Lecture 2

2
(a) (b) (c) (d)

Lecture 2 Objectives or Aims

explain the dual nature of matter and wave describe qualititatively the chr!din"er equation and the quantum numbers draw the shapes of atomic orbitals explain the #auli$s exclusion principle and write electronic confi"uration

At the end of this unit you should be able to;

2.0

Introduction

%n this lecture& we will see that to explain phenomena at atomic and molecular level& classical physics is inadequate& only the quantum theory will do' (his Lecture describes the current quantum model of an atom' (hou"h& the concept requires )nowled"e of some mathematics and physics& we will explain it& without ri"orously solvin" those equations' %n hi"h school you learnt electronic confi"uration of atoms' (he electrons are arran"ed in ener"y levels& labeled n*+& 2& ,& - etc' (hat the maximum number of electrons in each ener"y level is "iven by 2(n) 2' o (he first ener"y level can have a maximum of 2(+)2*2 o (he second ener"y level can have a maximum of 2(2)2*. o (he third ener"y level can have a maximum of 2(,)2*+.

o And so on /o explanation was "iven at that time' (he table below "ives the electronic confi"uration of the first twenty elements Atom 1 1e Li 2e 2 4 / O 7 1e Atomic number + 2 , 3 5 6 . 8 +9 0lectronic confi"uration + 2 2+ 22 2, 223 25 26 2.

ACTIVITY :sin" the )nowled"e learnt in hi"h school write the electronic confi"uration of the next ten elements (i'e' sodium to calcium) Atom Atomic number /a ++ ;" +2 Al +, i +# +3 +5 4l +6 Ar +. < +8 4a 29 0lectronic confi"uration

=e will now learn a more detailed method of writin" electronic confi"uration of elements'

2'+'9 >uantum ;odel of an Atom

Our current understandin" of the electronic structure of an atom is expressed in terms of quantum mechanics' A fundamental concept of quantum mechanics is that all matter has wave and particle?li)e properties'

2.2

De Broglie Equation- Dual Nature of Matter

#hysicists were mystified but intri"ued by 2ohr$s theory' (hey questioned why is the electron in 2ohr atom restricted to orbitin" the nuclear at fixed distances@ %n +82- the 7rench physicist Louis de 2ro"lie provided a solution to this puAAle' Be 2ro"lie reasoned as followsC %f li"ht waves can behave li)e a stream of particles (photons)& then perhaps particles such as electrons posses wave properties' DLi"ht can behave both as a wave and as particles (photons)' Li)ewise all matter (e'"'& electrons& protons E neutrons) can also behave as waves' 7rom 0instein relativity theory& the fundamental law relatin" ener"y 0& rest mass m9 and momentum p of a particle is
2

E 2 2 2 = p + m9 c c

(he rest mass of a photon is Aero& so m9*9 and therefore momentum is p =

E c

7rom #lan)$s quantum theory

E = h
(herefore E = h = mc 2 2ut p = mc
h h = c
h p

p = mc =

%mplyin" =

* wavelen"th of the movin" particle; hC #lanc)Fs constant 5'525 x +9?,- G's mC mass of the movin" particle' (hat is& all particles in motion have a wavelen"th that depends on the particle$s momentum' (he lar"er the momentum& the smaller the wavelen"th' D%n +826& Bavisson and Hermer at 2ell Laboratories showed that when a beam of electrons was directed at a nic)el crystal& a diffraction pattern was observed'

2.2.1

ei!en"erg #ncertaint$ %rinci&le

Bue to the dual nature of matter& both particles and waveli)e properties& it is impossible to simultaneously determine both the position and momentum of an object especially as small as an electron' (he position and momentum of a particle cannot be simultaneously measured with hi"h precision' (here is a minimum for the product of the uncertainties of these two measurements' (here is li)ewise a minimum for the product of the uncertainties of the ener"y and time'
h 2

xp

=here Ix * uncertainty in position Ip * uncertainty in momentum (his is not a statement about the inaccuracy of measurement instruments& nor a reflection on the quality of experimental methods; it arises from the wave properties inherent in the quantum mechanical description of nature' 0ven with perfect instruments and technique& the uncertainty is inherent in the nature of thin"s'

2.'

(a)e-*i+e %ro&ert$ of an Electron

An electron in an atom is viewed as a standin" wave' ome common examples of standin" waves areC a strin" attached at both ends to produce a musical tone in a "uitar and violin'

,igure 2.1

standin" wave

=e use the mathematical function J (Hree) #si)& called wavefunction to describe the wave?li)e behavior of an electron in a re"ion of space called the atomic orbital' J has positive and ne"ative amplitudes& li)e any wave'

,igure 2.2

Bue to the wave?li)e behavior of an electron& we cannot pin down its position and %n other words& we do not )now the e-act location of an electron and how it moves from

momentum at the same time (1eisenber" :ncertainty #rinciple)' one spot to another in an atom' %nstead& we can only !&ea+ of t.e &ro"a"ilit$ of finding an electron in a gi)en )olu/e of !&ace' (his is "iven by the function 02'

2.1

2c.r3dinger (a)e Equation

2ased on the wave?particle dual nature of electron&

chr!din"er developed a partial

differential equation to describe the behavior of an electron around an 1 atom' 1e received /obel #riAe in +8,,'

2 2 2 8 2 m ( E V ) = 0 + + + 2 2 2 2 x y z h
chr!din"er equation for a hydro"en atom (his equation shows the relationship between the wave function of the electron J& and 0

and K& the total and potential ener"ies of the system& respectively' (he derivation of this equation is beyond the scope of this course (will be derived in 41 299)' (here are many solutions to the chr!din"erFs equation' 0ach solution is represented by

the wavefunction& J& which describes an atomic orbital' (he :ncertainty #rinciple tells us that we cannot pin down the exact location and momentum of an electron at the same time' o chemists spea) of Lelectron cloudL or electron density around a nucleus'

An atomic orbital is defined as the boundary surface encloses 83M of the electron density

for a particular wavefunction J' 0ach atomic orbital (J) may be uniquely defined by a set of three quantum numbersC n l ml (the principal quantum number); (the orbital an"ular quantum number) and (the ma"netic quantum number)' ince electron behaves as if it is spinnin" about an axis& a spin quantum number ms is also

required to uniquely described an electron in an atomic orbital'

,igure 2.2

pinnin" electron

2.4 2$/"ol

5uantu/ Nu/"er! and t.eir %ro&ertie! Na/e Allo6ed Value! %ro&ertie!

#rincipal >uantum /umber

n * +& 2& ,& -& '''

determines the siAe and ener"y of an atomic orbital As n increases& the number of allowed orbitals increases& the siAe and ener"ies of those orbitals also increase'

Orbital >uantum /umber

l * 9& +& 2& '''& n?+

Bescribe the shape of an atomic orbital

ml

;a"netic >uantum /umber

ml = -l& '''& ?(l+)& 9& +& 2& ''' +l ms * ? N& O N

Bescribe the directionality of an atomic orbital

ms

pin >uantum /umber

Bescribes the orientation of the electron spin in space

Orbitals with different l values are )nown by the followin" labelsC L Label 9 s + p 2,-3P dfgh

Allowed values enable us to )now the maximum number of electrons in each ener"y level n + l 9 ml and ms 9 QR

2 electrons in +s orbital (otal of 2 electrons in the first ener"y level

9 + ?+ QR

9 QR 9 QR + Q R

2 electrons in 2s orbital 5 electrons in 2p orbital (otal of . electrons in the first ener"y level; 2 in s orbital and 5 in p orbitals

9 + 2 ?2 QR ?+ QR ?+ QR

9 QR 9 QR 9 QR + QR + QR 2 QR

2 electrons in ,s orbital 5 electrons in ,p orbital +9 electrons in ,d orbital (otal of +. electrons in the first ener"y level; 2 in s orbital& 5 in p orbitals and +9 in d orbitals

ACTIVITY :sin" the same ar"ument& show the maximum number of electrons for n*-'

2.4.1

7elation!.i& "et6een quantu/ nu/"er! and ato/ic or"ital!

(here is a relationship between the quantum numbers and the atomic orbitals' =hen l*9& (2lO+)*+& and there is one value of ml; thus we have an s orbital' =hen l*+& (2lO+)*,& so there are three values of ml; or three p orbitals& labeled px, py& and pz' =hen l*2& (2lO+)*3& and there are five values of ml& and correspondin" five d orbitals are labeled with more elaborate subscripts' (his is shown in the table 2'3'+ below' n + 2 , l 9 9 + 9 + 2 /l 9 9 ?+ 9 + 9 ?+& 9& + ?2&?+& 9& +&2 Nu/"er of or"ital! + + , + , , Ato/ic or"ital! De!ignation +s 2s 2px& 2py& 2pz ,s ,px& ,py& ,pz d xy & ,d yz & ,d xz & ,d x
,d z 2

y 2

&

2.4.2

Electron Coordinate!

(he four quantum numbers n, l, ml and ms enable us to label completely an electron in any orbital in any atom' 7or example& the four quantum numbers for a 2s orbital electron are n*2& l*9, ml*o and either ms*ON or ms*?N' %n practice it is inconvenient to write out all the individual quantum numbers& and so we use the simplified notation (n, l, ml, ms)' 7or the example above& the quantum numbers are (2& 9& 9& ON) or (2& 9& 9& ?N)' (he value of ms has no effect on the ener"y&

siAe& shape& or orientation of an orbital& but it plays a profound role in determinin" how electrons are arran"ed in an orbital'

2.4.'

T.e %auli E-clu!ion %rinci&le

(his principle states that no two electrons in an atom can have the same four quantum numbers' %f two electrons in an atom should have the same n, l and ml values (that is& these two electrons are in the same orbital)& then they must have different values of ms' %n other words& onl$ t6o electron! may exist in the !a/e ato/ic or"ital& and these electron! /u!t .a)e o&&o!ite !&in!' 4onsider the helium atom& which has two electrons' (he three possible ways of placin" two electrons in the +s orbital are as followsC QQ +s2 (a) RR +s2 (b) QR +s2 (c)

Bia"ram (a) and (b) are ruled out by the #auli 0xclusion #rinciple' %n (a)& both electrons have the same upward spin and would have the quantum numbers (+& 9& 9& ON); in (b)& both electrons have the downward spin and would have the quantum numbers (+& 9& 9& ?N)' Only the confi"uration in (c) is physically acceptable& because one electron has quantum numbers (+& 9& 9& ON) and the other has (+& 9& 9& ?N)' (hus the helium atom has the followin" confi"urationC

1e QR +s2 /ote that +s2 is read Sone s twoT& not Sone s squaredT'

2E*,-TE2T 5#E2TI8N2 i) List the different ways to write the four quantum numbers that desi"nate an electron in a ,p orbital' ii) List the different ways to write the four quantum numbers that desi"nate an electron in a 3d orbital

2.9

Ato/ic (a)efunction!

As we stated earlier& the concept quantum chemistry requires )nowled"e of some mathematics and physics& we will explain it& without ri"orously solvin" those equations' (his section introduces you to some of those concepts' %t is meant to help you appreciate that understandin" of mathematics and physics theories are necessary to fully understand the structure of atom' (he pictorial dia"rams in section 2'6 are mathematical functions derived from those equations' 1. A wavefunction U describes an atomic orbital' 7or most calculations& it is simpler to

solve the wave equation if U is converted from the 4artesian coordinates (x& y& A) to spherical J coordinates (r& V&W)' (he two sets of coordinates are related byC
x = r sin cos
y = r sin sin

z = r cos

7i"ure 2'5'+' (he relationship between 4artesian and polar coordinates (dia"ram ta)en from At)ins E hriver)' 2 %n spherical coordinates& y can be factored into a radial wavefunction X& and an an"ular

wavefunction AC
= R( r ) A(&) ( x& y &z )

'

7adial 6a)efunction 7:r;< Bescribes how the electron density chan"es with distance from the nucleus s orbitals have finite electron density Y R (r ) 9 Z at the nucleus but this drops off Other orbitals (e'"'& p and d orbitals) have Aero electron density YX (r) * 9Z at the nucleus'

exponentially as the distance from the nucleus increases'

,igure 2.9.2 #lot of Xadial =avefunction (in atomic units) versus distance r (in atomic units) from the nucleus (dia"ram from ;iessler E (arr)' (he point at which the radial wavefunction R (r ) = 9 (except the ori"in) is called a radial node' (he si"n of the radial wavefunction X (r) chan"es (from Ove to ?ve or vice versa) after passin" the radial node (he number of radial nodes for a "iven orbital is "iven byC Y n (l +) Z' ns orbitals have (n?+) radial nodes' 0'"' 2s has + radial node' np orbitals have (n?2) radial nodes' e'"' 2p has 9 radial node& ,p has + radial node' nd orbitals have (n?,) radial nodes' 0'"' ,d has 9 radial node& 3d has 2 radial nodes' nf orbitals have (n?-) radial nodes' 0'"' -f has 9 radial node'

+s orbitalC no radial node'

2s orbitalC two re"ions of maximum probability& separated by a spherical surface of Aero probability' (+ radial node) ,s orbitalC (hree re"ions of maximum probability& separated by two radial nodes'

,igure 2.9.' 2oundary surface dia"ram of s orbitals and electron density plots showin" the presence of radial nodes (dia"ram from [umdahl)' 1
2 7adial di!tri"ution function -r R ( r )

(ells us where an electron will be most li)ely found at a "iven distance from the nucleus' #lots of radial distribution functions for +s& 2s and ,s orbitals show that there is at least

one maximum and the fact that an electron tends to be further from the nucleus as its principal quantum number n increases' T.erefore t.e !i=e of an ato/ic or"ital get! increa!e! a! t.e &rinci&al quantu/ nu/"er n increa!e!.

#lots of radial distribution functions for ,s& ,p and ,d orbitals show that s orbital has

electron density closest to the nucleus than p and d orbitals' =e say that an electron in a s orbital is more penetratin" than that in a p or d orbital'

2 ,igure 2.9.1 #lot of radial distribution function -r R ( r ) for +s& 2s&2p& ,s& ,p& ,d orbitals

of the hydro"en atom (dia"ram from ;iessler E (arr)' 4 Angular 6a)efunction A(& ) (he an"ular wavefunction describes the shape of an atomic orbital and its orientation in space' (he an"ular function A(& ) is determined by the quantum numbers l and ml'

Angular node :nodal &lane;C the plane(s) on which the an"ular wavefunction

A(&) = 9 . (he si"n of the an"ular wavefunction chan"es (from Ove to ?ve or vice versa) after

passin" throu"h an an"ular node'

2.>

%ictorial 7e&re!entation of Ato/ic 8r"ital!

An atomic orbital is defined as a boundary surface which encloses 83 M of the electron density for a particular J' Atomic orbitals can be represented pictorially by boundary surface dia"rams (1E 7i"' 2'6'+& 2'6'2& 2'6',) or electron density contour plots (see overhead)'

! or"ital! l * 9& ml * 9& the an"ular wavefunction A(& ) is independent of the an"le q and f ' (herefore& an s orbital is spherically symmetrical about the nucleus'

,igure 2.>.1 2oundary surface dia"ram of an s orbital' (7i"ure ta)en from hriver E At)ins) %n two dimensions it is represented asC
A

s orbital & or"ital! l * +; ml * ?+& 9& O +' , possible orientation of p orbitalsC alon" the x& y and A axes' Bumb?bell shaped; electron density concentrated in identical lobes on either side of the nucleus' pA orbital has an an"ular node Y A(&) = 9 Z alon" the xy plane; px orbital has an an"ular node alon" the yA plane; py orbital has an an"ular node alon" the xA plane' (he electron density contour map shows that there is no radial node for the 2p orbitals but + radial node for the ,p orbitals' Ysee example +Z

,igure 2.>.2 2oundary surface dia"ram of p orbitals' (he li"htly shaded lobe has a positive amplitude; the more dar)ly shaded lobe is ne"ative (7i"ure ta)en from hriver E At)ins)' %n two dimensions they are represented asC
A
A

O
y x

?
x

?
y

O
x

pA

py

px

d or"ital! l * 2& ml * ?2& ?+& 9& O +& 2' (here are five d orbitals' dxy& dyA& dxA& dx2?y2 have clover leaf shape and have - lobes of maximum electron

probability centered in the plane indicated in the orbital label' (he four lobes are separated by two nodal planes throu"h the nucleus' dxy& and dx2?y2 are both centered in the xy plane while the lobes of dxy lie between the axis' dA2 has two lobes alon" the A axis and a LbeltL centered in the xy plane'

,igure 2.>.' 2oundary surface dia"ram of d orbitals' (he li"htly shaded lobe has a positive amplitude; the more dar)ly shaded lobe is ne"ative (7i"ure ta)en from At)ins)' %n two dimensions they are represented asC hriver E

dxy y

dxA

dyA

y x dx2?y2 dA2 (he shaded lobe has a positive si"n /ote the labellin" of the axes

2.? Nodal 2urface! and Electron Den!it$ Contour %lot! of Ato/ic 8r"ital!

,igure 2.?'

0lectron density contour plots for selected atomic orbitals showin" radial or an"ular nodes (dia"ram ta)en from ;iessler E (arr)'

2.@

Electronic Configuration

2.@.1

Energ$ *e)el! in

$drogen and 8t.er Ato/!

+ 2 ,

7or 1& the ener"y of the electron only depends on n& principal quantum number' (he s& p& d& f orbitals have the same ener"y' %n the "round state& the electron in the 1 atom resides on the +s orbital' 7or other atoms with more than one electron& electron?electron repulsion and shieldin" play a role so energ$ de&end! on angular /o/entu/ quantu/ nu/"er l a! 6ell a! t.e &rinci&al quantu/ nu/"er n' (he ener"ies of the atomic orbitals in multielectron atoms are arran"ed in the orderC ns \ np \ nd \ n f

,igure 2.@.1. Orbital ener"y level dia"rams for a hydro"en atom and multielectron atoms (dia"ram ta)en from ;c;urry E 7ay)' (his orderin" can be explained by considerin" the ability of havin" electron density closest to the positively char"ed nucleus in different atomic orbitals'

,igure 2.@.2 #lot of radial distribution functions& - p r2X(r)2& for +s& 2s& 2p& ,s& ,p& ,d orbitals versus radius r (dia"ram ta)en from 4otton& =il)inson E Haus)' 3
2 2 (he plot of radial distribution functions& - R ( r ) & for ,s& ,p& ,d orbitals versus radius

(r) shows the first maximum for the s orbital is closest to the nucleus than the p or d orbitals& i'e'& the s orbital has electron density closest to the nucleus' =e say that electrons in an s orbital can penetrate closer to the nucleus than an electron in a p& d& or f orbital can' ince orbitals with electron density closer to the nucleus are more stable& therefore& for a "iven n& the ener"y of the orbital increases in the orderC s \ p \ d \ f' (he effect is so pronounced for d and f electrons that they lie at hi"her ener"y than the

s or p of the (n O + ) shell in some cases' 0'"'& 0ner"y level of ,d ] -s& -d ] 3s; -f ] 3s& 3p' 7i"ure' Xelative ener"y level of various atomic orbitals in a multielectron atom (dia"ram from Xayner?4anham)' #lease note for the value of ns and (n ? +) d orbitals& there are crossover points (e'"'& -s \ ,d; 3s \ -d; 3s& 3p \ -f)& this becomes important when fillin" electrons in multi? electron atoms'

2.@.2

Electronic Configuration!

DBescribe how electrons distribute themselves in various orbitals in an atom' =e will learn the rules used in writin" electron confi"urations for the elements' (he process is based on the Aufbau principle ((he Herman word Aufbau means ^buildin" up$)

2.@.'

Auf"au %rinci&le

+ 2 ,

A set of rules "uidin" the fillin" order of orbitals' 7ill in electrons in the lowest ener"y orbital first' Only two electrons with opposite spins per orbital (because #auli exclusion principle says that no two electrons in an atom can have the same four quantum numbers)' %f two or more de"enerate orbitals (i'e' orbitals with the same ener"y) are available& electrons "o into each de"enerate orbital with parallel spins until the orbitals are half?fill (1undFs rule)'

2.@.1

8rder of 8r"ital ,illing in %ol$-electronic Ato/!<

,igure 2.@.' (he order in which atomic orbitals are filled in a many electron atoms' tart with the +s orbital and move downward& followin" the direction of the arrows' (hus the order "oes as follows +s_2s_2p_,s_,p_-s_,d_-p_3s_-dP'

2.@.4

,illing of electron! for t.e fir!t '0 ele/ent!

,illing of electron! for t.e fir!t '0 ele/ent! Atom 1 1e Li 2e 2 4 / O 7 1e /a ;" Al i # 4l Ar < 4a c (i K 4r ;n 7e 4o /i 4u [n Atom 1 1e Li 2e 2 4 / O 7 1e /a ;" Al i # 4l Ar < 4a c (i K 4r ;n 7e 4o /i 4u [n 0lectronic confi"uration +s+ +s2 +s22s+ +s22s2 +s22s22p+ +s22s22p2 +s22s22p, +s22s22p+s22s22p3 +s22s22p5 +s22s22p5,s+ +s22s22p5,s2 +s22s22p5,s2,p+ +s22s22p5,s2,p2 +s22s22p5,s2,p, +s22s22p5,s2,p+s22s22p5,s2,p3 +s22s22p5,s2,p5 +s22s22p5,s2,p5-s+ +s22s22p5,s2,p5-s2 +s22s22p5,s2,p5-s2,d+ +s22s22p5,s2,p5-s2,d2 +s22s22p5,s2,p5-s2,d, +s22s22p5,s2,p5-s+,d3 +s22s22p5,s2,p5-s2,d3 +s22s22p5,s2,p5-s2,d5 +s22s22p5,s2,p5-s2,d6 +s22s22p5,s2,p5-s2,d. +s22s22p5,s2,p5-s+,d+9 +s22s22p5,s2,p5-s2,d+9

2.@.9

T.e Around 2tate Electron Configuration of t.e Ele/ent!B

Atomic number

Atom

0lectronic confi"uration

Atomic numbe r

Atom

0lectronic confi"uration

Atomic numbe r

Atom

0lectronic confi"uration

+ 2 , 3 5 6 . 8 +9 ++ +2 +, ++3 +5 +6 +. +8 29 2+ 22 2, 223 25 26 2. 28 ,9 ,+ ,2 ,, ,,3

1 1e Li 2e 2 4 / O 7 1e /a ;" Al i # 4l Ar < 4a c (i K 4r ;n 7e 4o /i 4u [n Ha He As e 2r

+s +s2 Y1eZ2s+ Y1eZ2s2 Y1eZ2s22p+ Y1eZ2s22p2 Y1eZ2s22p, Y1eZ2s22pY1eZ2s22p3 +s22s22p5 Y/eZ,s+ Y/eZ,s2 Y/eZ,s2,p+ Y/eZ,s2,p2 Y/eZ,s2,p, Y/eZ,s2,pY/eZ,s2,p3 Y/eZ,s2,p5 YArZ-s+ YArZ-s2 YArZ-s2,d+ YArZ-s2,d2 YArZ-s2,d, YArZ-s+,d3 YArZ-s2,d3 YArZ-s2,d5 YArZ-s2,d6 YArZ-s2,d. YArZ-s+,d+9 YArZ-s2,d+9 YArZ-s2,d+9-p+ YArZ-s2,d+9-p2 YArZ-s2,d+9-p, YArZ-s2,d+9-pYArZ-s2,d+9-p3

,. ,8 -9 -+ -2 -, --3 -5 -6 -. -8 39 3+ 32 3, 333 35 36 3. 38 59 5+ 52 5, 553 55 56 5. 58 69 6+ 62

r a [r /b ;o (c Xu #d A" A" 4d %n n b (e % `e 4s 2a La 4e #r /d #m m 0u Hd (b By 1o 0r (m ab Lu 1f

Y<rZ3s Y<rZ3s2-d+ Y<rZ3s2-d2 Y<rZ3s2-d, Y<rZ3s+-d3 Y<rZ3s2-d3 Y<rZ3s2-d5 Y<rZ3s2-d6 Y<rZ3s2-d. Y<rZ3s+-d+9 Y<rZ3s2-d+9 Y<rZ3s2-d+93p+ Y<rZ3s2-d+93p2 Y<rZ3s2-d+93p, Y<rZ3s2-d+93pY<rZ3s2-d+93p3 Y<rZ3s2-d+93p5 Y`eZ5s+ Y`eZ5s2 Y`eZ5s23d+ Y`eZ5s2-f+3d+ Y`eZ5s2-f, Y`eZ5s2-fY`eZ5s2-f3 Y`eZ5s2-f5 Y`eZ5s2-f6 Y`eZ5s2-f63d+ Y`eZ5s2-f8 Y`eZ5s2-f+9 Y`eZ5s2-f++ Y`eZ5s2-f+2 Y`eZ5s2-f+, Y`eZ5s2-f+Y`eZ5s2-f+-3d+ Y`eZ5s2-f+-3d2

663 65 66 6. 68 .9 .+ .2 ., ..3 .5 .6 .. .8 89 8+ 82 8, 883 85 86 8. 88 +99 +9+ +92 +9, +9+93 +95 +96 +9.

= Xe Os %r #t Au 1" (l #b 2i #o At Xn 7r Xa Ac (h #a : /p #u Am 4m 2) 4f 0s 7m ;d /o Lr :nq :np :nh :ns :no

Y`eZ5s+-f+-3d3 Y`eZ5s2-f+-3d3 Y`eZ5s2-f+-3d5 Y`eZ5s2-f+-3d6 Y`eZ5s+-f+-3d8 Y`eZ5s+-f+-3d+9 Y`eZ5s2-f+-3d+9 Y`eZ5s2-f+-3d+95p+ Y`eZ5s2-f+-3d+95p2 Y`eZ5s2-f+-3d+95p, Y`eZ5s2-f+-3d+95p3 Y`eZ5s2-f+-3d+95p3 Y`eZ5s2-f+-3d+95p5 YXnZ6s+ YXnZ6s2 YXnZ6s25d+ YXnZ6s25d2 YXnZ6s23f25d+ YXnZ6s23f,5d+ YXnZ6s23f-5d+ YXnZ6s23f5 YXnZ6s23f6 YXnZ6s23f65d+ YXnZ6s23f8 YXnZ6s23f+9 YXnZ6s23f++ YXnZ6s23f+2 YXnZ6s23f+, YXnZ6s23f+YXnZ6s23f+-5d+ YXnZ6s23f+-5d2 YXnZ6s23f+-5d, YXnZ6s23f+-5dYXnZ6s23f+-5d3 YXnZ6s23f+-5d5

Atomic number

Atom

0lectronic confi"uration

Atomic numbe r

Atom

0lectronic confi"uration

Atomic numbe r

Atom

0lectronic confi"uration

,5 ,6

<r Xb

YArZ-s2,d+9-p5 Y<rZ3s+

6,

(a

Y`eZ5s2-f+-3d,

+98

:ne

YXnZ6s23f+-5d6

b(he symbol Y1eZ is called the helium c re and represents +s2' Y/eZ is called the ne n c re and represents +s2s2p5' YArZ is called the arg n c re and represent Y/eZ,s2,p5' Y<rZ is called the !ryp" n c re and represents YArZ-s2,d+9-p5' Y`eZ is called the xen n c re and represents Y<rZ3s2-d+93p5' YXnZ is called the rad n c re and represents Y`eZ5s2-f+-3d+95p5'

+ 2 ,

3 5

2 2#MMA7Y #lan)s quantum theory state that ener"y is absorbed or emitted by atoms or molecules in small discrete amounts (quanta)& rather than over a continuous ran"e' (his is "overned by the equation E = h# Li"ht and matter have the characteristic of both particles(Bual nature of li"ht and matter) (he chr!din"er equation describes the motions and ener"ies of subatomic particles in terms of quantum theory' %t tells us the possible ener"y states of the electron in an atom or molecule and the probability of its location in a particular re"ion surroundin" the nucleus' An atomic orbital is a function that defines the distribution of electron density in space' Orbitals are represented by electron density dia"rams or boundary surface dia"rams' 7our quantum numbers are needed to characteriAe completely each electron in an atomC (he principal quantum number n& which determines the main ener"y level& or shell of the orbital; (he an"ular momentum quantum number l& which determines the shape of the orbital; (he ma"netic quantum number& ml& which determines the orientation of the orbital in space; And the electron spin quantum number ms& which relates only to the electrons spins on its own axis' :sin" the Aufbau (2uildin"?up) principle we can determine the "round?state electron confi"urations of all elements based on atomic number'