tooth contact temperature exceeds scuffing temperature of lubricant. Remedy: Reduce contact temperature. Use highviscosity antiscuff oil. Improve cooling.
same part of a bearing and progress through the parts in the same sequence. This helps to avoid overlooking any evidence. Describe important observations in writing using sketches and photographs where needed. The following guidelines help maximize the chances for obtaining meaningful evidence: Concentrate on collecting evidence, not on determining cause of failure. Regardless of how obvious the cause may appear, do not form conclusions until all evidence is considered.
Gear housing center distance Whole depth of teeth Tooth thickness (both span and topland thickness)
Specimens for Laboratory Tests During inspection, the analyst will begin to formulate hypotheses regarding the cause of failure. With these hypotheses in mind, select specimens for laboratory testing. Take broken parts for laboratory evaluation or, if this is not possible, preserve them for later analysis.
Class/Mode: Cracking/rim and web cracks Definition: Cracking in rim or web of gear body Morphology: Radial cracks through gear rim or in web. Usually start at stress concentration Cause: Rim or web too thin. Stress concentration. Resonance of gear body Remedy: Use proper rim and web thickness. Avoid stress concentration. Avoid resonance.
Gather Gear Geometry The load capacity of the gears should be calculated. For this purpose, obtain the following geometry data from the gears and housing or drawings:
Number of teeth Outside diameter Face width
Class/Mode: Hertzian fatigue/macropitting/ progressive Definition: Macropits that grow in size and number with operation Morphology: Pits larger than one mm covering a significant area of active tooth surface Cause: High contact stress. Low fatigue strength. Inadequate specific film thickness Remedy: Reduce contact stress. Increase fatigue strength. Increase specific film thickness.
13
(continued)
Class/Mode: Wear/electric discharge Definition: Damage due to electric arc discharge across oil film between active tooth surfaces Morphology: Pitted surface. Scanning electron microscopy shows small hemispherical craters and melted metal spheres. Cause: Electric current through the gear mesh Remedy: Use electrical insulation or grounding. Avoid welding near gears.
Class/Mode: Hertzian fatigue/macropitting/ spall Definition: Progressive macropitting with pits that coalesce Morphology: Irregular craters covering a significant area of active tooth surface Cause: High contact stress. Low fatigue strength. Inadequate specific film thickness Remedy: Reduce contact stress. Increase fatigue strength. Increase specific film thickness.
Class/Mode: Hertzian fatigue/macropitting/ flake Definition: Progressive macropitting causing thin flakes of material to break out Morphology: Large, shallow pits. Fan-shaped cracks grow from origin and separate thin flakes. Cause: High contact stress. Low fatigue strength. Inadequate specific film thickness Remedy: Reduce contact stress. Increase fatigue strength. Increase specific film thickness.
After the inspection is completed, be sure all parts are coated with oil and stored properly so that corrosion or damage will not occur. Oil samples can be very helpful. However, an effective analysis depends on how well the sample represents the operating lubricant. To take samples from the gearbox drain valve, first discard stagnant oil from the valve. Then, take a sample at the start, middle, and end of the drain to avoid stratification. To sample from the storage drum or reservoir, draw samples from the top, middle, and near
the bottom. These samples can uncover problems such as excessive water in the oil due to improper storage. Ask whether there are new, unused components. These parts are helpful to compare with failed parts. Similarly, compare a sample of fresh lubricant to used lubricant.
It is best to devote two days minimum for the failure inspection. This affords time after the first-day inspection to review the inspection and analyze collected data. Often, the initial inspection discloses a need for other data, which can be gathered on the second day.
Do You Have It All? Before leaving the site, be sure that all necessary itemscompleted inspection forms, written descriptions and sketches, photos, and test specimenshave been collected.
Determine Failure Mode

Now it is time to examine all information and determine how the gears failed.
Class/Mode: Cracking/case-core separation Definition: Internal cracks that cause corners, edges, or tips of teeth to separate Morphology: Fracture surfaces exhibit characteristics of brittle fracture. Cause: High residual tensile stress at case-core interface due to excessive case depth Remedy: Use proper case depth. Temper immediately after quenching. Avoid sharp edges.
Class/Mode: Wear/cavitation Definition: Deformation and detachment of surface fragments due to collapsing vapor bubbles Morphology: Pitted as if sandblasted. Scanning electron microscopy shows deep, rough, clean, honeycomb craters. Cause: Nucleation and implosion of gas-filled bubbles within lubricant Remedy: Reduce speed. Avoid vibration.
Class/Mode: Hertzian fatigue/micropitting Definition: Cracking and detachment of surface asperities Morphology: Frosted, matte or gray-stained active tooth surface. Scanning electron microscopy shows pits <20 mm deep. Cause: Inadequate specific film thickness. Oil with inadequate micropitting resistance Remedy: Increase specific film thickness. Use oil with high micropitting resistance.
Modes of Failure Several failure modes may be present, and the primary mode and secondary modes (modes that are consequences of the primary mode, and which may or may not have contributed to the failure) must be identified.
Six general classes of gear failure modes are: Overload Bending fatigue Hertzian fatigue Wear Scuffing Cracking An understanding of these modes will enable identification of the cause of failure.
Class/Mode: Wear/corrosion Definition: Chemical or electrochemical reaction between a gear and its environment Morphology: Stained or rusty surfaces with reddish-brown deposits. Scanning electron microscopy shows etch pits. Cause: Contamination by acid or water. Overly reactive antiscuff additives Remedy: Remove contaminants. Drain, flush, and replace oil.
scopes and scanning electron microscopes (SEM) are useful for this purpose. A SEM with energy-dispersive xray is especially useful for identifying corrosion, contamination, or inclusions. If the primary failure mode is likely to be influenced by gear geometry or metallurgical properties, check for any geometric or metallurgical defects that may have contributed to the failure. For example, if tooth contact patterns indicate misalignment or interference, inspect the gear for accuracy on gear inspection machines. Conversely, where contact patterns indicate good alignment and loads are within rated gear capacity, check teeth for metallurgical defects. Conduct nondestructive tests before any destructive tests. These nondestructive tests, which aid in detecting material or manufacturing defects and provide rating information, include:
Class/Mode: Wearing/fretting corrosion Definition: Deterioration of active tooth surface caused by minute vibratory motion Morphology: Ruts along lines of contact. Reddish-brown wear debris. X-ray diffraction shows a -Fe2O3. Cause: Vibration during non-rotation Remedy: Avoid vibration or rotate gears.
Tests and Calculations In many cases, failed parts and inspection data do not yield enough information to determine the cause of failure. When this happens, gear design calculations and laboratory tests are necessary to develop and confirm a hypothesis for the probable cause. Gear Design Calculations Gear geometry data aids in estimating tooth contact stress, bending stress, lubricant film thickness, and gear tooth contact temperature based on transmitted loads. Calculate values according to American Gear Manufacturers Association (AGMA) standards such as ANSI/AGMA 2001. Compare calculated values with AGMA allowable values to help determine risks of micropitting, macropitting, bending fatigue, and scuffing. Laboratory Examination and Tests Microscopic examination may confirm the failure mode or find the origin of a fatigue crack. Light micro-
Surface hardness and roughness Magnetic particle inspection Acid etch inspection Gear tooth accuracy inspection Then, conduct destructive tests to evaluate material and heat treatment. These tests include: Microhardness survey Microstructural determination using acid etches Determination of grain size Determination of nonmetallic inclusions Scanning electron microscopy to study fracture surfaces
Class/Mode: Wear/polishing Definition: Fine-scale abrasion promoted by chemically reactive antiscuff additives Morphology: Mirrorlike finish. Smooth or wavy surface. Scanning electron microscopy shows fine scratches. Cause: Formation of additive films and removal of films by fine abrasives Remedy: Use less chemically active additives. Remove abrasives.
Form and Test Conclusions

When all calculations and tests are completed, the analyst should form one or more hypotheses for the probable cause of failure, then deter-
15

mine whether the evidence supports or disproves the hypotheses. Evaluate all evidence that was gathered, including: Documentary evidence and service history Statements from witnesses Written descriptions, sketches, and photos Gear geometry and contact patterns Gear design calculations Laboratory data for materials and lubricant Results of this evaluation may make it necessary to modify or abandon initial hypotheses or pursue new lines of investigation.
(continued)
Finally, after thoroughly testing the hypotheses against the evidence, a conclusion will be reached regarding the most probable cause of failure. In addition, secondary factors that contributed to the failure may be identified.
changes in equipment design, manufacturing, or operation to prevent future failures.
Selected References
R. Errichello and J. Muller: How to Analyze Gear Failures, Power Transmission Design, March 1994, 36(3), pp. 3540. R. Errichello: Analysis Techniques End Gear Damage, Power Transmission Design, March 1995, 37(3), pp. 23-26.
Report Results
The failure analysis report should describe all relevant facts found during analysis, inspections and tests, weighing of evidence, conclusions, and recommendations. Present data succinctly, preferably in tables or figures. Good photos are especially helpful for portraying failure characteristics. If possible, include recommendations for repairing equipment or making
Robert Errichello, GEARTECH, 100 Bushbuck Road, Townsend, MT 59644. Contact e-mail: RLEgears@ aol.com.
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T To UAnalyze T Gear O Failures R I How