Genre in Three Traditions: Implications for ESL

Sunny Hyon
TESOL Quarterly, Vol. 30, No. 4. (Winter, 1996), pp. 693-722.
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Genre in Three Traditions:
Implications for ESL
SUNNY HYON
Calz$ornia State University, San Bernardino
Within the last two decades, a number of researchers have been
interested in genre as a tool for developing Ll and L2 instruction. Both
genre and genre-based pedagogy, however, have been conceived of in
distinct ways by researchers in different scholarly traditions and in
different parts of the world, making the genre literature a complicated
body of scholarship to understand. The purpose of this article is to
provide a map of current genre theories and teaching applications in
three research areas where genre scholarship has taken significantly
different paths: (a) English for specific purposes (ESP), (b) North
American New Rhetoric studies, and (c) Australian systemic functional
linguistics. The article compares definitions and analyses of genres
within these three traditions and examines their contexts, goals, and
instructional frameworks for genre-based pedagogy. The investigation
reveals that ESP and Australian genre research provides ESL instructors
with insights into the linguistic features of written texts as well as useful
guidelines for presenting these features in classrooms. New Rhetoric
scholarship, on the other hand, offers language teachers fuller perspec-
tives on the institutional contexts around academic and professional
genres and the functions genres serve within these settings.
I
n the past 15 years, the concept of genre has been the focus of a wave
of studies in a number of fields concerned with L1 and L2 teaching.
Traditionally a literary construct, genre has become a popular framework
for analyzing the form and function of nonliterary discourse, such as the
research article, as well as a tool for developing educational practices in
fields such as rhetoric, composition studies, professional writing, linguis-
tics, and English for specific purposes (ESP). Candlin (1993) has
marveled at the recent sweeping interest in genre across disciplines:
"What is it about the term and the area of study it represents that attracts
such attention? . . . Clearly, a concept that has found its time" (p. ix).
Similarly, Freedman and Medway (1994b) observe that in composition
studies, "the word genre is on everyone's lips, from researchers and
scholars to curriculum planners and teachers" (p. 1).
TESOL QUARTERLY Vol. 30,No. 4, Winter 1996 693
The growing force of the genre movement in L1 and L2 teaching
circles in various parts of the world is reflected in a recent proliferation
of genre conferences, including Australia's "Working With Genre" series
(1989,1991,1993) and North America's "Rethinking Genre" colloquium
(Ottawa, 1992). The movement has also sparked substantial debate,
particularly in Australia, where genre-based education has come under
attack from process writing proponents (see the debates in Martin,
Christie, & Rothery, 1987; Reid, 1987; Sawyer & Watson, 1987; Threadgold,
1988), although similar controversies have begun to take off in North
America as well (Fahnestock, 1993; Freedman, 1993, 1994; M'illiains &
Colomb, 1993).
Because of its fast-growing, controversial nature, genre scholarship
has been a complicated movement to understand in a number of
respects. It has been referred to as "a movement which . . . has the
positive potential to mean many things to many people" (Cope &
Kalantzis, 1993a, p. 2). It has also been on a fast track of change, with
conference titles such as "Rethinking Genre" (Ottawa, 1992) and "Strictly
Genre?" (Sydney, 1993) reflecting the dynamism of the field.
To understand all of the currents in this new area of study as well as
their implications for L1 and L2 teaching requires a close examination of
the various approaches to genre, particularly in three research traditions
where genre scholarship has been most fully developed and where its
theory and pedagogical applications have taken significantly different
paths. These three focal areas are (a) ESP, (b) North American New
Rhetoric studies, and (c) Australian systemic functional linguistics. To
date, few comparisons have been conducted of these genre worlds.
Although Freedman and Medway (1994d) have recently contrasted "the
stances of North American [New Rhetoric] scholars and Sydney School
genre educationalists" (p. l o) , a number of features of the New Rhetoric,
Australian, and ESP approaches to genre and genre-based pedagogy
remain to be investigated.
The purpose of this article is to provide a guide to current genre
theories and genre-based teaching applications in these three research
traditions and to explore their effectiveness for ESL reading and writing
instruction. The comparison is based on an examination of genre
scholarship and interviews conducted with researchers in the field. The
article begins by examining the definitions of genres and approaches to
text analysis central to ESP, New Rhetoric, and Australian systemic
functional research. I then examine the contexts and goals of genre-
based pedagogy within these research areas and explore the types of
instructional guidelines developed for implementing these applications
and the degrees to which they have affected educational sectors. I note
how forums of genre research as well as researchers' beliefs about the
usefulness of explicit teaching have shaped the types of genre-based
TESOL QUARTERLY 694
applications proposed. The article concludes by discussing the useful-
ness of various genre theories and pedagogical applications for L2
teaching contexts and raising several questions about the nature of
genre-based instruction within the ESL curriculum.
GENRE THEORY AND ANALYSIS
ESP Analyses
Researchers in ESP have been interested in genre as a tool for
analyzing and teaching the spoken and written language required of
nonnative speakers in academic and professional settings (Bhatia, 1993;
Flowerdew, 1993; Gosden, 1992; Hopkins & Dudley-Evans, 1988; Love,
1991; Nwogu, 1991; Swales, 1990a; Thompson, 1994; M7eissberg, 1993).
Scholars in this field have framed genres as oral and written text types
defined by their formal properties as well as by their communicative
purposes within social contexts. Swales (1981, 1986, 1990a), whose
research has been seminal in shaping genre theory in ESP, describes
genres as "communicative events" that are characterized both by their
"communicative purposes" and by various patterns of "structure, style,
content and intended audience" (1990a, p. 58). The concern for both
social function and form is echoed in other ESP definitions of genre
(Bhatia, 1993; Flowerdew, 1993; Hopkins & Dudley-Evans, 1988; Thomp-
son, 1994; Weissberg, 1993).
In their analyses of texts, however, many ESP scholars have paid
particular attention to detailing the formal characteristics of genres
while focusing less on the specialized functions of texts and their
surrounding social contexts. A number of researchers, for example, have
used structural move analyses to describe global organizational patterns in
genres such as experimental research articles (Swales, 1981, 1990a),
master of science dissertations (Hopkins & Dudley-Evans, 1988), medical
abstracts (Salager-Meyer, 1990), popularized medical research reports
(Nwogu, 1991), business letters (Bhatia, 1993), and university lectures
(Thompson, 1994). Others have looked at sentence-level grammatical
features, such as verb tense, hedges, and passive voice, in these text types
(Hanania & Akhtar, 1985; Salager-Meyer, 1994; Swales, 1990a; Tarone,
Dwyer, Gillette, & Icke, 1981).
New Rhetoric Studies
Research emerging from what have come to be known as New Rhetoric
studies (Coe, 1994a; Freedman & Medway, 1994a) reflects a somewhat
different approach to conceptualizing and analyzing genre than that
GENRE IN THREE TRADITIONS: IMPLICATIONS FOR ESL
695
found in ESP. New Rhetoric research describes a body of North Arneri-
can scholarship from a variety of disciplines concerned with L1 teaching,
including rhetoric, composition studies, and professional writing. Genre
scholars in these areas have differed from those in ESP as they have
focused more on the situational contexts in which genres occur than on
their forms and have placed special emphases on the social purposes, or
actions, that these genres fulfill within these situations (Bazerman, 1988,
1994; Campbell &Jamieson, 1978; Coe, 1994a; Devitt, 1993; Freedman &
Medway, 1994d; Miller, 1984, 1994; Schryer, 1993, 1994; Slevin, 1988;
Smart, 1993; Van Nostrand, 1994; Yates & Orlikowski, 1992). Miller's
article "Genre as Social Action" (1984) has been seminal in shaping New
Rhetoric genre theory within L1 disciplines. In it, Miller argues, "a
rhetorically sound definition of genre must be centered not on the
substance or the form of discourse but on the action it is used to
accomplish" (p. 151).
In line with their focus on the functional and contextual aspects of
genres, a number of scholars in New Rhetoric fields have used ethno-
graphic rather than linguistic methods for analyzing texts, offering thick
descriptions of academic and professional contexts surrounding genres
and the actions texts perform within these situations (Bazerman, 1988;
Devitt, 1991; Schryer, 1993,1994; Smart, 1992, 1993). Schryer (1993), for
example, in her discussion of the problem-solving veterinary medical
record genre, includes a verbal map of the college setting in which it is
used: "After walking through the oldest section of the complex, the
visitor descends the stairs and walks through a series of tunnels to arrive
at the Clinical Studies area" (p. 202). She used a variety of ethnographic
techniques, including participant observation, interviews, and document
collection, to investigate the purposes of the record within the medical
college and the attitudes of clinicians and researchers toward this genre.
Others have adopted ethnographic approaches to study genres in
scientific research communities (Bazerman, 1988), tax accounting firms
(Devitt, 1991), and bank offices (Smart, 1992, 1993).
Australian Genre Theories
Although Australian genre theories have developed during roughly
the same period as those of ESP and New Rhetoric studies, they have
evolved mainly independently of both traditions. Australian approaches
to genre have been centered within a larger theory of language known as
systemic functional linguistics, developed by British-born scholar Michael
~al l i day, who founded the University of Sydney's linguistics department
in 1975 and has since greatly influenced language theory and education
in Australia. Broadly speaking, systemic functional linguistics is con-
cerned with the relationship between language and its functions in social
TESOL QUARTERLY 696
settings. The forms of language are said to be shaped by key features of
the surrounding social context, defined by Halliday as jield (the activity
going on), tenor (the relationships between participants) and mode (the
channel of communication) (Halliday, 1978; Halliday & Hasan, 1989;
Hammond, Burns, Joyce, Brosnan, & Gerot, 1992). These three ele-
ments together determine the regzster of language (Halliday, 1978;
Halliday & Hasan, 1989).
Although register rather than genre has been Halliday's central
construct for analyzing language, some of his Australian students, most
notably Jim Martin, have developed theories of genre within a systemic
functional framework. Reflecting Halliday's concern for linking form,
function, and social context, Martin and his systemic colleagues have
defined genres as staged, goal-omented social processes, structural forms that
cultures use in certain contexts to achieve various purposes (Martin,
Christie, 85 Rotheq, 1987). In analyzing these social processes, Australian
genre scholars have differed from both ESP and New Rhetoric research-
ers in their focus on primary and secondary school genres and nonpro-
fessional workplace texts rather than on university and professional
writing (Callaghan, Knapp, & Noble, 1993; Christie, 1991; Hammond,
1987; Joyce, 1992; Martin, 1989.' Their analyses have resembled those of
many ESP researchers, however. in their attention to the linguistic
features characteristic of various genres. Freedman and lledway (1994d)
note that this concern with text form distinguishes the Australian work
from the sociocontextual genre descriptions in New Rhetoric: "There is
far greater emphasis by the Sydney School scholars on explicating
textual features, using Hallidayan schemes of linguistic analysis" (p. 9).
These schemes have focused on both global text structure and sentence-
level register features, associated with field, tenor, and mode (Christie,
1991; Hammond, 1987; Hammond, Burns, et al., 1992; Literacv and
Education Research Network [LERNJ, 1990a, 1990b, 1990c, 1990d;
Martin, 1991; Martin, 1993a; Martin & Rother).; 1980).
ESP, New Rhetoric, and systemic functional scholarship thus embrace
unique approache? to defining and analyzing spoken and written genres.
These different theoretical perspectives are reflected in the genre-based
teaching applications developed within each of the three research areas.
CONTEXTS AND GOALS OF GENRE-BASED PEDAGOGY
Genre-based pedagogy, in all its forms, involves some kind of class-
room consideration of genres and the contexts in which they are found.
' A few North American researchers have focused on genre-based pedagop for primary and
secondary school settings (Grabe & Gilbert, 1992: L~mke, 1988).
GENRE IN THREE TRA13ITIONS: IMPLICATIONS FOR ESL 697
In the three traditions discussed in this article, such pedagogy has
generally focused on written texts and been directed at writing class-
rooms, although some ESP researchers have recently discussed genre-
based applications for ESL oral communication (Dudley-Evans, 1994;
Thompson, 1994; Weissberg, 1993). Beyond these fundamentals, how-
ever, researchers in ESP, New Rhetoric, and Australian systemic func-
tional linguistics have developed genre-based pedagogy in different
directions and with different goals and educational sites in mind.
Contexts
ESP: EAP and EPC Classes
In ESP, researchers have focused on the implications of genre theory
and analysis for English for academic purposes (EAP) and English for
professional communication (EPC) classrooms. Scholars working in
these contexts have proposed that genre-based applications can help
nonnative speakers of English master the functions and linguistic
conventions of texts that they need to read and write in their disciplines
and professions (Bhatia, 1993; Flowerdew, 1993; Swales, 1990a).
As might be expected from their formal text analyses, many ESP
researchers particularly emphasize the teaching of genre structures and
grammatical features. Researchers examining scientific genres, for ex-
ample, have suggested that their analyses offer pedagogically useful
information for helping students control the organizational and stylistic
features of these texts (Gosden, 1992; Love, 1991; Salager-Meyer, 1994;
Swales, 1981, 1990a). In his early work in ESP, Swales (1981) suggested
that one of his aims was to help students follow the linguistic conventions
of the research article introduction in their own texts. In this way, he saw
himself as a "prescriptive teacher . . . requiring my students to demon-
strate to my satisfaction that they can communicate effectively within the
confines and constraints of the models I have constructed" (p. 88).
New Rhetoric: University and Professions
By contrast, New Rhetoric researchers, in line with their theoretical
focus on sociocontextual aspects of genres, have predictably been less
concerned with the potential of genre theory for teaching text form and
more with its role in helping university students and novice professionals
understand the social functions or action,s of genres and the contexts in
which these genres are used (Bazerman, 1988; Devitt, 1993; Freedman &
Medway, 1994b; Miller, 1994). Miller suggests that concern with genre
function should be central to writing instruction, arguing that "the
TESOL QUARTERLY 698
failure to understand genre as social action afflicts the typical first-year
college writing program in the United States; it turns what should be a
practical art of achieving social ends into a productive art of making texts
that fit certain formal requirements" (p. 67). Similarly, Bazerman, an
expert in scientific rhetoric, suggests that the goal of writing pedagogy
should not be just to give students "the formal trappings of the genres
they need to work in" but to enhance students' understanding of all of
the "life" embodied in texts (p. 320). He argues that knowledge of social
contexts surrounding texts is essential for helping writers select rhetoric
that is appropriate for their situations: "The more you understand the
fundamental assumptions and aims of the community, the better able
you will be . . . to evaluate whether the rhetorical habits you and your
colleagues bring to the task are appropriate and effective" (p. 323).
Freedman and Medway also contend that in learning a genre, "what has
to be attended to . . . are features of the situation . . . . Knowing the gross
surface features is the easy part, and insufficient on its own" (pp. 11-12).
Indeed, the work of New Rhetoric scholars has begun to influence
ESP genre theory and practice (Bhatia, 1993; Johns, 1993a; Swales,
1990a, 1993). Both Bhatia and Swales discuss the research of Carolyn
Miller and attend to contextual and functional issues in their definitions
of texts and aims for genre-based pedagogy.
Australia: Primay, Seconday, and Adult Education
In Australia, the contexts as well as some of the goals for genre-based
instruction have differed from those of both ESP and New Rhetoric.
Although some systemic pedagogical efforts have been directed toward
tertiary education (Drury & Webb, 1991), genre-based applications have
been centered mainly in child and adolescent contexts-primary and
secondary schools-and more recently in adult migrant English educa-
tion and workplace training programs. Genre-based instruction began as
"an educational experiment" (Cope & Kalantzis, 1993a, p. 1) in Sydney
schools as researchers examined the types of writing primary school
students were producing in progressive, process writing classrooms
(Martin, 1989, 1991). Out of a concern that students were not being
prepared to write a range of text types, genre experts began to develop a
new approach to literacy education. In the late 1980s, a number of
researchers (including Mike Callaghan, Bill Cope, Anne Cranny-Francis,
Mary Kalantzis, Peter Knapp, Gunther Kress, Mary Macken, Robyn
Mamouney, Jim Martin, Joan Rothery, and Diana Slade) founded the
Literacy and Education Research Network (LERN) (Cope, Kalantzis,
Kress, & Martin, 1993, p. 239), which was committed to developing an
instructional approach that would help students master a variety of
GENRE IN THREE TRADITIONS: IMPLICATIONS FOR ESL
699
school genres, including those linked to what Martin (1989) has called
factual writing,such as reports, procedures, expositions, and explanations.
Since these school initiatives, a number of Australian adult sectors
have also developed genre-based applications. Hammond, Wickert,
Burns, Joyce, and Miller (1992) report that 42% of the adult language
and literacy experts they surveyed "cited the genre based approach and
systemic linguistics, from which the notion of genre derives, as informing
their organisations' views of literacy" (p. 60). One adult sector that has
adopted a genre-based orientation is the New South Wales Adult Migrant
English Service (NSW AMES) , an organization that provides a variety of
government-supported English courses to newly arrived migrants from
non-English-speaking backgrounds. This state AMES operates under the
national Adult Migrant English Program (AMEP), the largest govern-
ment-funded language teaching program in the world, serving approxi-
mately 42,000 students each year (Strong & Candlin, 1993; Helen Joyce
and Susan Hood, personal communication, December 1994). The AMES
has also aligned its genre-based curriculum with competency-based
workplace training initiatives recently instituted by the Australian federal
government to enhance the competitiveness of Australian industries
(Feez & Joyce, 1995; National Training Board, 1992). The central
curriculum document of the AMES says it "responds to the National
Training Reform Agenda" (Hagan et al., p. 8) and has been linked to the
enhancement of "labour market productivity of migrants from non-
English speaking backgrounds" (Strong & Candlin, 1993, p. i).
Goals
Helping Students Succeed
The aims of genre-based pedagogy in these different Australian
contexts have been similar to those of both ESP and New Rhetoric in
their overarching concern with helping students become more success-
ful readers and writers of academic and workplace texts. Callaghan
(1991) contends that the goal of systemic functional grammar and
genre-based teaching for primary and secondary schools is to help
students "participate effectively in the school curriculum and the broader
community" (p. 72). In achieving this goal, Australian researchers
acknowledge the importance of teaching the social functions and
contexts of texts described in Martin, Christie, and Rothery's (1987)
definition of genres as staged, goal oriented social proce.rs~s (Callaghan,
Knapp, & Noble, 1993; Hammond, 1987; Kress, 1993). Hammond
observes that "what such [genre-based] programs have in common is,
first of all, an emphasis on the function and meaning of language in
context" (p. 172).
TESOI, QUARTERLY 700
However, as in ESP, emphasis has also been placed on teaching
students the formal, staged qualities of genres so that they can recognize
these features in the texts that they read and use them in the texts that
they write (Christie, 1991, 1992; Hagan et al., 1993; Hammond, 1987;
LERN, 1990a, 1990b, 1990c, 1990d). Hammond asserts that part of
genre-based instruction involves classroom discussion of text structure,
"of how to best begin and end [a text], of what to put in the middle, of
how best to organize information" (p. 173). Similarly, Hagan et al.
contend that "it is essential to make the structures and features of the
text explicit. Mastery of text types does not develop naturally and we
need to intervene by introducing models and analysing them" (p. 11).
Empowering Students
The Australian concern for teaching the discourse conventions of
school and workplace genres is often framed in ideological terms, with
genre-based instruction described as a tool for empowering students with
linguistic resources for social success (Christie, 1989, 1991; Cope &
Kalantzis, 1993a; Knapp, 1991; Kress, 1993; Martin, 1993b). Certain
genres have been argued to offer "their users access to . . . certain realms
of social influence and power" (Cope & Kalantzis, p. 7; see also Christie,
1991). Some of the target populations that Australian researchers have
attempted to reach with "powerful" school genres, such as report and
exposition, have been those from minority and other nonmainstream
groups who have had less exposure to such texts than mainstream
students have (Cope & Kalantzis, 1993a; Hammond, 1987). Sydney's
Metropolitan East Disadvantaged Schools, central to the initial genre
efforts, have "approximately 90% of their students from non-English
speaking backgrounds and the highest number of Aboriginal students of
any region in this state" (Knapp, p. 46).2
In the adult sector, some of the new migrants served by the AMES as
well as other workplace training programs are also those from limited
educational and non-English-speaking backgrounds (Hagan et al., 1993;
Kalantzis & Solomon, 1993). In its concern for giving various learner
groups access to linguistic and social resources, Kress (1993) argues,
"genre work [in Australia] has been both a pedagogical and political
project" (p. 28). Similarly, Christie (1991) proposes that teaching
students about genres and language in general is an ideological matter
of social justice, insisting that "as long as we leave matters of language use
available to some and not to others, then we maintain a society which
permits and perpetuates injustice of many kinds" (p. 83).
Statistics given as current in Knapp (1992).
GENRE IN THREE TRADITIONS: IMPLICATIONS FOR ESL
New Rhetoric genre studies have not been as ideologically charged in
their discussions of genre-based teaching. Freedman and Medway (1994d)
observe that "this liberationist stance has been absent" along with "the
vocabulary of power and domination" (p. 10). The lack of political edge
here can be attributed at least in part to the fact that many of the learner
groups in focus are mainstream undergraduate and graduate students
and professionals (Bazerman, 1988; Freedman, 1994; Kdlingsworth &
Gilbertson, 1992; Schryer, 1993, 1994; Smart, 1992, 1993), who are not
likely to be perceived as needing the same degree of empowering as
some of the key Australian populations.
The absence of strong ideological language in ESP genre work may be
due to similar reasons. Although ESP applications aim to help nonnative
speakers acquire the genres of English-speaking discourse communities,
these learners may not always be viewed as needing empowerment and
liberation perhaps because, as Johns (1993b) observes, they are often
graduate students and others representing "the educational and eco-
nomic elite of the world" (p. 85).
INSTRUCTIONAL FRAMEWORKS
In converting their pedagogical goals into action, ESP, New Rhetoric,
and Australian genre scholars have varied in the amount and types of
guidelines developed for bringing genre into language classrooms.
The ESP Framework
In ESP, many researchers have presented their descriptions of genres
as useful discourse models for ESP writing instructors but have not
detailed instructional methodologies for presenting this content in the
classroom (Gosden, 1992; Hanania & Akhtar, 1985; Hopkins & Dudley-
Evans, 1988; Love, 1991; Nwogu, 1991; Tarone et al., 1981). Hopkins and
Dudley-Evans, for example, offer their analysis of cyclical move patterns
in scientific master's dissertations as a "teaching/learning resource" (p.
120) for ESP classrooms but do not describe how to convert this model
into materials and tasks, saying only, "We regard it as self-evident that the
description and classification of genres and subgenres will be of value to
teachers and learners" (p. 119).
Some ESP genre specialists, however, have been more explicit about
teaching applications (Bhatia, 1993; Flowerdew, 1993; Swales, 1990a;
Weissberg & Buker, 1990). Swales (1990a), for example, discusses class-
room tasks used in his Dissertation, Thesis, and Prospectus Writing class
to help nonnative speakers become better writers of the genre of request
letters to academics. He also suggests activities for teaching the structure
TESOL QUARTERLY 702
of research article introductions, including marking up texts with
colored pens and reconstructing the proper order of a jumbled intro-
duction (Swales, 1981, 1990a). More recently, Swales and Feak's (1994)
textbook Academic Writing for Graduate Students provides models of
rhetorical forms, such as problem-solution and data commentary, as well
as language analysis tasks aimed at helping nonnative-speaking graduate
students master these discourse conventions in their own writing.
In the Asian ESP world, Bhatia (1993) has converted his analyses of
business and scientific genres into a set of self-access English for business
and technology (EBT) materials for several polytechnic universities in
Singapore. Developed by Bhatia and other EBT specialists, this two-
volume set of materials provides students with models of genres such as
the sales promotion letter, business memo, job application, and lab
report as well as a set of worksheets for identifying the language
strategies in these genres and for constructing business and scientific
texts using these strategies. Flowerdew (1993) also describes activities he
uses to raise students' genre awareness in EPC courses at the City
Polytechnic of Hong Kong. Arguing that there is no way "to predict the
wide range of possible genres students of English for Professional
Communication will need to participate in" (p. 309), he proposes that
students be trained in the techniques of text analysis that they can use to
identify the discourse conventions of new genres outside of the class-
room. Such techniques include "flow chart" analyses of genre structure,
"gap filling" of structural slots, and "concordancing" of verb forms found
in genres such as the sales letter (Flowerdew, 1993, pp. 310-312).
The New Rhetoric Framework
In contrast to the applied focus of some of this ESP work, New
Rhetoric literature has generally lacked explicit instructional frameworks
for teaching students about the language features and functions of
academic and professional genres. As Freedman and Medway (1994d)
note, "Direct translations into teaching are almost entirely absent" (p.
10). Like some in ESP, New Rhetoric scholars have focused on providing
descriptions of genres and their contexts and left it up to readers to infer
their own teaching applications (Bazerman, 1988; Giltrow, 1994; Miller,
1984, 1994; Park & Smart, 1994; Schryer, 1993; Van Nostrand, 1994; Yates
& Orlikowski, 1992). Only in the last paragraph of her article "Genre as
Social Action," for example, does Miller (1984) state that such a theory
"has implications . . . for rhetorical education" (p. 165).
The recent work of a few L1 scholars, however, has reflected a greater
focus on applications. Freedman and Medway's Learning and Teaching
Genre ( 1994~) is the first collection of research to consider how New
Rhetoric genre theory, with its emphasis on text context and function,
GENRE IN THREE TR4DITIONS: IMPLICATIONS FOR ESL
703
can inform L1 composition instruction. In this volume, Coe (1994b)
describes classroom procedures for raising university students' awareness
of the social contexts that shape their writing. At the top of each
assignment, he asks students to specify the features of the rhetorical
situation, including the purpose of the text, the audience of the text, and
the circumstances of the writing. He then assesses the student's text
based on how well it responds to this context. Also in the Freedman and
Medway volume, Bialostosky (1994) describes how he focuses students'
attention on everyday speech genres, such as apologies, in teaching
poetry in undergraduate literature courses.
The Australian Framework
In contrast with the relatively few discussions of classroom methodol-
ogy in New Rhetoric, the Australian systemic functional literature has
promoted several instructional frameworks for implementing genre-
based pedagogy (Cope et al., 1993; Hammond, Burns, et al., 1992; Joyce,
1992; LERN, 1990a, 1990b, 1990c, 1990d). In the schools, the LERN
project has worked with Sydney's Disadvantaged Schools Program to
develop the most widely recognized Australian model for genre instruc-
tion (Cope & Kalantzis, 1993a; Cope et al., 1993; LEW, 1990a). This
model maps out a "teaching-learning cycle . . . in the figure of a wheel"
(Cope & Kalantzis, p. 10). Shown in Figure 1. the teaching-learning cycle
outlines the process of genre instruction in three phases: modeling,joint
negotiation of text, and independent construction of text.
As described in the figure, the modelling phase involves teacher-led
presentation of text type(s) and their various features, including "what
the texts are for (functions), how the information in the [texts] is
organised (schematic structure) and aspects of the way the text 'speaks'
(lexico-grammatical features)" (Cope &Kalantzis, 1993a, p. 10) ."Phase 2
of the cycle, the joint negotiation phase, involves a negotiating process
between the teacher and the class in which "the teacher . . . acts as a
scribe for the class group and shapes the students' contributions into a
text which approximates to the genre under focus" (LERN, 1990a, p.
11).The rationale for the close guidance of the teacher in both the
rnodelling and joint construction stages is that "language acquisition . . .
is really highly interventionist" (Callaghan, Knapp, & Noble, 1993, p.
181; see also Martin, 1986). In the next stage, students are given an
opportunity to construct an instance of the genre on their own. The
' Callaghan, Knapp, &Noble (1993) note that the social context of a genre is also modeled.
This context can be specific to "an educational setting or subject . . . or- a hider social activity"
(p. 181). For example, one teacher they observed linked the explanation genre to the topic of
the "greenhouse effect" (pp. 183-188).
701 TESOI. QUARTERLY
*Vote.Froni Teaching Factual Writing: A Geme-Based Approach. &port of the Dzjnduantaged
Schools PT-ogam Literucj Project (p. 39), by M. Callaghan and J . Rothev, 1988, Sydney,
Australia: Metropolitan East Disadvantaged Schools Program. Copyright 1988 by
hletropolitan East Disadvantaged Schools Program. Reprinted with permission.
cycle is meant to be used flexibly, with teachers encouraged to enter and
reenter into the cycle "in a way that best meets students needs"
(Callaghan, Knapp, & Noble, p. 182). Some adult language and literacy
researchers have used a revised version of the LERN cycle with an
additional segment called building knozuledge of the $eld, which aims to
develop students' knowledge of the social context and content topic of
the genre at hand (Hammond, Burns, et al., 1992; Joyce, 1992).
Researchers in the Australian adult ESL sector have also developed a
GENRE IN THREE TRADITIONS: 1MPI.ICATIONS FOR ESL 705
model for genre-based curricula within a competency framework pro-
moted by national workplace training reforms (Hagan et al., 1993;
National Training Board, 1992). The NSW AMES's CertzJicnte i n Spoken
and Written English outlines specific English language competency areas
for migrant English programs in terms of genres (Hagan et al.). As
shown in Figure 2, one of the competencies in the vocational English
strand is described as the ability to write a procedural text. The elements
of this competency are defined as the "essential linguistic features of the
text" (Hagen et al., p. 69), including purpose, schematic structure,
vocabulary, and grammatical forms. For each genre competency, the
Certz$cate describes a set of performance criteria indicating students'
mastery of the text elements as well as sample texts and tasks for assessing
learner facility with the genre.
Reasons for Differences in
Instructional Frameworks
The differences in the attention given to genre-based instructional
methodology in ESP, New Rhetoric, and Australian systemic functional
linguistics can be attributed to several factors, including the publication
forums and consumers of these different bodies of research as well as
researchers' beliefs about the efficacy of explicit genre teaching for
language classrooms.
Different Audiences
In ESP, a significant amount of work on genre has been published in
research journals such as English for Speczjic Purposes (Gosden, 1992;
Hanania & Akhtar, 1985; Hopkins & Dudley-Evans, 1988; Love, 1991,
1993; Nwogu, 1991; Salager-Meyer, 1994; Tarone et al., 1981; Thompson,
1994; Weissberg, 1993) and Text (Salager-Meyer, 1990), which are geared
toward academic readers with a strong interest in discourse analysis.
Similarly, New Rhetoric work on genre has been published in scholarly
journals such as College Composition and Communiration (Devitt, 1993),
Quarterly Journal of Speech (Miller, 1984), and Written Communication
(Berkenkotter & Huckin, 1993; Schryer, 1993) as well as books directed
at academic audiences (Bazerman, 1988; Freedman & Medway, 1994a,
1994c; Jhllingsworth & Gilbertson, 1992). The scholarly nature of these
publications and their readers helps account for the focus of much ESP
and New Rhetoric research on genre theory and text analyses rather
than on programmatic teaching models and materials.
Although it shares some of the types of research forums and audiences
of ESP and New Rhetoric work, Australian genre literature has been
aimed at different consumers as well, leading to a greater emphasis on
TESOL QUARTERLY 706
FIGURE 2
Competency as Genre
/ 11.Can write procedural texts relevant to the workplace context
Purpose demonstrates topics familiar/ / Texts
i. has knowledge understanding of
,
relevant ' job procedure
of the purpose purpose of text i
of the text and recourse to i safety pr oci d~r es
can write a
procedural text ( by reader
__i__ 150-200 words learners write a
Discourse structure uses appropriate in length I safety procedure
ii. can produce text I layout I
with appro- 1 I learners write an
priate layout I sequence of steps I assembly procedure
'
is linked clearly, I relevant to workplace
iii can \"rite a e.g,,numerical : or field
sequence of ordering 1 I
instructions that
I
i learners write a
follo\v a logical I workplace procedural
order related to 1 I text on topic of
the carrying out I choice
of a specific task 1
I
learners write a
Grammar/ I uses appropriate ' procedure for
vocabulary 1 vocabul a~and I 1 canvassing for a
iv. can use grammatical forms, ' ' Jobstart placement
appropriate 1 e.g., technical !
vocabulary and ) vocabulan, use of
grammatical ~mperatives,
forms 1 grammatical errors I
1 do not interfere 1
i
1 with meaning I
I
Graphology 1 mostly accurate , I
v. can use mostly spelling and
i
accurate spelling stmdard
l
and standard '
I
punctuation, I
punctuation and ! legible script
legible script '
i
I I
L - P
Note. From Certijicates in Spoken and WrittenEnglzsh (2nd ed., p. 69), by P. Hagan, S.
Hood, E. Jackson, Jones, H. Joyce, and M. Manidis, 1993, Sydney, Australia: New
South Wales Adult Migrant English Senice and National Centre for English
Language Teaching and Research. Copyright 1993 by New South Wales Adult
Migrant English Senrice. Reprinted with permission.
I o r m a n c e
Elements i criteria
GENRE IN THREE TRADITIONS: IMPLICATIONS FOR ESL
Range of I Examples of texts/
variables
I
assessment tasks
instructiorlal frameworks. Audiences for Australian genre work have
included academic readers of such journals as Australia?~~PP~J ZPW of Applzerl
Ling~zstics(Hammond, 198'7) and Annual Revim of Applied I,ing.uutft r
(Christie, 1992; Martin, 199310) as well as a number of books discussing
genre theory, the history of the genre movement, and systemic f ~ ~ n c -
tional linguistics (Christie, 1990; Cope & Kalantzis, 1993b; Halliday &
Martin, 1993). Outside of these forums, however, Australian genre
scholarship also reflects a strong partnership with schoolteachers and
adult language and literacy instructors, some of whom work outside of
academic research networks. The connection with these audiences has
led to the development of pedagogical models, like the LERN teaching-
learning cycle, and other classroom materials that meet the pragmatic
concerns of teachers interested in applying genre in the classroom
(Christie at al., 1990; Knapp, 1992; LERN, 1990a, 1990b, 1990c, 1990d;
Literacy and Learning Program, 1992). LERN, for example, has created
a four-volume set of teacher guidebooks for implementing a genre-based
approach in primary schools. Book 1 of the series gives examples of
student texts illustrating several school genres, presents the teaching-
learning cycle, and suggests links between genres and curriculu~n areas.
Books 2 and 3 offer sample lessons (at each stage of the cycle) for
teaching factual and story genres, and Book 4 describes key systemic
functional concepts and gives accounts of teachers' experiences with the
LERV materials. Knapp's (1992) teacher guidebook also provides de-
scriptions of school genres and guidance for lesson planning.
In the adult ESL sector, Hammond, Burns, et al. (1992) have created
a genre-based handbook (English for Social Purposrs) for teachers "I\-ork-
ing in the context of adult ESL and adult literacy education" (p. ti).This
book present? the teaching-learning cycle and outlines sample lessons in
terms of goals, objectives, and specific classroom tasks for teaching such
genres as recipes, letters of complaint, and requests for senice. Mailuals
have also been developed for teachers in adult migrant English and
workplace training programs (Hagan et al., 1993; Joyce, 1992). Note that
the practitioner audience of Australian genre work has consisted mainly
of Australian teachers, as many of these materials are difficult to access
outside of the country.
DiSerent Beliefs About Efectzctzveness
Across the three genre schools, the differences in energy given to
pedagogical applications are also linked to researchers' beliefs about the
usefulness of explicit genre instruction for language learning. In New
Rhetoric fields, a nuniber of researchers have expressed doubts over
whether classroom instruction about genres can actually help students
become better writers and readers of texts (Berkenkotter &s Hucki11,
TESOL QUARTERLY 708
1993; Dias, 1994; Freedman, 1993, 1994; Freedman & Medway, 1994b,
1994d). Berkenkotter and Huckin, for example, have argued that genre
knowledge and its use in social contexts is not "explicitly taught" but is
acquired through enculturation "as apprentices become socialized to the
ways of speaking [or writing] in particular disciplinary communities" (p.
482). Similarly, Dias suggests that induction into the genres of one's field
is not "primarily a matter of being taught the conventions of those
genres" (p. 195) but rather a matter of becoming a member of the
community that uses them.
In a recent debate with Williams and Colomb (1993) and Fahnestock
(1993), Freedman (1993) proposes that explicit genre teaching has only
restricted value in improving students' writing. She argues that, although
such teaching may be useful for some students whose learning style is
appropriate, it is generally "unnecessary" (p. 245) and can even be
dangerous if the instructor has inaccurate knowledge of the target
genres. Much of genre knowledge, she contends, can be acquired tacitly
as students are exposed to genres in their course readings and given
contexts that lead them to write in appropriate text types.
Reservations like Freedman's (1993) explain the shying away of some
New Rhetoric scholars from genre-based instructional models like the
Australian teaching-learning cycle. In fact, Freedman (1994) says that
she "is deeply concerned lest precisely such teaching become attractive
in North American jurisdictions" (p. 192). As alternatives to explicit
instruction, she and other New Rhetoric scholars encourage teachers to
expose students to a variety of academic genres in their readings and
provide assignments and class discussions that naturally motivate stu-
dents to respond in certain genres (Dias, 1994; Freedman, 1994; Hunt,
1994). Dias, for example, argues that in his graduate seminar class,
responsive writing and peer-group discussions about course readings
induct students into disciplinary genres without explicit instructor
modeling of text features.
ESP and Australian genre scholars have not shared these concerns
about explicit teaching and have thus been more invested in construct-
ing models and materials for teaching genres. The development of the
LERN teaching-learning cycle in Australia, in fact, emerged as a reaction
against certain process writing pedagogies that deemphasize direct
instruction about text form (Cope & Kalantzis, 1993a; Cope et al., 1993).
Systemic functional researchers have criticized the inattention of these
process approaches to explicitly teaching about language structures and
functions, arguing that "if students are left to work out for themselves
how language works . . . then a number of students are likely to fail"
(Hammond, 1987, p. 176; see also Reid, 1987, for an oveniew of the
genre vs. process debate).
GENRE IN THREE TRADITIONS: IMPLICATIONS FOR ESL
SCOPE OF IMPLEMENTATION
Across the three genre schools, applications of genre research,
whether or not they have been realized in explicit teaching, have
differed in the degrees to which they have affected classrooms. In New
Rhetoric work, it is in fact difficult to measure the ways in which genre
scholarship has affected classroom practices, not only because of the
paucity of genre-based instructional guidelines but also because applica-
tions have been reported on a case-by-case basis rather than in terms of
larger initiatives affecting multiple classrooms (Coe, 1994b; Dias, 1994;
Hunt, 1994; Miller, 1994, Smart, 1993). Miller, for example, refers to how
her work organizes "much of my teaching" (p. 67) without indicating its
influence on larger curricula. Similarly, in professional writing, Smart
focuses on his own uses of genre in training writers at the Bank of
Canada.
In ESP, although some research has also concentrated on how genre-
based pedagogy plays out in individual classrooms (Flowerdew, 1993;
Swales, 1990a) or has made general recommendations without discuss-
ing actual curriculum projects (Gosden, 1992; Hopkins & Dudley-Evans,
1988; Nwogu, 1991; Weissberg, 1993), other work indicates broader
implementation. Bhatia's (1993) EBT materials, for example, are used in
courses at two polytechnic universities in Singapore. Swales and Feak's
(1994) rhetorically oriented Academic Wm'tingfor Graduate Students has
also recently been adopted by several EAP programs (John Swales,
personal communication, May 1996).
Of the three schools discussed in this article, however, the educational
impact of genre is most readily measured in Australian systemic func-
tional contexts, where genre-based pedagogy has influenced entire state
educational systems. In New South Wales, for example, the four LERN
volumes (1990a, 1990b, 1990c, 1990d) were developed to support the
Writing K-12 syllabus of the New South Wales Department of School
Education (Cope et al., 1993; LERN, 1990a). In addition, the efforts of
systemic functional scholars working with instructors to bring genres into
their lesson plans have facilitated the implementation of genre in
schools (Cope et al., 1993; Martin, 1989; Rothery, 1989).
In-service teacher training has also introduced genre-based pedagogy
and systemic functional linguistics to a number of Australian adult ESL
and adult literacy programs. McCormack (1990), for example, states that
at his institution-Footscray College of Technical and Further Education
(TAFE),"'the staff. . . hired a university lecturer for a week to take us
through Halliday's latest book" (p. 7). Curriculum certification processes
in the adult sector have also encouraged the use of genre applications.
"ME is a major government-funded provider of adult occupational training.
TESOL QUARTERLY 710
TheAMES,forexample,hasapolicyspecifyingthat,tobeaccredited,a
coursemustadheretothetext-basedapproachoutlinedinitsCertificate
curriculum (HelenJoyce & SusanHood,personal communication,May
1993).
Genre-basedpedagogy in Australia has raised the concernsof some
North Americanscholars,who arewary of the explicitstyleof teaching
promoted by the Sydney School (Freedman,1994).However,whether
onewould fear orwelcomeAustralian-stylegenreeducation, there are
several reasonswhy it has not had (andis not likely to have) thesame
degreeof impactinNorth America.
1. As discussed earlier, the broad implementation of genre-based
pedagogy in Australia is attributed in part to the stronger partner-
ship between genre researchers and school and adult education
instructorsthanthatfoundinNorthAmericanNew RhetoricorESP
genrecircles.
2. Australia has only 6% of the population of North America (18
million vs. 293 million), making it easier for researchers to reach
significantportions of theeducationalcommunity.
3. GenreproponentsinAustraliahave operatedwithin nationalwork-
place training and migrant English programs, such as the AMEP,
which has enabled them to effect far-reaching changes in these
educational contexts (Hagan et al., 1993;Joyce, 1992). Genre
researchers have also occupied positions of leadership in school
systems.In 1988,MaryMacken,oneof LERN's foundingmembers,
wasappointedtotheDirectorateof StudiesfortheNew Southm7ales
Departmentof Education (Copeetal.,1993).North AmericanESP
and New Rhetoric genre scholars, in contrast, have had fewer
opportunities to influence curricular policy on state and national
levels because of differences in governmental and educational
structures.
4. Australian genre scholarsform a more unified group than North
Americanresearchers do,enablingthemtomake astrongerimpact
oneducational arenas.UnlikeNorth Americanscholars,who come
fromabroad base of disciplineswith uniquepedagogicalconcerns,
AustraliangenreresearchershavesharedabackgroundinHallidayan
systemicfunctional linguistics and have worked together on peda-
gogicalprojects,likeL,ERN, fromthe startof thegenremovement.
Thisunityhasallowedthemtopresent amobilizedfrontinvarious
sectors.
Note,however,thatas thegenremovementhas evolvedinAustralia,
somemembersofLERNandothersconnectedtothesystemicfunctional
schoolhavedisagreedwith certainprinciplesof Martin-style,genre-based
GENRE INTHREE TRADITIONS: IMPLICATIONS FORESL
71 1
pedagogy (Cope & Kalantzis, 1993a; Luke, in press). These dissenters
have been concerned that the LERN teaching-learning cycle, with its
focus on modeling and subsequent construction of mainstream texts,
represents "transmission pedagogy" that presents texts such as report
and exposition uncritically and excludes other, nonmainstream genres
"that might be culturally important in students' lives" (Cope & Kalantzis,
1993a, p. 15). Cope and Kalantzis, two of the original LERN members,
advocate a more critical approach to genre teaching, one that leads
students to challenge principles found in some mainstream texts.
According to Cope et al. (1993), Cope and Kalantzis have proposed the
need to make the learning of different genres not a matter of duplica-
tion of a standard form, but mastery of a tool which encourages
development and change (even disruption) rather than simply repro-
duction" (p. 245)."
IMPLICATIONS FOR ESL
The different approaches to genre theory, analysis, and pedagogy in
ESP, New Rhetoric, and Australian systemic functional linguistics hold a
number of insights for ESL instruction. Below I discuss the contributions
of these different approaches, concentrating on their relevance for
university and professional English instruction.
Linking Form and Function
The ESP and Australian definitions of genres as structured, communi-
cative events and as staged, social processes, respectively, are useful for
sensitizing ESL instructors to links between formal and functional
properties of texts that they teach in the classroom. Bhatia (1993)
suggests that it is important for writing teachers to connect these two
elements in order to help students understand how and why linguistic
conventions are used for particular rhetorical effects. The descriptions of
genre macrostructure and grammatical features in ESP and systemic
functional research also provide important information about the lin-
guistic features of various text types that ESL instructors can convey to
their students. The ESP and Australian genre schools have offered less
detailed descriptions, however, of the contexts in which different genres
are used and the specialized purposes of texts within these situations.
Appropriately entitled "Strictly Genre?", the 1993 LERN "Working with Genre" confer-
ence was devoted significantly to discussions about the role of critical literacy in the teaching of
genres (Cazden, 1993; Cazden, Cranny-Francis, Knapp, Kress, & Martin, 1993).
TESOL QUARTERLY 712
New Rhetoric scholarship, on the other hand, with its focus on genre
as social action, draws special attention to the functions of genres and
their institutional settings. The ethnographic descriptions of genres in
scientific communities (Bazerman, 1988), medical colleges (Schryer,
1993, 1994), and financial institutions (Smart, 1992, 1993) provide the
field of ESL with rich perspectives on what actions genres perform in
various communities and how these groups come to value certain text
types. Language instructors can use these insights in planning classroom
discussions and other tasks that help students recognize the purposes of
genres in their own disciplines and professions and the relationships
between these functions and the larger goals and activities of their
communities.
Converting Theory Into Practice
Scholars in the three genre schools also offer useful perspectives on
converting genre theory and analysis into classroom practice. In ESP, the
language analysis tasks outlined by Bhatia (1993), Flowerdew (1993),
Swales (1990a), Swales and Feak (1994), and Weissberg and Buker
(1990) illustrate activities for helping students gain awareness of the
communicative purposes and linguistic features of texts that they need to
read and write in their disciplines and professions. Although many of the
Australian genre applications have been geared toward school and adult
literacy curricula, some of their frameworks and materials are germane
to academic and professional English instruction as well. The LERN
teaching-learning cycle, for example, provides language instructors with
a schema for sequencing tasks leading students to write in various genres
on their own. Teacher resource books developed for adult language and
literacy instructors also offer a number of suggestions for how to teach
genres at different phases of this cycle (Hammond, Burns, et al., 1992;
Joyce, 1992).
Out of the New Rhetoric tradition, direct teaching applications of
genre have been fewer, although the recent work of some composition
scholars, such as Coe (1994b), describes helpful tasks for sensitizing
students to the influence of rhetorical contexts on genres that they write.
With respect to some New Rhetoric doubts about the effectiveness of
explicit genre teaching (Berkenkotter & Huckin 1993; Dias, 1994;
Freedman, 1993, 1994), much L2 research suggests that such skepticism
is unwarranted for ESL instruction. A body of schema research on L2
reading, for example, indicates that explicit training in rhetorical
structure significantly improves L2 reading comprehension (Carrell,
1985; Davis, Lange, & Samuels, 1988). Benefits of rhetorical instruction
have also been reported for ESL writing development (Swales, 1990b).
GENRE IN THREE TRADITIONS: IMPLICATIONS FOR ESL
713
QUESTIONS FOR FURTHER INVESTIGATION
The work on genre and genre-based pedagogy by ESP, New Rhetoric,
and Australian systemic functional scholars thus offers a number of
insights for L2 teaching. ESL researchers and teachers can gain from
ESP and Australian analyses of genre forms as well as from New Rhetoric
descriptions of the functions and contexts of genres in academic and
professional discourse communities. In addition, the pedagogical mate-
rials developed in the ESP and Australian schools provide teachers with
instructional frameworks and activities for presenting genres in class-
rooms. In creating improved pedagogical applications for genre, the
field of ESL could also benefit from further investigation of questions
not yet fully addressed by current genre studies. I outline three such
questions below and, although I direct their implications toward univer-
sity ESL instruction, they could be discussed with respect to other
teaching contexts as well.
1. What are the effects of genre-based pedagogy on
ESL students' reading and writing skills?
Although much research, particularly in ESP and Australian systemic
functional linguistics, has discussed how genre can be used as a peda-
gogical tool, little work has actually investigated the impact of genre-
based pedagogy in the classroom. In her critique of the Sydney School
movement (as well as certain trends in North American writing instruc-
tion), Freedman (1994) urges educators to resist the impulse to teach
genres without first asking "what grounds we have for believing that such
explication will in fact enhance their learning" (p. 193). In responding
to such a challenge, ESL researchers can conduct controlled teaching
experiments on the effects of genre training on nonnative students'
reading and writing abilities as well as case studies tracking individual
students' progress through genre-based courses.
In studies of ESL reading development, Hewings and Henderson
(1987) and Hyon (1995) both report positive effects of genre instruction
on students' understanding of text structure and overall reading effec-
tiveness, although Hyon observes that such teaching may be limited in
developing certain types of knowledge important for reading compre-
hension. Additional studies are needed on the impact of genre-based
teaching on both ESL reading and ESL writing development.
TESOL QUARTERLY
2. At what level of specificity are genres best presented
in the language classroom?
In both ESP and New Rhetoric, the texts types central to genre theory
and pedagogy have been fairly specialized, with scholars focusing on
such texts as the experimental research article (Bazerman, 1988; Gosden,
1992; Swales, 1990a), the sales promotion letter (Bhatia, 1993), and the
bank's system-evaluation report (Smart, 1992). The genres defined as
elemental in the Australian school (AMES, 1992), on the other hand, have
reflected much broader categories such as procedure, report, explanation,
discussion, exposition, recount, and nawative (LERN, 1990a; Martin, 1989;
Cope et al., 1993). Hermine Scheeres, an Australian researcher involved
in teacher training, believes that these broader genre categories are
useful for adult language classrooms because they allow learners to see
connections between these genres and many texts (personal communi-
cation, May 1993). Widdowson (1993) has also cautioned that instruc-
tion in specialized genres may not provide nonnative speakers with
transferable language knowledge. Bhatia (1993), however, argues in
favor of specific genre description and teaching, observing that "in
language teaching for specific purposes, it is more realistic, and often
desirable, to find pedagogically useful form-function correlations within,
rather than across, specific genres" (p. 11). As these discussions indicate,
further research on genre-based pedagogy for ESL will need to address
"the levels of generality at which genres are most usefully identified
during teaching" (Allison, 1994, p. 702).
3. How critical should genre-based pedagogy be
of the genres it teaches?
In Australia, there has been a movement among some genre research-
ers to push for more critical pedagogy that deconstructs and challenges
mainstream texts that students are required to read and write in
educational contexts (Cope & Kalantzis, 1993a; Cranny-Francis, 1993;
Gilbert, 1994). In New Rhetoric studies, there are also signs that a more
"reflexive and critical turn is in the making" (Freedman & Medway,
1994d, p. 15; see also Coe, 1994a; Schryer, 1994). Freedman and Medway
note that "there are a number of ways, we might hypothesize, in which
genres can have ethical and political implications" (p. 12). They chal-
lenge future genre studies to consider the potential of some mainstream
genres to marginalize certain groups: "What, for instance, about the
exclusiveness of academic genres? What about the arguably gendered nature
of scientific discourse?" (p. 11).
GENRE IN THREE TRADITIONS: IMP1,ICATIONS FOR ESL
To date, little attention has been given to the ideological dimensions
of genre in the ESL classroom. ESP researchers have generally adopted a
pragmatic and uncritical approach to analyzing and teaching academic
and professional texts, which has recently been the focus of some
criticism (Benesch, 1993). Although not specifically addressing genre
research, Benesch argues that the focus of EAP on mainstream academic
literacy reflects an "accommodationist ideology" that "aims to assimilate
ESL students uncritically into academic life and U.S. society" (p. 714).
She calls on EAP to adopt instead "a pedagogy of critical academic ESL"
(p. 715) that encourages resistance to academic practices that limit the
full social participation of ESL students. In responding to such a
challenge, ESL genre researchers can consider the place, if any, of a
critical, ideological approach in the teaching of academic and profes-
sional texts, including the types and levels of classrooms in which such an
approach is most usefully introduced.
These three questions canvas some of the issues left open for future
ESL research on genre. For now, the comparison of ESP, New Rhetoric,
and Australian systemic functional approaches reveals ways that genre
theory and pedagogy have responded to the interests of different
scholars, teaching contexts, and learner populations. The field looks to
the next wave of genre studies to continue to expand the understanding
of this dynamic area of inquiry.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I am grateful to John Swales, Ron Chen, Betty Samraj, and the anonymous TESOL
Quarterly reviewers for their insightful comments on earlier drafts of this article. I also
thank Brigid Ballard, Anne Burns, Helen Drury, Sandra Gollin, Sue Hood, Helen
Joyce, Hermine Scheeres, Patricia Ward, and Carolyn Webb for their help through-
out this project.
THE AUTHOR
Sunny Hyon received her PhD in linguistics from the University of Michigan and is
Assistant Professor in the English Department at California State University, San
Bernardino. Her research interests include genre theory and pedagogy and ESL
reading instruction.
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Genre in Three Traditions: Implications for ESL
Sunny Hyon
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