Electrical Questions-1

This page contains numbers of various electrical questions more specifically electrical engineering basic questions. We have uploaded here as many as possible basic electrical questions with their best suitable answer. List of such questions are given below:

What is armature reaction? What is composite conductor? What are the factors affecting resistance of a wire? What is Three phase autotransformer What is Single phase autotransformer Parallel operation of single phase transformer? Magnetic field due to a current in a solenoid? How to make a series circuit ? How to make a parallel circuit ? Can a DC series motor operate in AC? How does auto transformer work? What is per unit system in power system? How to measure electric current? What is an electrical transformer? What is power factor in electrical system? How does an alternator work? State laws of resistance. State and explain coulombs law. Why insulator can not conduct electricity? What is electrical conductivity of semiconductor? Theory of electrical conductivity of metal. Atomic structure and electric change. Specific Resistance or Resistivity of Materials. What are Independent current and voltage source? What are dependent current and voltage source? What are the Passive and active elements of electric circuit? What are the Bilateral and unilateral network elements? What is electric field intensity? What are the different steps of thermal power generation? What is electrical potential ? What is lightning arrestor ? How arc is initiated in circuit breaker? Force on current carrying conductor in magnetic field. Magnetic field due to straight current carrying conductor. Work done in moving a conductor in a magnetic field. Difference between primary and secondary battery. What is internal resistance of battery ? Kirchhoffs Current Law and Kirchhoffs Voltage Law. What are the different types of relays? Duality of Thevenin and Norton theorem. What is drift current? Explain Ohms law. What is the direction of conventional current flow?

What is the difference between emf and potential difference? What is an inductor ?

What is armature reaction?

To get the concept of armature reaction we should know about the basic construction of a dc machine. In any direct current machine,there are two winding present namely field winding(stationary) & armature winding(rotating). When the dc source is applied to the machine, the field winding get excited and produce a magnetic flux in between the two field windings. As the name suggests,the field winding produces the field current & the armature winding carries the armature current .But as the armature winding is nothing but a closed coil so there should be a magnetic flux as armature current is passing through the armature conductor. Thus,there are two magnetic field acting inside the machine.One is due to the field winding,called as main flux & another produced by the armature ,namely armature flux.Obviously,there is a interaction in between those fluxes. The main flux,which is produced by field winding is very much useful because this flux creates the magnetic field.But the interaction of the armature flux with main flux distorts and weakens the main flux & creates problems for the proper operation of the DC machine. Thus,the effect of armature flux on the main field flux is called armature reaction

The adverse effects of armature reaction are: The main flux is An unequal flux density occurs at pole tips. distorted due to the interaction.

So,we can say that armature reaction can reduce the efficiency of a dc machine. The effect of armature reaction can be reduced by proper commutation & by providing a special type of winding, namely compensating winding.

Another answer of What is armature reaction?

In electromechanical energy converters the rotor conductors decrease the effective field flux, this can be said armature reaction at a basic level. To understand it in a deeper level we need to use some diagram first. Here are three diagrams are drawn. In figure (a) there is no current flow through the rotor conductors and the flux flow from the N pole to S pole is undisturbed and straight.

When current runs through the rotor conductors, there is a flux generation which is inevitable. Now this rotor flux superimpose with the main flux and thereby disturbing the natural flow of the main field flux, which is shown in figure (b)

Now, when these two flux interact there is a resultant flux generated which tilts the geometric neutral axis (GNA) and there is a new axis for the flow of resultant flux, which is shown in figure(c).

What is a composite conductor?

For transmission of high voltages, stranded conductors are used. These are known as composite conductors. These are composed of two or more strands of cable. Mainly for high voltage transmission, stranded copper conductors are used. Solid conductors are used before for transmission purpose, but stranded conductors have many more advantages. Thats why they are rapidly used. They are widely used

because of their: * flexibility. * mechanical stability. * reduction in skin effect (the tendency of the current to flow through the surface of the conductor).

What are the factors affecting resistance of a wire?

The resistance of an object is a measure of the how much current is to flow through that object for a given potential difference across it. It is given the symbol R and has the unit ,which is a Greek letter omega and provided across it. The bigger the potential difference across its ends the bigger the current flow. The equation below is used to work out the resistance of a component from measurements of the current flowing through it and the potential difference across its ends. Can you sketch a circuit diagram of a suitable circuit you could use to find out such information ? You should be able to!

V Where V I = R = resistance in ohms (?)

= current

potential in

I difference amps

in

volts (A)

R (V) and

Current is the rate of flow of charge. As soon as a potential difference is applied the electrons generally drift in one direction. The bigger the potential difference the faster their average speed and the more charge will move past a point in a second bigger current ! Increasing the number of electrons

experiencing the slope will mean more flow past a point in a second and so more charge passes a point in a second and more current flows. There are four factors that affect the resistance of a wire: Resistance is proportional to length. If you take wires of different lengths and give each a particular potential difference across its ends. The longer the wire the less volts each cm. of it will get. This means that the electric slope that makes the electrons move gets less steep as the wire gets longer, and the average drift velocity of electrons decreases. The correct term for this electric slope is the potential gradient. A smaller potential gradient means current decreases with increased length and resistance increases. Resistance is inversely proportional to cross-sectional-area. The bigger the cross sectional area of the wire the greater the number of electrons that experience the electric slope from the potential difference. This does not give rise to a straight line graph as cross sectional area is inversely proportional to resistance not directly proportional to it. Resistance depends on the material the wire is made of. The more tightly an atom holds on to its outermost electrons the harder it will be to make a current flow. If a shell is almost full, the atom is reluctant to let its electrons wander and the material is an insulator. If the outermost shell is less than half full then the atom is willing to let those electrons wander and the material is a conductor. Resistance increases with the temperature of the metallic wire. When a material gets hotter the atoms present in the material vibrates more. This makes it difficult for the electrons to move without interaction with an atom and increases resistance. The relationship between resistance and temperature is not a simple one. R = Ro(1 + ?.T) ? is the thermal resistance coefficient.

Three phase autotransformer

A three phase autotransformer is a special type of electrical transformer in which a common winding is shared by both high voltage & low voltage sides. Here, three phase AC is provided along the primary side and the output is collected from the secondary side. Actually, three phase auto transformers are used for such applications where small voltage corrections are required in the distribution system. Also, they are frequently used as an economical alternative of three phase distribution transformers to adjust the bus bar voltage with specific load requirements, when load isolation from the main line is not required. But,a three phase auto transformer not provide an electrical isolation as a common winding is shared by the high voltage & low voltage side. The key features of a typical three phase auto transformer is:

 3 Three phase.

kVA 50/60

to Hz

500

kVA frequency

Ratings .

Three phase auto-transformers are frequently used in power applications to interconnect systems operating at different voltage levels, such as to 66 kV to 138 kV transmission line. A real three phase auto transformer looks like this:

ONE THOUGHT ON THREE PHASE AUTOTRANSFORMER

Single phase autotransformer

A single phase autotransformer is a special type of electrical transformer with only one winding on an iron core. In an auto transformer the primary and secondary winding shares same common single winding. Here the primary voltage that is single phase AC is applied across two of the terminals, and the secondary voltage is taken from two terminals. But there must be a terminal which is common for both, primary & secondary side. Single phase auto transformers is smaller in size & lighter in weight & also cheaper than common dual-winding type transformer as it consist of only a single winding. But the major disadvantage of auto transformers is, they do not isolate the high voltage & low voltage side that is no electrical isolation is provided. Single phase auto transformer is frequently used to adapt speakers in audio distribution systems, and for impedance matching purpose, such as between a low-impedance microphone and a high-impedance amplifier input. A real single phase autotransformer looks like this:

Parallel operation of single phase transformer .

Two single transformers are said to be connected in parallel if their primary windings are connected to supply busbars and secondary windings are connected to the load bus bar. While connecting two or more than two single phase transformers for parallel operation, it is essential that their terminals of similar polarities are joined to the same bus bar because the improper connections may cause a short-circuit and the primary side of the transformers may get damaged unless protected by fuses or circuit breakers. The circuit diagram looks like this:

There are some principal reasons for connecting the single phase transformers in parallel. If any transformer damaged, the continuation of supply can be maintained through other transformers. When the load on the substation becomes more than the capacity of the existing transformers, then another transformer can be added in parallel. Any transformer can be taken out of the circuit for repair or routine maintenance without interrupting supply to the consumers. Conditions for proper parallel operation of single phase transformers: In order that the transformers work satisfactorily in parallel, the following conditions should be satisfied: Transformers should be properly connected according to their polarities. The voltage ratings and voltage ratios of the transformers should be the same. The per unit impedances of the transformers should be equal. The reactance or resistance ratios of the transformers should be identical.

Magnetic field due to a current in a solenoid

Assume one solenoid having N number of turns and length of L meter. Also assume the field strength inside the solenoid is H and it is constant through out the length L. Suppose a unit N pole is placed at an point A and is taken once along the path, shown in the figure.

If this pole travels along the path the total work done will be W = H X L = HL Joules.(i) Since, the force H acts only over the Length L inside the solenoid. Again, as the unit N pole is taken trough the solenoid, its flux of 1 Wb is cut by every turn of the solenoid. As the solenoid is carrying a current of I Amp, every turn of the solenoid carries the same current I Amp. Hence, work done in that respect will be W = N X I = NI Joules..(ii) Equating (i) and (ii), we get, HL = NI or H = NI/L Amp turns / meter

Again, we know that B = o.r.H Wb/m^2 Hence, flux density is given by B = o.r.NI/L Wb/m2 in any medium For air, B = o.NI/L Wb/m2 Since r = 1 in air.

How to make a series circuit ?

Whenever you have circuits that consist of more than one electronic component, those electronic components must be linked together. The two ways to connect components in a circuit are in series and in parallel. In a series connection, components are connected end to end, so that current flows first through one, then through the other. A series circuit is one that provides only one path for electricity to follow. In the series connection, the current goes through one component and then the other. If any of the component get damaged then the entire circuitry get open circuited ,thus entire circuit is broken and none of the components will work. As a instance ,in a series connected lamp circuitry if either one of the lamps burns out, neither lamp will work. Thats because current must flow through all lamps for the circuit to be complete. So, to make a simple series circuit we needA Two Wires. Clips. Procedure: battery or dc voltage source. lamps.

Arrange the entire circuit as shown in the figure, that is connect the lamps end to end configuration & then connect each end to the two terminals of the voltage source. Then, youll use your multimeter to measure the voltages at various points in the circuit. An interesting thing happens with voltage when components are connected in series: the voltages present at each component are divided up. For example, in a circuit with a 3 V battery and two identical lamps connected in series, each lamp will see only one and a half volts. If you connected three identical lamps in series, each lamp would see only one volt.

Now you have done!

How to make a parallel circuit ?

In the parallel connection, each component has to be connected directly to the voltage source. In a parallel connection, the components do not depend on each other for their connection to the battery. Thus, if one component burns out, the other will continue to run. So, to make a simple parallel circuit we need: A battery or dc voltage source. Two lamps. Wires. Clips. Procedure:

Arrange the entire circuit as shown in the figure, that is the circuit should be arranged in such a manner that every lamp should connected with the voltage source. You can see, all the lamps are glowing in same illumine.

Can a DC series motor operate in AC?

A series motor is a special type of motor, which has been designed to operate on either AC or DC power. This type of motor is also called universal motor. You know that the magnetic field of armature winding and field winding opposes each other, and a rotational motion is achieved. In AC power, the polarity of the input changes in a cycling process . But, the field magnetic polarity still opposes the armature magnetic polarity because the reversal affects( due to AC power) both of the armature and the field winding. In AC power, these reversals take place continuously. So, when AC power is used to operate a DC series motor ,some special laminations and windings are provided with dc series motor to reduce the problems caused by eddy currents, hysteresis, and high reactance in case of AC operation. Thus, a DC series motor can operate in AC with some special arrangement.

How does auto transformer work?

Generally we have seen in basic model of transformer there are two windings. One is primary winding and one is secondary winding. But there is another type of transformer which has only one winding. This single

winding serves the purpose of both primary and secondary winding. The transformer which uses such single winding is referred to as auto transformer. Now one question may arise in your mind how does autotransformer work with one single winding instead of two separate windings ? We know that in two winding transformer there is no direct connection between the primary and secondary . They are interlinked by common magnetic path. Here in autotransformer the single winding is connected both electrically and magnetically. One winding which serves purpose of both primary and secondary is divided into two parts common winding part and series winding part.

Auto Transformer Say N1 is the total number of turns of autotransformer winding AB. Lets voltage V1 is applied in between terminal A & B as shown. Similarly N2 be the number of turns in secondary winding and let it be tapped at C. Now if we measure voltage between B & C we will get secondary voltage V 2. As the primary voltage applied across the terminal AB which has total number of turns N1, voltage per turn of the winding will be V1/N1 . As we tap secondary terminal from point C the voltage appeared across B & C is nothing but N 2V1/N1. As BC portion of the winding is considered as secondary, it can easily be understood that value of constant k is nothing but turns ratio or the voltage ratio of that Auto Transformer. Autotransformer is constructionally more or less similar to potential divider. Autotransformer works in different ways. Autotransformer can set up a voltage whereas potential divider can do so. In potential divider the output current is always is always reduced but in step down autotransformer as output voltage is reduced output current is proportionally increased .In potential divider the power is transferred to the load by conduction whereas in autotransformer power is transformed to the load partly by conduction and partly by induction. In potential divider total power is transferred via conduction contributing huge I2R losses but in autotransformer I2R losses are much less because the power is transformed not entirely by conduction rather partly by conduction. In ideal autotransformer as there is no loss we can say V 1*I1 = V2*I2. So V2/V1 = I1/I2 = K, the transformation ratio of a conventional transformer. .

ONE THOUGHT ON HOW DOES AUTO TRANSFORMER WORK?

1.

What is per unit system in power system?

Per unit system use in power system to simplify hard calculation.It is the method of expressing quantities in an electrical system as a proportion of predefined base quantities. The per-unit value of a quantity is the ratio of the original quantity to its base value. where Qpu is per unit quantity, Q is quantity in normal unit, Qbase is the base value of quantity in normal unit. Let the base value of current is 200amp then the per unit value of 100amp current is 100200=0.5.

How to measure electric current?

Before we know about how to measure electric current,firstly know what is electric current. electric current is a flow of electric charge,it exist where voltage is present. To measure electric current we use instrument known as ammeter.If we want to measure electric current, we have to pass the current through through it.However ammeter measure current in ampere.Ampere is the SI unit of current. However ammeter is not suitable to measure high electric current. In such case we use transformer known as current transformer.

What is an electrical transformer?

DEFINITION:
Electrical Transformer is a static device that transfers electric power from one circuit to another without change of frequency. Since there is no rotating part in a transformer so it is a static device. Transformer operates on ac supply. In transformer operation two electrical circuits are not connected to each other rather they are interlinked by common magnetic circuit.

OPERATING PRINCIPLE:
Transformer works on principle of mutual inductance between two or more inductively coupled coils. Here one of the winding is called primary which is energized by an alternating voltage source and secondary winding is connected to the load. If ac voltage source is applied to primary winding coil it produces alternating current in it. This produces an alternating magnetic flux in the core of the transformer. Alternating magnetic flux links with primary and secondary coil turns and induces in them an emf by self induction and mutual induction respectively. The emf induced in secondary drives a current through the load connected across the secondary winding.

TYPES:
TRANSFORMERS based on their functions and purpose of use can be of many types. These are: 1. STEP UP & STEP DOWN TRANSFORMER : These type of transformers are used for step up and step down of voltage levels during transmission of power from generating stations to electrical substations located near demand or consumer center. In step up transformer low voltage winding (l.v) is primary and in step down transformer high voltage (h.v) winding is primary. 2. SINGLE PHASE & THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER : Former is a two winding transformer . Three phase transformer is used in three phase system. It is cost effective to use 3 phase transformer but it is not size effective. It is preferable to use 3 single phase transformers than a single three phase transformer. 3. CORE & SHELL TYPE : 1 phase transformer is classified as core and shell type according to construction. In core type transformer two windings are arranged as concentric coils. In case of shell type it has sandwiched /disc winding. 4. DISTRIBUTION & POWER TRANSFORMER : Distribution transformer are used in distribution network to step down the transmission voltage level for demand centres. Power transformer are operated at peak loads .It is used at each end of transmission line in generating stations and substations for stepping up or down the voltage level. 5. CURRENT (C.T ) & POTENTIAL TRANSFORMER (P.T) : Electrical instrument transformers (CT & PT) transform high currents and voltages to standardized low and easily measurable values.

(C.T) is used for measurement of electric current. The C.T is described by its current ratio from primary to secondary. C.T transforms high value current to lower value. P.T or voltage transformer is used to step down the system voltage to low value which can be fed to relay for protection purpose. 6. AUTO TRANSFORMER : It is a single winding transformer where single winding is used as both primary and secondary winding. It has two types step up and step down autotransformer.

What is power factor in electrical system?

POWER FACTOR DEFINITION
The cosine of the angle between voltage and current in an ac circuit is known as power factor. If we consider an AC electrical system, power factor is simply defined as the ratio of the real power flowing to the load, to apparent power in the circuit.

POWER FACTOR EXPRESSION

In Real Apparent Reactive From an AC power/ power power the electrical Active (S) (Q) system, power measured measured of in power (P) in flow consist measured voltreactive the of in three components(W). (VA). (VAR). factor = Cos

watts amperes

volt-amperes power Cos/VI

definition

Power factor = P/S = VI Here is the phase angle between the current and the voltage.

EXPLANATION
In an ac circuit there is generally a phase difference between voltage and current. If we consider a pure resistive circuit, current is in phase with circuit voltage i.e, = 0, hence p.f (power factor), Cos = 1. But in case of purely inductive or capacitive circuit, current is 90 out of phase with circuit voltage i.e. = 90, hence p.f Cos = 0. In inductor circuits current always lags behind the voltage and their power factors are mentioned as lagging p.f . Whereas, in capacitive circuits the p.f is mentioned as leading p.f as in this case current leads the voltage. Circuits containing purely resistive heating elements (filament lamps, cooking stoves, etc.) have a power factor of 1.0. Circuits containing inductive or capacitive elements (electric motors, solenoid valves, lamp ballasts, etc.)often have a power factor below 1.0. It may be noted that the value or p.f can never be more than one.

IMPORTANCE OF POWER FACTOR

The powr factor plays an important role in the power system. As we know that power in ac circuit is given by the relation: P = VICos or, for our convenience we can write it as I = P/VCos

In the power system the voltage is almost constant. Hence for a fixed power at constant voltage, the current drawn by the circuit increases with decrease in p.f . Thus at low p.f ac circuits draw more current from their main supply. In practical if p.f is considerably less, then it affects the whole system badly. The cost of generation and transmission increases. Alternatively all components of the system such as generators, conductors, transformers, and switchgear would be increased in size (and cost) to carry the extra current. The power supplying utilities generally charge the customers who doesnt maintain the p.f in the considerable limit.

METHODS OF POWER FACTOR IMPROVEMENT

A high p.f is generally desirable in a transmission system to reduce transmission losses and improve voltage regulation at the load. It is often desirable to adjust the power factor of a system to near 1.0. To improve the p.f of an a.c ciruit a capacitor is connected across the circuit i.e parallel to the circuit. But in practical following are used to improve p.f of the systemUse of Static Capacitor Use of Synchronous Motors Use of Synchronous Condensers Use of Phase Advancers etc.

How does an alternator work?

An alternator also called as AC generator is an electromechanical device which converts energy from mechanical domain to electrical domain. It is most widely used generator for generating the 3 phase power worldwide. When an AC generator is used along with other generators, its operation is in synchronism with them. Under this condition they are also called Synchronous generator. Working Principle Basic principle of operation of alternator is similar to that of DC generator i.e on the Faradays law of electromagnetic induction which states that Whenever the flux linking through a coil changes, an emf is induced in it. The amount of emf induced in the coil is directly proportional to the rate of change of flux and number of turns in it. Mathematically it can be summarized as E= -N(d/dt) here ve sign is due to opposing nature of emf induced (Lenz law) To satisfy Faradays law of electromagnetic induction, alternator should have 3 essential constructional requirements : A field system to produce the required working flux. A system of conductors or coils to which flux can link and emf can be induced. A relative motion between these two system.

Alternators having small voltage and power rating can be constructed in either way (rotating field type system or stationary field system).But alternators having larger voltage and power rating are invariably constructed with rotating field type system i.e. field winding is placed on rotor with DC supply provided to it and armature winding is placed on stator through which electrical output is withdrawn. Advantage for rotating field system are : Field system require about 2% of the power capacity of machine which can be easily supplied via slip rings and brushes. It is easier to provide the necessary insulation for stationary system of conductors. The insulation provided to the stationary system of conductors is not subjected to any kind of mechanical stress due to centrifugal action. Working The rotor of alternator is coupled with a prime mover mainly turbine which provides mechanical input to the rotor. Further rotor is also provided with DC excitation. Hence a synchronously rotating magnetic field is created in the air gap. This flux links to the stationary 3 phase armature conductors placed in stator part. As per Faradays law, an emf is induced in the conductors. This emf is used to drives the load connected to the output terminal of the alternator.

State laws of resistance

The electrical resistance is a property of a substance by which it resists the flow of electric current through it. Electric current is flow of charge per unit time hence it can be compared with flow of water in a pipe line. It is our general concept that for fixed water head, the rate of flow of water depends upon the length of the pipe, cross section of the pipe. If the length of the pipe increases the rate of flow of water is decreased and if the cross section of the pipe increases the rate of flow of water is decreased. As electrical current is rate of flow of charge which is caused by drift of electrons, it also depends upon the dimensions of conductor in the same way as the flow of water in pipe. In addition to that the current through a conductor also depends upon the numbers of free electrons available in it. As we know that number of free electrons depends upon internal molecular structure, temperature and other micro properties of the conductor materials, the current through the conductors for applied constant potential difference varies if the material of the conductor changes. The inter molecular vibration in a conductor increases with in in temperature. Inter molecular vibration prevents drift of free electrons, hence resistance of an conductor also depends upon temperature. After going through this explanation, hope we get a basic clear concept of electrical resistance now we will state laws of resistance one by one as follows, 1) Resistance of a conductor varies directly with its length. For example, if one meter copper wire has a resistance of 0.04 then two meter of same cross section conductor will have a resistance of 0.08 and 3 meter will have 0.12 at same temperature.

State and explain coulombs law

The force between two same or opposite electric charge can be determined by coulomb law.

Actually two opposite electric charges attract each other and two same electric changes repulse each other. Coulombs law states, the measure of this attraction or repulsion force. If q1 and q2 charges are separated by a distance of d then the force between them is expressed as

From, above expression it is found that the force of attraction or repulsion between two electric charges is directly proportional to the product of their magnitude and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. In this expression of Coulombs law, is the absolute permittivity of medium and = o. r

where, o is the permittivity of free space and equal to 8.84 X 10 12 F/m and r is the relative permittivity of the medium.

Why insulator can not conduct electricity?

In insulator, the atoms are electrically much stable. The other most shell of the atoms are completed. So there is no chance of gaining or loosing electron by these atoms. In other words, the forbidden band gap between valance band and conduction band is sufficient large in insulator. The energy required by the electrons to cross over to the conduction band is impractically large. That is why insulators can not conduct electric current easily. Wood, Glass, Plastic, Mica are well known example of insulator.

What is electrical conductivity of semiconductor?

The electrons resolve around the nucleus not only experience the force of its parent atom, they also experience the electric force of neighboring atoms. Due these forces, the energy levels of the electrons are changed. This effect is most pronounced in outermost orbit. Thus the energy levels, which were sharply defined in an isolated atom, are now broadened into energy bands. Each band consists of a large number of closely packed energy levels. In general two bands result which is known as conduction band associated with higher energy level and the valance band. Every material has its own band patter. There is a gap. The conductivity of semiconductor can easily be explained by this band theory. In semiconductor, the forbidden energy gap is of sufficient width. In low temperature no electron posses sufficient energy to cross this forbidden band gap. So there will be no electrons in conduction band. No electron in conduction band implies no free electron in the semiconductor at low temperature hence no movement of charge. But when the temperature of semiconductor rises, even up to room temperature, some of the electrons get sufficient energy to cross the forbidden band gap, and transit to the conduction band. As the density of electrons in conduction band, i.e. number of free electrons increases in the semiconductor material it can conduct electricity at room temperature and at above the room temperature. But the numbers of free electron per unit volume is not as high as metal the electrical conductivity of semiconductor is not as high as metal. Silicon & Germanium are very popular example of semiconductor which has electrical conductivity less than metal but more than the insulator.

Theory of electrical conductivity of metal.

Electrons revolve in orbits around the nucleus. The location of every electron in its orbit signifies a certain potential energy. There is a attraction force between every electron and nucleus due to opposite electric charge. This force is more in the electron to the nucleus than that of farther electrons. Since, the bond between the outer electron and the nucleus is weaker; it is easy to detach the electron from their parent atom. As stated earlier, every orbit in an atom signifies certain potential energy, the orbit are also referred as energy level. When numbers of atoms come closer, the force acts on the electrons, is not only due to its parent nucleus but it is also due to electric forces of other atoms. The effect of is more pronounced on the outermost electrons. Due to these electric forces the energy level of the electrons changes. Obviously, the energy level of outermost electrons suffers the greater changes. Thus the energy level which are sharply defined in an isolated atom, are now broadened into energy bands. Mainly two bands are formed, one is called conduction band and other is valance band. The conduction band is associated with the higher energy level than valance band. The gap between these two bands is known as band gap or forbidden energy gap. Each material has its won unique band structure. This band structure is generally used for explaining the electrical conductivity of a metal. In metal, atoms are tightly packed together. Because of that, electrons of outermost shell experience a significant electrical force from neighboring atoms. So the valance band and conduction band come very close together and may even overlap. Consequently, by receiving a small amount of energy, these electrons readily ascend to higher levels in the conduction band and are available as electrons that can move freely within the metal, as free electron. Whenever an electrical field is applied, these free electrons readily move towards higher potential zone. The movement of electron implies flow of charge within the metal piece. The quantity of charge flows within one second is defined as electric current. This is how metal conducts electricity.

Atomic structure and electric change.

The smallest physically exist particle of an element is molecule. The molecule is made of multiple numbers of atoms. The structure of atom consists of a muscles which is surrounded by numbers of electrons revolve around. The nucleus has highly concentrated protons and neutrons. The nucleus is positively changed as each proton inside it carries positive charge of 1.602 X 10 ? 19 coulombs. The neutrons inside the nucleus is electrically neutral, means, it does not contain any charge. Electron has equal and opposite of charge of each proton. That is, net electrical charge of each electron is ? 1.602 X 10 ? 19 Coulombs. The mass of electron is much lighter than proton; Electron is lighter than a proton by a factor of about 1840. So, we have seen that proton has positive charge where as electron has negative charge, but an atom is electrically neutral, that implies the number of electrons in the orbits of the atom is exactly equal to the number of proton in nucleus. There are numbers of orbit present in an atom with different radius. So, some electrons resolve the nucleus from closer some resolve from far. These orbits are called shells or energy levels. This electron in success shells are named as K, L, M, N, O & R. at increase distance outward from nucleus. Each of these shells has a maximum number of electrons for stability. The maximum number electrons in a filled inner shell can be determined by an easy formula 2n[sup:2gjphqbz]2[/sup:2gjphqbz]. Where n is the sequential order of the shell from nucleus. By this formula, the number of electron in first shell of atomic structure is 2, in second shell 8 and in third shell it is 18 and so on. This rule is only applicable to inner shells, not for the outermost shell of atomic structure.

For example, the atomic number of a copper atom is 29. So by applying this formula, we get, the number of electrons in the K, L, M and N are 2, 8, 18 and 1 respectively.

This outermost electron of an atom has least attraction force with nucleus, as the distance from nucleus is highest. So, this can be detached from the parent atom if external energy is supplied. When this loosely bonded electron is detached from the parent atoms, the positive charge of the atoms becomes positive. Then this atom is called an ion. If in a piece of element, these positive ions exist in higher number the element as a whole will have positive electric charge.

Specific Resistance or Resistivity of Materials.

The resistance of any piece of material depends upon its dimension i.e. length and its cross sectional area, type of material, the piece is made of and its temperature. Actually current in a substance, at a fixed temperature, for a particular potential difference across it, mainly depends upon the number of free electrons in the piece of material and the mean free path inside the materials. The number of free electrons in a piece of material depends upon the cross section of the piece and nature of the material the piece is made of. The mean free path that one electron has to travel to cross the material piece depends upon the length of the piece and also nature of the material it is made of. Again according to Ohms law the current through a conductor is inversely proportional to its resistance, for a fixed voltage. So it can be concluded that resistance of a substance is directly proportional to its length and inversely proportional to its cross sectional area.

What are Independent current and voltage source?

An ideal independent voltage source is an element capable of generating a specified voltage across its terminals irrespective of the magnitude and direction of current flowing through it. That means, whatever may be the current supplied by the source, the terminal voltage of the source will be constant for all values of supplied current. As the terminal voltage of this type of sources is independent of its current, the sources are referred as independent voltage source. In practical voltage source such as, battery, will be a voltage drop due to its internal resistance and that voltage drop increases with increase of current, and the output voltage across the load will be difference between, no load voltage, and the voltage drop due to internal resistance of the battery. No load voltage means, the voltage appears across the battery terminal, when no load is connected to it that means, current is zero. In actual voltage source, load voltage = No load voltage voltage drop in the battery itself. In ideal independent voltage source, these must not be any voltage drop in the source, hence, in ideal independent voltage source, voltage at any load will be exactly equal to its no-load voltage. The voltage of an ideal independent source may be constant or it may be a function of time. An ideal independent current source is an element that can supply any amount of energy at a constant specified current to any circuit connected to it. The current supplied by the source would be constant, whatever may be the terminal voltage of the source. The terminal voltage of an independent current source in determined by the conditions of the network to which it is connected.

What are dependent current and voltage source?

The depended current or voltage source is such a source whose output current or voltage depends upon current or voltage of another part of the network. In other wards, the current or voltage dependent source are those, whose output is the function of current or voltage of other part of the network. That means, the output of the dependent source is controlled by current or voltage of other part of the network. There are mainly four types of dependent source. 1) Voltage controlled voltage source (VCVS) 2) Current controlled voltage source (CCVS) 3) Voltage controlled Current source (VCCS) 4) Current controlled Current source (CCCS) Depended source are very useful in modeling certain types of electronic circuit.

Passive and active elements of electric circuit

A branch of electrical network which dose not contain any source, is generally referred as passive branch. The passive branch may consist of resistors, capacitors and inductors and other elements which are not sources of energy. These type of network elements which are not associated with energy source, are called passive element. Hence, passive branch of a network consists only passive elements or components. A branch of electrical network, consists of at least one active element, is called active branch. Active elements of a network are those which supply energy in the network. The network branch consists at least one active element may be alo0ng with other passive component, is an active branch.

Suppose one 1.5V battery connected with one 2 ohms resistance in series. One LED with a shunt resistance is connected across the series combination of battery and resistance. Here, the branch formed by LED & shunt resistor is referred as passive branch since it does not contain any active element. As the battery is an electrical energy source, it is an active element. Thus that branch of the said network, which contains the battery along with the 2 ohms resistor is called active branch of the network.

What is electric field intensity?

When an electric charge is placed within an electric field it experiences a force of attraction or repulsion depending on the nature of the charge and its position in the field. Electric field in a space is created by an electric charge. That means, when an electric charge is placed in a space, an electric field is created around it. If any other electric charge is brought in this electric field then the second charge will experience an electrical force. This electric force depends upon the strength of electric field, magnitude of the charge itself and the position of the charge in the electric field. If electric field is created by a electric charge q1, the q2 charge is brought inside that electric field and the distance between q1 & q2 is then according to Coulombs law the force experience by charge q2 will be, F = q1.q2/4.?.?.d2 The electric field intensity is a measure of force, experienced by a charge placed inside an electric field. Lets explain. If we divide the expression of above force by charge q2, we get, E = F/q2 = q1/4.?.?.d2 This E is nothing but the force experienced by a unit charge placed at the same location in the field. This is defined as electric field intensity. If we want to predict the force experienced by any charge placed at the same point in the field, then obliviously we have to multiply the magnitude of the charge with electric field intensity at the same point. Force experienced by charge q2 will be, E.q2 = F Similarly force experienced by a charge q at the same location will be E.q So, for measurement of force, experienced by any charge at a particular point in a n electric field in nothing but the product of magnitude of the charge and electric field intensity at that point.

What is electrical potential ?

Whenever a piece of mass is lifted above the ground level, against gravity, some work is to be done. The quantity of work is done, due to this lifting, is the product of gravitational force on the mass and the height the mass has been lifted. This work done, is added in the potential energy of the mass. Now think about an electrical charge which is entered in an electric field. As per nature of the charge, it will be attracted or repelled by the field. When the charge will move in the electric field, the work will be done against or by the electric force acting on the charge. So there must be some potential energy gained or lost due to this movement. Hence potential in an electric field is exactly the same as potential in the gravitational field. So potential at any point in an electrical field, is the work done due to movement of a unit positive charge to that point from infinitely long distance The potential difference of two points in an electric field is defined as the net work to be done for moving one unit positive charge from lower potential to the higher potential point. What is the unit of electrical potential difference? If the unit of charge in the above definition is taken as one Coulomb and the work done, is one Joule for bringing this one Coulomb charge from one point to another, then the potential difference of these two points is considered as unity and it is denoted as one Volt. If work done in bringing a positive charge of one coulomb from one point to another in an electric field is one joule, then the potential difference between the said points is considered as one Volt.

What are the different steps of thermal power generation

The total thermal generation process can be divided into two phases 1) Formation of steam 2) Generation of electrical power in the generator room. in the boiler house.

Different steps of thermal power generation are listed below, a) First the preheated feed water is fed into boiler. b) Then this feed water is heated up in the boiler vessel, by the heat, produced by boiler furnace. The boiler furnace is fired by pulverized coal. c) As the water is heated up, steam is formed at high pressure and temperature. d) This steam is then passed through super heater where it further heated up. e) This super heated and highly pressurized steam then enters into turbine through steam NOZZLE. f) Here in the turbine, this steam forcefully rotates the turbine blades.

g) Turbine blades assembly is mechanically coupled with alternator (generator) rotor shaft, hence the rotor rotates along with turbine blades assembly. h) As the rotor, rotates in alternator, electric power is generated, which can be fed to the power system network. i) The steam comes out from the turbine after doing its mechanical work for rotating turbine blades; it is fed to the condenser, where it becomes condensed in form of water. j) This water then again fed to the boiler via one feed water heater, as preheated feed water. These are the primary functional steps of thermal power generation.

What is lightning arrestor ?

Lightning arrestor is a device which is mainly installed across each phase and earth at the entry of the transmission line to the sub station yard. It can also be seen at HV and LV sides of all power transformer installed at the sub station. The modern LA is generally made of gap less ZnO. In this type of Lightning Arrestor required number of ZnO or zinc oxide discs are kept inside a hollow cylinder of insulated material such as porcelain. The column of ZnO discs is kept under spring pressure at its top or bottom under the hollow cylinder to ensure no gap between the discs in the column. ZnO has such a property that it behaves as short circuit during transient surge over voltage and over frequency of the power system and becomes like normal insulator when transient surge voltage is over. So when lightning strikes on the overhead transmission line, the over voltage impulse travel toward both ends of the line and bypasses through the lightning arrestor to ground at the entry of the sub station. As the transformer is the costliest equipment installed in the system, for better protection of each transformer is equipped with lightning arrestor at its both HV and LV sides.

How arc is initiated in circuit breaker?

During separation of contacts in circuit breaker the medium in between separating contacts become highly ionized through which the current gets high conductive path and through which the current continues to flow although the contacts are physically separated. During the flowing of current from one contact to other through medium, the path becomes so heated that it glows. This is known as arc.

Force on current carrying conductor in magnetic field.

It has been observed that when an current carrying conductor is placed inside an magnetic field, the conductor is experienced a force in the direction perpendicular to both direction of current and direction of magnetic flux. In the figure, a conductor lying vertically in a uniform horizontal magnetic field of strength H. If l is the length of the conductor tying within this magnetic field and i is the current through it, then the force experienced by the conductor will be F = B.i.l Newton

= ?o?r.H.i.l Newton The direction of the force F can also be determined by Flemmings Left Hand Rule. As per this rule, if any one holds out his or her hand with fore finger, second finger and thumb at right angle to each other, then his or her fore-finger will indicate the direction of magnetic field, the second finger will indicate the direction of flow of current and the thumb will give the direction of force or motion of the conductor. So far we have discussed about the force experienced by a current carrying conductor placed in perpendicularly in the field. The conductor inside the field may lie at an angle ? with the field. Then field strength H can be resolved in two components Hcos(?) parallel to the conductor and Hsin(?) perpendicular to the conductor. In this case the force experienced by the conductor will be F = B.i.l.sin(?) Newton.

Magnetic field due to straight current carrying conductor.

In the figure it is shown that a infinitely long straight conductor is carrying a current i in the upward direction. The magnetic field of such a conductor consists of circular lines of force having their plane perpendicular to the conductor and their centers at the center of the conductor. The direction of line of force can be determined by right hand rule as shown below Let the field at a point where a N pole is placed as shown in the figure, is H and the distance of that point from the center of the conductor is r. Field strength at that point is H means the N-pole wile experience a force of H Newton at that point. The direction of this force will be tangential to the circular force line. Now if the N pole is moved one round the conductor against this force, then work done is = Force X distance. W = H X 2?.r Joules (i) Again it can be proved (Which we are not discussing in this topic) that when a unit N-pole takes a round of a current carrying conductor, the work done is numerically equal to the current flowing through the conductor. That means

Work done in moving a conductor in a magnetic field

In the figure , it is show that the conductor AB lying perpendicularly to a uniform magnetic field whose lines of force are going inside the plane of the paper as indicated by blue crosses. It L meter of the conductor lying within that uniform magnetic field of flux density B and current flowing through the conductor is I then the force experienced by the conductor will be, F = BIL Newton The direction of this force can be determined by Fleming left hand rule as shown below. Now if the conductor travels total distance D meter against this force F, inside the magnetic field, then the total work done for that movement is,

W = F X D => W = BILXD Joules Now LXD = A = area swept by the conductor, Thus, W = BIA Joules Now BA is total flux Wb, cut by the conductor during swept, hence work done W = .I Joules Work done in moving a conductor in a magnetic field is expressed as Work done in Joules = flux cut in Wb X current through conductor in Ampere.

Difference between primary and secondary battery

You know about non-chargeable batteries and rechargeable batteries. The non chargeable batteries are those which can be used once and after its life span it has to be thrown off. Whereas rechargeable batteries can be used repetitively by recharging them with electric energy. The non-chargeable batteries are generally referred as primary batteries where as the rechargeable batteries are referred as secondary batteries. The secondary batteries are also known as storage batteries. Actually in primary battery cells, the chemical reactions responsible for delivering electrical energy, are irreversible. Once the reactions are completed there is no provision of reversing them. On the other hand a secondary cells can be recharged for making them ready for next operation. That means the chemical reactions take place inside the secondary cells are reversible. When load is connected to the secondary batteries, the forward reactions take place in the chemical of the battery for delivering electrical power to the load. This process is known as discharging of battery. Again when the secondary batteries are connected to the external electrical source, the chemical inside the batteries react in reverse way and the batteries become ready for next discharging operation. This process is known as charging of battery. Generally, primary cells are low in cast and easy to store and easy to use. Mainly carbon-zinc batteries and Alkaline Batteries predominate the market of primary battery. Although where very tiny current, long service life and very small size are required, Mercury based and Lithium based batteries are used. Secondary or rechargeable batteries are widely used in industrial and automotive applications. Actually secondary cells are preferred to be used where the user are ready to pay higher initial cost to ensure high current delivery in a consisting and reliable manner. Lead acid and nickel cadmium batteries mainly used for commercial applications. Nickel-hydrogen and silver zinc secondary batteries are used where performance requirements are more important than installation and maintenance cost.

What is internal resistance of battery ?

Every electrical equipment has some resistive value. Not only electrical equipment, all the materials in this universe has some non- zero value of resistance. Battery is an electric source so whenever current flows through it, it will offer some resistance to the current and this resistance is referred as internal resistance of battery. Suppose you are measuring the terminal voltage of a battery, and you are getting E volt. Now you connect one load with that battery and then measure the terminal voltage of that battery. Say, you get voltage V volt. V will obviously be less than E. Actually as soon as the load is connected with the battery, load current IL, starts circulating through the load as well as the battery. During passing through the battery the load current will face some resistance due to which there will be a voltage drop, and due to this terminal voltage

V across the battery becomes less than open circuit or no-load voltage E of the battery. If the resistance of battery or the internal resistance of battery is Ri then IL.Ri is the voltage drop due to this battery. And then, V = E IL.Ri Ri = (E V) / IL This the expression for internal resistance of battery.

Kirchhoffs Current Law and Kirchhoffs Voltage Law

Kirchhoffs Current Law The law talks about the conservation of charge across a point in an electrical network. According to this law, the total charge enters at a point in an electrical network is exactly same to the total charge leaves the point during a unit time. Think about a node in an electrical network, where numbers of branches connected together. Currents entering at the node through some the branches and currents are leaving from the node through other branches connected to that node. Now according to Kirchhoffs Current Law, total current enters that node is exactly equal to the total current leaves the node. In other words, the algebraic sum of all currents entering to the node through different branches is equal to the algebraic sum of all currents leaving the node through other branches.

If we consider all the currents entering the node are signed as positive and the currents leaving the node are signed as negative, the above statement can alternatively made that,

The algebraic sum of all currents meeting at a point or junction or node is zero. This is what Kirchhoffs Current Law. Kirchhoffs Voltage Law This law states that algebraic sum of emfs acting in any closed circuit or mesh is equal the algebraic sum of the products of the currents and resistances of each part of the circuit. That means,

∑ ir + ∑ emf = 0 .round a closed loop. If one starts from a point and he or she goes round the close loop till he or she comes back to the starting point, then he or she must be at the same potential with which he or she started. All the voltage gain on the way must be equal to all the voltage drops around the loop. If we consider rise of voltage or gain of voltage as positive and fall of voltage or drop of voltage as negative, then algebraic sum of all voltages along the loop is zero. We must remember that as we go from Ve terminal to +Ve terminal of the voltage source or other elements of the network, the voltage is considered as gaining voltage. On the other hand if we go +Ve terminal to -Ve terminal of any element, the voltage is considered as dropping voltage. NB: The sign of the voltage source emf is independent of the direction of the current through the branch. The signed voltage drop across the resistor depends on the direction of current through it. At the end of resistor, where current entering the resistor, is considered as positive and at the end where current leaves the resistor is signed as negative.

What is an inductor ?
To understand what is inductor, we should know the term self inductance.

When a current through a conductor,the conductor creates a magnetic flux proportional to the current flowing through it. So, when the current flowing through a coil changes , a time-varying magnetic field is generated automatically inside the coil, & according to Faradays law of electromagnetic induction, a voltage is induced in the coil as the law states that, the induced electromotive force in any closed circuit(here the coil) is equal to the rate of change in the magnetic flux through the circuit. In electrical dictionary, this particular phenomenon is called self inductance property. So, which electrical element shows this property, called as an inductor. The sign of an inductor is like :

The another property of an inductor is it can store energy in its magnetic field! A real inductor looks like this:

ONE THOUGHT ON KIRCHHOFFS CURRENT LAW AND KIRCHHOFFS VOLTAGE LAW

1.

2. What are the different types of relays?

3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. The generally used types of relays are, 1) Over current 2) Earth Fault 3) Under Voltage 4) Under frequency 5) Directional 6) Phase sequence 7) Differential 8) Distance 9) Thermal 10)Phase sequence.

14.

Duality of Thevenin and Norton theorem

15. In electrical network analysis system, electrical terms are associated into pairs called duals. So,hereby you should know the relationship in between Thevenin and Norton theorem. As we know that; 16. Thevenins theorem simplifies calculations and explanations of complex circuit operations. 17. Nortons theorem also simplifies complex circuits.

18. In both of the theorem the ultimate objective is to simplify complex circuit. 19. But, observe the twist: to find the Norton current we have to place a direct wire connection between the open load resistance points or directly shorted it and determine the resultant current, this step is exactly opposite the respective step in Thevenins Theorem, where we replaced the load resistor with a break (open circuit). 20. The current through a component or voltage across the element present in the branch network is determined using Norton and Thevenin theorem respectively. So ,we can say that they both are used to circuit analysis purpose. 21. So, we can say that both Thevenin and Norton theorem used to make simple any heavy circuit. Nortons theorem can be derived from the duality principle .It states that for any theorem in electrical circuit analysis there is a dual (opposite) theorem in which one replaces the original quantities with dual quantities. 22. Thus duality of Thevenin & Norton theorm is projected.

What is drift current?

Drift current is the electric current, or movement of charge carriers, which is due to an electric field applied to a circuit, or may be considered as due to a electromotive force over a certain distance. When an electric field that is a potential difference applied across a semiconductor material, the drift current is produced due to flow of charge carriers. The drift velocity is the average velocity of the charge carriers present in the drift current. If an electric field is applied to an electron (-) existing in a free space, it will accelerate the electron in a straight line from the negative(-) terminal to the positive terminal(+) of the applied voltage source. But the same thing does not happen in the case of electrons available in good conductors ,that is in metals like copper, aluminum etc. Because good conductors have huge numbers of free electrons moving randomly & this random movement of electrons will drift according to the direction of applied electric field and random movement of electrons in a straight line is known as drift current. Drift current also depends on the mobility of charge carriers in the respective conducting medium. Drift current in a p-n junction diode: In a p-n junction diode, electrons are the minority charge carriers in the p-region and holes(positive charges) are the minority charge carriers in the n-region. Due to the diffusion of charge carriers, the diffusion current, which flows from the p to n region, is exactly balanced by the equal and opposite drift current. But as minority charge carriers can be thermally generated, drift current is temperature dependent. When an electric field is applied across the semiconductor material, the charge carriers attain a certain drift velocity . This combined effect of movement of the charge carriers constitutes a current known as "drift current". Drift current due to the charge carriers such as free electrons and holes is the current passing through a square centimeter area perpendicular to the direction of flow. Drift current density, due to free electrons is given by: Jn = qn?E Amp / cm^2 Drift current density, due to holes is given by: Jp = qp(?p)E Amp / cm^2

n Number of free electrons per p Number of holes per ?n Mobility of electrons in ?p Mobility of holes in E Applied Electric Field Intensity q Charge of an electron = 1.6 10^?19 coulomb.

cubic cubic cm^2 cm^2 in

centimeter. centimeter / Vs / Vs V /cm

Explain Ohms law

One the most important & fundamental laws of electronics is the ohms law. This law defines the relationships between current, voltage and resistance. A good way to understand ohms laws is an analogy with a domestic water system. Thinking how? Lets see: Lets start with the terms present in the definition: V = voltage: The easiest way to think of voltage is to call it potential. We know the potential is something which is very useful to do work. Imagine two tanks of water connected with a pipe. If one tank of water is placed higher than the other then there is potential for water to flow from the high level tank to the low level tank. This water pressure is similar to that used to drive electricity around a circuit, called the potential difference, this is measured in volts. This potential difference is provided by a battery or in the case of huge electricity a generator at the generating station. I = current: As the water flows through the pipe in a water system due to potential difference ,in the same way an electric current flows through a copper wire. So, current is simply the transfer of something from one place to another. The standard unit of electric current is one ampere that is the current produced by a one volt source in a circuit having a resistance of one ohm. R = resistance: Resistance meaning anything that opposes the flow of current. In this case of two tanks of water connected by a pipe, imagine resistance is formed by the pipe. As the pipe gets wider, more water flows & as the pipe gets narrower, less water flows. If there were no pipe between the two bodies of water, we can say there is infinite resistance. The unit by which electrical resistance is measured is Ohm & one ohm is equal to the current of one ampere which will flow when a voltage of one volt is applied. Now that you got the concept ohm, volt and ampere, so now its the time to introduce you to the relationship in between them that is ohms law. The statement is, the electric current passing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference across it, provided that the temperature remains constant. The constant of proportionality is the resistance of the conductor. The definition above simply states that the current passing through a conductor increases if you increase the voltage. So, we can say: V proportional to I

Thus, V = IR, Where , V = potential difference in volts (V) I = current in amps (A) and R = the constant of proportionality that is the resistance.

What is the direction of conventional current flow?

In a closed circuit with a voltage source, there should be a flow of positive charges (+) & a flow of negative charges (-) but in opposite direction to each other. The flow of positive charges gives the same electric current, and has the same effect in a circuit, as an equal flow of negative charges in the opposite direction. Now the interesting fact arises, since current can be the flow of either positive or negative charges, what should be the actual direction of the conventional current flow? The solution of the mystery is the direction of conventional current is defined arbitrarily to be the direction of the flow of positive charges. As the negative charges or electrons flows from the negative terminal (-)to positive terminal(+) of the voltage source, so we can say that conventional current flows on the opposite direction, that is positive terminal(+) to the negative terminal(-) of the same voltage source. In electrical circuits, most widely used conductors are made of metals like copper & aluminum. But in metals, positive charges are immobile, and the charge carriers are electrons, but we know that electrons carries the negative charges. So by the above discussion ,we can say that electron motion in a conductor is in the direction opposite to that of conventional (or electric) current. It is a easy & daily application of the conventional current flow theory.

What is the difference between emf and potential difference?

As per the definition the emf or the electromotive force describes the force required to separate two charges at a given distance. Originally, emf was supposed to relate to problems involving moving charges, but early on, emf got adopted as being synonymous with battery or voltage source. Potential difference is simply a voltage difference between two points in a closed electrical circuit with a voltage source circuit (or in free space). So, the interesting fact is the potential difference can be a source of emf if it is used to move charges. The term potential difference is a general term and found in all the energy fields such as electric, magnetic and gravitational fields. But emf is only pertaining to electrical circuits. Although, both electrical potential difference and emf are measured in Volts (V), there are many differences between them. Potential Difference Potential is a function of the location, and potential difference between point A and point B is calculated by subtracting the potential of A from potential of B. In an electric field, it is the amount work to be done to move a unit charge (+1 Coulomb) from B to A. Electric potential difference is measured in V (Volts). In an electrical circuit, current flows from the higher potential to lower potential. EMF (Electromotive Force) EMF is the electrical potential difference provided by an energy source like battery. Varying magnetic fields also can generate an EMF according to the Faradays law. Although EMF is also a voltage an d measured in Volts (V), it is all about the generation of a potential difference.

So the important differences between Voltage and EMF is: 1. The term potential difference is used in all energy fields (electric, magnetic, gravitational), and EMF is only used in electric circuits. 2. EMF is the electrical potential difference generated by a source like battery or generator. 3. We can measure potential difference between any two points, but EMF exists only between the two ends of a source. 4. Sum of potential drops around a circuit is equal to total EMF according to Kirchhoffs second law.