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1999 by CRC Press LLC
perafIonaI Nodes
ol InsfrumenfafIon
2.1 Null Instiument
2.2 Deection Instiument
2.3 Analog and Digital Sensois
2.4 Analog and Digital Readout Instiuments
2.5 Input Impedance
2.1 Nu!! Instrument
The null method is one possible mode of opeiation foi a measuiing instiument. A null instrument uses
the null method foi measuiement. In this method, the instiument exeits an inuence on the measuied
system so as to oppose the effect of the measuiand. The inuence and the measuiand aie balanced until
they aie equal but opposite in value, yielding a null measuiement. Typically, this is accomplished by some
type of feedback opeiation that allows the compaiison of the measuiand against a known standaid value.
Key featuies of a null instiument include: an iteiative balancing opeiation using some type of compaiatoi,
eithei a manual oi automatic feedback used to achieve balance, and a null deection at paiity.
A null instiument offeis ceitain intiinsic advantages ovei othei modes of opeiation (e.g., see deection
instiuments). By balancing the unknown input against a known standaid input, the null method min-
imizes inteiaction between the measuiing system and the measuiand. As each input comes fiom a sepaiate
souice, the signifcance of any measuiing inuence on the measuiand by the measuiement piocess is
ieduced. In effect, the measuied system sees a veiy high input impedance, theieby minimizing loading
eiiois. This is paiticulaily effective when the measuiand is a veiy small value. Hence, the null opeiation
can achieve a high accuiacy foi small input values and a low loading eiioi. In piactice, the null instiument
will not achieve peifect paiity due to the usable iesolution of the balance and detection methods, but
this is limited only by the state of the ait of the ciicuit oi scheme being employed.
A disadvantage of null instiuments is that an iteiative balancing opeiation iequiies moie time to
execute than simply measuiing sensoi input. Thus, this method might not offei the fastest measuiement
possible when high-speed measuiements aie iequiied. Howevei, the usei should weigh achievable accu-
iacy against needed speed of measuiement when consideiing opeiational modes. Fuithei, the design of
the compaiatoi and balance loop can become involved such that highly accuiate devices aie geneially
not the lowest cost measuiing alteinative.
An equal aim balance scale is a good mechanical example of a manual balance-feedback null instiu-
ment, as shown in Figuie 2.1. This scale compaies the unknown weight of an object on one side against
a set of standaid oi known weights. Known values of weight aie iteiatively added to one side to exeit an
inuence to oppose the effect of the unknown weight on the opposite side. Until paiity, a high oi low
value is noted by the indicatoi pioviding the feedback logic to the opeiatoi foi adding oi iemoving
RIchard S. !IgIIoIa
C|emon Inverry
1999 by CRC Press LLC
weights in a balancing iteiation. At tiue paiity, the scale indicatoi is null; that is, it indicates a zeio
deection. Then, the unknown input oi measuiand is deduced to have a value equal to the balance input,
the amount of known weights used to balance the scale. Factois inuencing the oveiall measuiement
accuiacy include the accuiacy of the standaid weights used and iesolution of the output indicatoi, and
the fiiction at the fulcium. Null instiuments exist foi measuiement of most vaiiables. Othei common
examples include biidge ciicuits, often employed foi highly accuiate iesistance measuiements and found
in load cells, tempeiatuie-compensated tiansduceis, and voltage balancing potentiometeis used foi highly
accuiate low-voltage measuiements.
Within the null instiument, the iteiation and feedback mechanism is a loop that can be contiolled
eithei manually oi automatically. Essential to the null instiument aie two inputs: the measuiand and the
balance input. The null instiument includes a diffeiential compaiatoi, which compaies and computes
the diffeience between these two inputs. This is illustiated in Figuie 2.2. A nonzeio output fiom the
compaiatoi piovides the eiioi signal and diives the logic foi the feedback coiiection. Repeated coiiections
piovide foi an iteiation towaid eventual paiity between the inputs and iesults in the null condition wheie
the measuiand is exactly opposed by the balance input. At paiity, the eiioi signal is diiven to zeio by the
opposed inuence of the balance input and the indicated deection is at null, thus lending the name to the
method. It is the magnitude of the balance input that diives the output ieading in teims of the measuiand.
2.2 Dehectiun Instrument
The deection method is one possible mode of opeiation foi a measuiing instiument. A deection
instrument uses the deection method foi measuiement. A deection instiument is inuenced by the
measuiand so as to biing about a piopoitional iesponse within the instiument. This iesponse is an
output ieading that is a deection oi a deviation fiom the initial condition of the instiument. In a typical
foim, the measuiand acts diiectly on a piime element oi piimaiy ciicuit so as to conveit its infoimation
into a detectable foim. The name is deiived fiom a common foim of instiument wheie theie is a physical
deection of a piime element that is linked to an output scale, such as a pointei oi othei type of ieadout,
which deects to indicate the measuied value. The magnitude of the deection of the piime element
biings about a deection in the output scale that is designed to be piopoitional in magnitude to the
value of the measuiand.
FIGURE 2.1 The measuiand and the known quantities balance one anothei in a null instiument.
1999 by CRC Press LLC
Deection instiuments aie the most common of measuiing instiuments. The ielationship between
the measuiand and the piime element oi measuiing ciicuit can be a diiect one, with no balancing
mechanism oi compaiatoi ciicuits used. The piopoitional iesponse can be manipulated thiough signal
conditioning methods between the piime element and the output scale so that the output ieading is a
diiect indication of the measuiand. Effective designs can achieve a high accuiacy, yet suffcient accuiacy
foi less demanding uses can be achieved at modeiate costs.
An attiactive featuie of the deection instiument is that it can be designed foi eithei static oi dynamic
measuiements oi both. An advantage to deection design foi dynamic measuiements is in the high
dynamic iesponse that can be achieved. A disadvantage of deection instiuments is that by deiiving its
eneigy fiom the measuiand, the act of measuiement will inuence the measuiand and change the value
of the vaiiable being measuied. This change is called a loading eiioi. Hence, the usei must ensuie that
the iesulting eiioi is acceptable. This usually involves a caieful look at the instiument input impedance
foi the intended measuiement.
A spiing scale is a good, simple example of a deection instiument. As shown in Figuie 2.3, the input
weight oi measuiand acts on a plate-spiing. The plate-spiing seives as a piime element. The oiiginal
position of the spiing is inuenced by the applied weight and iesponds with a tianslational displacement,
a deection x. The fnal value of this deection is a position that is at equilibiium between the downwaid
foice of the weight, V, and the upwaid iestoiing foice of the spiing, |x. That is, the input foice is balanced
against the iestoiing foice. A mechanical couplei is connected diiectly oi by linkage to a pointei. The
pointei position is mapped out on a coiiesponding scale that seives as the ieadout scale. Foi example,
at equilibiium V |x oi by measuiing the deection of the pointei the weight is deduced by x V/|.
The ow diagiam logic foi a deection instiument is iathei lineai, as shown if Figuie 2.4. The input
signal is sensed by the piime element oi piimaiy ciicuit and theieby deected fiom its initial setting.
The deection signal is tiansmitted to signal conditioneis that act to condition the signal into a desiied
foim. Examples of signal conditioning aie to multiply the deection signal by some scalei magnitude,
such as in amplifcation oi flteiing, oi to tiansfoim the signal by some aiithmetic function. The
conditioned signal is then tiansfeiied to the output scale, which piovides the indicated value coiiespond-
ing to the measuiand value.
FIGURE 2.2 A null instiument iequiies input fiom two souices foi compaiison.
1999 by CRC Press LLC
2.3 Ana!ug and Digita! Sensurs
Analog sensors piovide a signal that is continuous in both its magnitude and its tempoial (time) oi
spatial (space) content. The defning woid foi analog is continuous." If a sensoi piovides a continuous
output signal that is diiectly piopoitional to the input signal, then it is analog.
Most physical vaiiables, such as cuiient, tempeiatuie, displacement, acceleiation, speed, piessuie, light
intensity, and stiain, tend to be continuous in natuie and aie ieadily measuied by an analog sensoi and
iepiesented by an analog signal. Foi example, the tempeiatuie within a ioom can take on any value
within its iange, will vaiy in a continuous mannei in between any two points in the ioom, and may vaiy
continuously with time at any position within the ioom. An analog sensoi, such as a bulb theimometei
oi a theimocouple, will continuously iespond to such tempeiatuie changes. Such a continuous signal is
shown in Figuie 2.5, wheie the signal magnitude is analogous to the measuied vaiiable (tempeiatuie)
and the signal is continuous in both magnitude and time.
Digital sensors piovide a signal that is a diiect digital iepiesentation of the measuiand. Digital sensois
aie basically binaiy (on" oi off ") devices. Essentially, a digital signal exists at only disciete values of
FIGURE 2.3 A deection instiument iequiies input fiom only one souice, but may intioduce a loading eiioi.
FIGURE 2.4 The logic ow chait foi a deection instiument is stiaightfoiwaid.
FIGURE 2.5 A theimocouple piovides an analog signal foi piocessing.
1999 by CRC Press LLC
time (oi space). And within that disciete peiiod, the signal can iepiesent only a disciete numbei of
magnitude values. A common vaiiation is the discrete sampled signal iepiesentation, which iepiesents
a sensoi output in a foim that is disciete both in time oi space and in magnitude.
Digital sensois use some vaiiation of a binaiy numbeiing system to iepiesent and tiansmit the signal
infoimation in digital foim. A binaiy numbeiing system is a numbei system using the base 2. The simplest
binaiy signal is a single bit that has only one of two possible values, a 1 oi a 0. Bits aie like electiical
on-off " switches and aie used to convey logical and numeiical infoimation. With appiopiiate input,
the value of the bit tiansmitted is ieset coiiesponding to the behavioi of the measuied vaiiable. A digital
sensoi that tiansmits infoimation one bit at a time uses seiial tiansmission. By combining bits oi
tiansmitting bits in gioups, it is also possible to defne logical commands oi integei numbeis beyond a
0 oi 1. A digital sensoi that tiansmits bits in gioups uses paiallel tiansmission. With any digital device,
an M-bit signal can expiess 2
M
diffeient numbeis. This also piovides the limit foi the diffeient values
that a digital device can discein. Foi example, a 2-bit device can expiess 2
2
oi 4 diffeient numbeis, 00,
01, 10, and 11, coiiesponding to the values of 0, 1, 2, and 3, iespectively. Thus, the iesolution in a
magnitude disceined by a digital sensoi is inheiently limited to 1 pait in 2
M
.
The concept of a digital sensoi is illustiated by the ievolution countei in Figuie 2.6. Such devices aie
widely used to sense the ievolutions pei minute of a iotating shaft. In this example, the sensoi is a
magnetic pick-up/voltage conveitei that outputs a pulse with each pass of a magnetic stud mounted to
a hub on the iotating shaft. The output fiom the pick-up noimally is off " but is momentaiily tuined
on" by the passing stud. This pulse is a voltage spike sent to a digital iegistei whose value is incieased
by a single count with each spike. The iegistei can send the infoimation to an output device, such as the
digital display shown. The output fiom the sensoi can be viewed in teims of voltage spikes with time.
The count iate is ielated to the iotational speed of the shaft. As seen, the signal is disciete in time. A
single stud with pick-up will inciease the count by one foi each full iotation of the shaft. Fiactions of a
iotation can be iesolved by incieasing the numbei of studs on the hub. In this example, the continuous
iotation of the shaft is analog but the ievolution count is digital. The amplitude of the voltage spike is
set to activate the countei and is not ielated to the shaft iotational speed.
2.4 Ana!ug and Digita! Readuut Instruments
An analog readout instrument piovides an output indication that is continuous and diiectly analogous
to the behavioi of the measuiand. Typically, this might be the deection of a pointei oi an ink tiace on
a giaduated scale, oi the intensity of a light beam oi a sound wave. This indicated deection may be
diiven by changes in voltage oi cuiient, oi by mechanical, magnetic, oi optical means, oi combinations
FIGURE 2.6 A iotating shaft with a ievolution countei pioduces a digital signal.
1999 by CRC Press LLC
of these. The iesolution of an analog ieadout is defned by the smallest usable inciement on its ieadout
scale. The span of the ieadout is defned by the diffeience between the minimum and maximum values
that it can indicate. Its iange specifes the minimum and maximum values that it can indicate.
A digital readout instrument piovides an output indication that is disciete. The value of the digital
output is diiectly ielated to the value of the measuiand. The digital ieadout is typically in the foim of a
numeiical value that is eithei a fxed numbei oi a numbei that is updated peiiodically. One means of
displaying a digital numbei is the seven-segment digital display chip, shown in Figuie 2.7, whose output
can be updated by alteiing the giounding inputs A thiough G. The iesolution of a digital ieadout is given
by its least count, the equivalent amount of the smallest change iesolved by the least signifcant digit in
the ieadout. The span and iange aie defned as foi analog instiuments.
Many digital devices combine featuies of an analog sensoi with a digital ieadout oi, in geneial, conveit
an analog signal to a disciete signal, which is indicated thiough a digital output. In such situations, an
analog to digital conveitei (ADC) is iequiied. This hybiid device has its analog side specifed in teims
of its full-scale analog iange, E
FSR,
which defnes the analog voltage span ovei which the device will opeiate.
The digital side is specifed in teims of the bit size of its iegistei. An M-bit device will output an M-bit
binaiy numbei. The iesolution of such a device is given by E
FSR
/2
M
.
2.5 Input Impedance
In the ideal sense, the veiy act of measuiement should not altei the value of the measuied signal. Any
such alteiation is a loading error. Loading eiiois can occui at any junction along the signal chain but
can be minimized by impedance matching of the souice with the measuiing instiument. The measuiing
instiument input impedance contiols the eneigy that is diawn fiom the souice, oi measuied system, by
a measuiing instiument. The powei loss thiough the measuiing instiument is estimated by P E
2
/Z
2
wheie Z
2
is the input impedance of the measuiing instiument, and E is the souice voltage potential being
measuied. Thus, to minimize the powei loss, the input impedance should be laige.
This same logic holds foi the two instiuments in a signal chain as the subsequent instiument diaws
eneigy fiom the pievious instiument in the chain. As a geneial example, considei the situation in
Figuie 2.8 in which the output signal fiom one instiument piovides the input signal to a subsequent
device in a signal chain. The open ciicuit potential, E
1
, is piesent at the output teiminal of souice device
1 having output impedance, Z
1
. Device 2 has an input impedance Z
2
at its input teiminals. Connecting
FIGURE 2.7 A seven-segment display chip can display any digit fiom 0 to 9.
1999 by CRC Press LLC
the output teiminals of device 1 to the input teiminals of device 2 cieates the equivalent ciicuit also
shown in Figuie 2.7. The potential actually sensed by device 2 will be
The diffeience between the actual potential E
1
at the output teiminals of device 1 and the measuied
potential E
2
is a loading error biought on by the input impedance of measuiing device 2. It is cleai that
a high input impedance Z
2
ielative to Z
1
minimizes this eiioi. A geneial iule is foi the input impedance
to be at least 100 times the souice impedance to ieduce the loading eiioi to 1%.
In geneial, null instiuments and null methods will minimize loading eiiois. They piovide the equiv-
alent of a veiy high input impedance to the measuiement, minimizing eneigy diain fiom the measuied
system. Deection instiuments and deection measuiing techniques will deiive eneigy fiom the piocess
being measuied and theiefoie iequiie attention to piopei selection of input impedance.
Dehning Terms
Analog sensor: Sensois that output a signal that is continuous in both magnitude and time (oi space).
Deection instrument: A measuiing device whose output deects piopoitional to the magnitude of
the measuiand.
Digital sensor: Sensois that output a signal that is disciete (noncontinuous) in time and/oi magnitude.
Input impedance: The impedance measuied acioss the input teiminals of a device.
Loading error: That diffeience between the measuiand and the measuiing system output attiibuted
to the act of measuiing the measuiand.
Measurand: A physical quantity, piopeity, oi condition being measuied. Often, it is iefeiied to as a
measuied value.
Null instrument: A measuiing device that balances the measuiand against a known value, thus achiev-
ing a null condition. A null instiument minimizes measuiement loading eiiois.
Readout: This is the display of a measuiing system.
Resolution: This is the least count oi smallest detectable change in measuiand capable.
Sensor: The poition of a measuiement system that iesponds diiectly to the physical vaiiable being
measuied.
Further Inlurmatiun
E. O. Doebelin, Measuremen Sysems, 4| eJ., New Yoik: McGiaw-Hill, 1990.
R. S. Figliola and D. E. Beasley, T|eory anJ Desgn [or Met|anta| Measuremens, 2nJ eJ., New Yoik:
Wiley, 1995.
D. Wobschall, Crtu Desgn [or E|etront Insrumenaon. na|og anJ Dga| Detes [rom Sensor o
Ds|ay, 2nJ eJ., New Yoik: McGiaw-Hill, 1987.
FIGURE 2.8 An equivalent ciicuit is foimed by applying a measuiing instiument to the output teiminals of an
instiument.