T he Li brary

V ictoria
U niversity
of W ellington
AT THE REQUEST
OF
THIS THESIS IS TO
FROM
CONSULTATION
or
TwD
YEARS.
THE AUTHOR
BE WITHHELD
FOR A PERIOD
Datc: \5 l4AY
lflO
THE
STRUCTURE JND FUNCTICIIS
OF
TI]E PRESS Ii{ NETI ZEAi,A}TD
by
L. CIfiIJIEI,AI{D
subnittec. for the Degree of Doctor of
phiJ-osoptgr
il Po].itica]- Soience
at the
.
r{
'ruGTCRIA
IJNI\IERSITY 03
"IELLI{GTON
FebrucaXr 2, 1970
|.-!{
A
L[,
q, n A. 0,t-
tEE .rjrBufluas
ry
rprcslugi ory 8fi8 PnESs
ttlr tberh derartbcr tho
gororel functlolr at tb.
f,rr Serlrrd !.r. rcllr rystu eld tbr rtnrcturr erFrlgrtloa
$rd
corlrcl of bott tb. drlly
prctll eld, brorlclrtlr3 rd
ttlrvlrtor rlnlotr t1 Xrr Enlud. In ord* to rnlilrrn tL
p*fenraco
ef delly aorrprpcrt l,l dctatlt e rcthedlX.cgr 1l
Irid dorl
'fcr
thr qnaltt,trtlvr drtcrlptlol of tL. rrbJrit
aoatcrt of r.erprptrlo A cerpb of thr drr copt tnrrlttd to
drily !.frplDfr. h Xcr A.rlrad by tbe Brr Eoalnrd Prur
lrecirtlol lr aulyocl er{ l rtndy ls rtdr of tb r!r-
rrlrltlor rai ifrffaf
ltFtlsttoor
cbccrrrd by f6 frlft rtm-
Irrl).rr
|,l tbtlr frdllrg of tbie rrtrr{rl. trurtlrr tcplm
of thr eoltoat oi thr rero t6 drtly
prllrn u. tlcl urlyn{
lr ori* to obtrln chmrotrrlrtlc nbJrct csrtert ttrortlr
tlou ald to
provl0r ntrrlrl for l
6rnmrltma
dfuoulilcr
of th. nt 1r rhtcl tl1 r.rflnDrf. rrpprta to b. rlrrcltlrS
thcl,r fnlctlonr. lLtr lcrdr to r trcrtrcnt cf tb.
prrbhro
fecla3 tLc lfrr Eulrnd drtly prrrr. ard r Lrht crtll'r rf tb
roh of tb. llrr Strlrnd Prrcr Arsoolrtlor la tt lrt.
Irrfrri
lotr oedlr ayctrr
I
lr :rll ar t dtccrr.tor ct th.
prf,Blltlrr
tbrt ul,rt tcr ti. lrprcrrd droatlor ud tntalr3 rf
forilrl-
lrts. ?he rork tloe coaclrdor tttb, I rt cf rppmilcrr 1r
rbl,cb tbr frtl trrtr of vrrloue decrrrrtr rrrr rrlrlirlrtl ra
rrII Ir I bibllotrrpht eC lltcrrturo rrlrrut to ttr
3rrcal
ftell ef rcreusl o! tlr llrr Etrlead lrr. ledlr.
Irrt E, 1fri0.
.INm..O-DJ-CT_r,q{
The object of this shrdy ts fj^rst to cnrtline a nethoci.ology for the
conprehensive ana\rsis of the editorial content of nelrsilapers, thon,
no::o partLorlr"r$,
to d.esorLbe the strtretrlre, organisation, content and.
f\rnctions of the Nev Zealancl delly press and to und.ertalce sof,re assessnent
of its responsibjJ.itles and perfornanoe.
Ihe New Zealand- daiJ;r press Ls
well suited. to such an enterprise. Its colJe ctLve Dorrs-ehcrjng praot{ces
,
its d.opend.once on only ono wire service, and the typogr.aphlo and. styllstic
sirrilarlttos of its inclivldual
newspapers 1end. thenselves to systenatS.c
d.escrLptLon and. analysis.
Furthernore, the furportance whioh
both tlre d.atly
press and. the broacl.casttng
service have as agenoies of connunl,oation in
New Zealand
ratses questions
of role d.efinition and responsibllttyr &e well
as problens
connectetl wl-th the power end. inf luence of mntraL
goverrutent
and. the existence of f oraal legal constraints, whlch ore typtcal of aLL
nod.ern d.onocratic politLcal
systens anc-l vrhich invi-l;e urgent lrrvestLgation.
As against this, lt nust be recognised. that the J-ack of tliversity of news
sources and. the conservatLve attitudes of nost Noil Zea1and. neTrspapero
toward.s rrows-ga,thering
ancl presentatj-on nay nako thsn utclraracteristio i:r
conpa,rison with the pross of other dcnocrecios. But t}::ls is an area of
5nqu14r lvhich cal-ls for C.otall"ecl conlnrative studgr: ttre
innecLiate
objoct
of this
lnrtioular
vrork is to provLd.e sono essontial ctescriptive irrforrration
about the structuro, contont and. perforsrance of the New Zoaland. daily press"
Titthout thts any serious resoarclr into its activitie s oarurot procee d-
Datly nowspapors have beon seLoc'bcd. for stu$r because both in
clrculation and. in rango of oclitorial contont they crro c. nost slgnifLcant
soction of tbs Now Zoaland. rnss connunioaticns ind.ustry and certatn\r the
nos t 5;rportant se ction of tho Now Zoaland pross, Horcvor, iJr order to seo
thei.:l activitios in bettor porstrn ctivo, a d.ls arssion of ttre
Beneral
f\rnctions of the na
jor
New Zealand nerrs nodia hes first been attenpted..
This roquirod. the Lnclusion of a brief outline of the organisation and.
control of the broad.casting servico and. tho nature of its ilteraction vdtJr
thq norlspapors bef ore pro coo dlng to d.e scribe thc, activitios of tre pross
.
ii,
An attempt has been made to put these in perspective in a
simple conceptual
framework whicb, asserts that the
press
(in
conjunction with broadcasting and television,the
other major news
media) has a responsibility not only to convey
useful service
information to its mass audience, but also to act in their interests
as a watchdog and critical analyst of pubtic affairs.ID this way it
supplies an important functional service to the
political systen
because it is a major source of the kind of
feelllrack infornatlon
which political deci.sion-makers require
for the more precise and
sensitive regulation of their conduct of affairs.such
a view of the
functions of the press is unashamedly
prescriptive.ft
assunes that
the news media, and particularly the press, have a form of responsib-
ility which can properly be called
tpoliticaLr
because
of its
importance for the poliiical process in a democratic
society.In
this
study, the functions of the news media system
are defined in these
termq and the performance of the daily
press aE a major
part of the
news media system is discusseC in detail in the light of this approach'
At the same time, it should not be entirely overlooked that
the
daily press is onl; one agenci'in a complex,
multi-purpose
system of
mass cornmunication,
rieall;*
r
an analysis
of mass media functions
and responslbilit:e;
r,;ould include a close examination
of all
significant el-emeni-s o:i the mass media, but such a labour
was
beyond the resource-q e .rrl-eble in the present proJect whichr of
necessity, had to attach
prior"ity to the
preliminary task of content
d.esciiption of the dai-r-y newspapers o Research is obviously
needed
into the content and activities of the weekly
press, and in particular
into the signif icance of papers like ll , Z, Truth, The Ne-w Zealand
Listener, The B;rlleti}.
Ittg-Llg4gmls.I,
Timerand Newsweekr
as well
as a great variet;, of financ:i-al.r commercial
,professional
and trade
publications, the religious
press, the student
press, and a number
of academic
jou;nal-s"
Ani' inquiry rnto the scope and effects of the
general f low of inf cl;na
-ion
and comment in the mass media would also
have to take account oi the operatj.ons of librariesrbookstores
and
film distributo:s. In a,lcl-tlon, ir.;er-r:orscaal
networks
of comnunicat-
ion are importan'b in l{evr Zeala:l
(
as data from at least one voting
survey has shown)
f-et
a'; p-'esent we know almost as little
of what
)
l
I
iii
'
people talk about aa we do of what they read in newspapers
and' other
publicationsr or attend to in the public affairs
and news content
of
radio and televisiun
programmeB. Because
finding out would involve
costly, large-scale
audience research,
such
questions remain largely
unanswered in New Zealand. In the meantime,
the
present study has
focus
ed mainly on the part played by daily newspapers
in the news
media system. The details of news media organisation
and structure
are described as they were up till February,
19?0, but inevitably
there have been subsequent changes
and developmentsrparticularly
in
the rapidly evolving field of broadcasting
and television.Allowance
should be made for any shortcomings
of this nature
due to the
narch of events.The
general description
of the str'ucture of the new
Zealand daily presg that has been given is foll'owed by a very close
analysis of the flow of news in a sample
of daily newspa?fs'This
was submitted to content analysis so that a detailed
etudy
of its
editorial content could be made, along
with an analysis
of the
patterns of new6 seleetion
and treatment
shown by indivldual
paperB'
In this it immediately becomes clear that the New Zealand
dail-y
press
r.Iike
the channels of most modern ma66 comlnunication
systems
t
is labouring under the difficulties
of information
overl-oad.Even
though
r.
&s a system
,
it might have the technj.cal
resourcei
to
publish a large amount of material with regularity
and economylits
individual units are supplied
with far more subJect
matter than
many
of them can hope to use in fu1l.Problems
of newspaper
perfornance are
diseussed in the light of this situation,
and finallyr
8r attempt
is
mad.e to evaluate the capabilities
of the New Zealand
daily
presE
t
and to outline 6ome of the important
issues now facing its
working
journalists
and management.
Detailed. studies of news flow are still rare in the Literature
of the na66 media. One reason is that the
quantitative analysis
of nevrspaper content
presents methodological
difficulties
and is
enormously time consuming.
Because no vlork of this kindr
otr any
eignif icant scale ,, had been at tempt ed
previously in New Zealand
t
a
great deal of time had first to be spent devising sdequate
content-
measuring categories and testing them. A prominence index
was also
iv.
adapted from United States sources to establish a method for the
comperative study of variables likc headline sizer
PaBe
position
and the use of illustrations and typographical
devices in the
treatment of news.
The proJect that :merged was concerned
with the analysis of
two large samples of the editorial content of 16 daily papers.
There are
19
daily newspapers published in New Zealand, and the 16
that were selected for analysis consisted
of the eight metropolitans
that
gre
published in the f our main cities,
plus a selection of eight
provincial papers with circulations of 10iOOO or over. One sample
of editorial content was obtirined from the issues of these
16 papers
published during the period May 1
,
1965, to April
30,
1966. Only
the subject content of this sample was ascertained, The otherrsmaller,
sample consisted of all the
j-ssues
of the same 15 papers that were
published during the week tTune 14 to June 19
t
1965. This latter sample
was analysed in very close detail.Altogether, this work involved the
coding of more than
5OTOOC
items of subject content in 288 copies of
newspapers and this required the recordin6 of about 65OrOOO
r
observations.Thj.s was a severe-enough task, but in additionn the
souree documents for 2061 news items transrnitted to the daily
ne,{spapers of New Zealand by the New Zealand Press Association
during
the week of publication of the papers in the smaller sample were
analysed in depth so that a study could be made of the way in which
the newspapers treated this material. The descriptivc
partralone, of
the entir'e project absorbed every hour of the writerrs time that coul{
possibly be spared from teaching and other duties for about three
ye ars .
In addition, somc primitive physical difficulties had to be
overcomr Heavy bundles of newspapers had to be moved from an
awkward city location and manhandled to thc fifth floor of a
university building to which satisfactory access could not be obtained
by motor vehicle.Large decks of punched cards also had to be shifted
continually from there to the city and back.This was unavoidable
because access to the kind of data
processing equipment essential for
this project eould not be obtained cn university premisesr and
commercial rescurces in city installations had to be used. This
)
\rr
introduced a pieceneal progre,ss
int o the research programme.It
invoJved many delays and it mcant working exte-nded hours 1ate at
night during week-ends and at off-peak ueriods for a long time.
rnitially,
the data from coding sheets were punched
into cards
by commercial operators,
but this was only the beginning of a
prolonged
sequence of operations on a large scale.Many hundreds of
hours had to be devoted. to data correction and editing routines so
that a high standard of accuracy could be ohtained in subsequent
computations.
The writexrpersonally,
had Eo punch all corrections
and add.it
j-ons
into the data f ile
r
&s well as carry out aome
complicated
reproductions
and reor6anisations of data in large decks
that at t,imes contained nore than 19 .-SOO cards. These labours would
have been even rflore
severe without vcry
6enerous
assistance from
Salmond and Spraggon Ltd., a vYellington commercial firm.Essential
assistance
with data proceasing
and programming problems was received
from RrA. Pointon,
of Tawa, and valuable help in coding samples of
nelryspaper
content
was obtalned from the sixth form pupils of Tawa
College as well as from the writerrs wife who has met the prolonged
and at times exhausting demand,s
of this project
with patient
unders ternding.
A grant
for naterials
and other essentials was received from
the internal research committee of Victo:iia University of We1lington,
and the w:i'iter
is also indebted to the management of the New Zealaad
Press Association
for co-operation and advice in the project.
Wellington, February 1, 1970,
THE STRUCTURE AND TUNCTIONS O}' THE PRESS IN NEW ZEALAND
Chapter I
1.
2.
,.
4.
5.
5.
Chapter II
1.
2,
3.
4..
5.
6:
Chapter III
1.
2.
J.
4.
5,
Chapter IV
1..
2,
3.
4,
5.
Chapter V
1.
?,
3.
4.
5.
TABLE OF CONTtsNTS
THE FUI,ICTIONS OF THE NEW ZEALAND NI.;WS MEDIA
Media Reeponsibilities
The News l,ledia System
The Control Function
Technical Difficulties
Gatekeeping Problems
The Thomson Takeover Attenpt
BROADCASIING IN NE\il ZEALAND
The News Service
The Broadcasting Act
Balance ani tbe Public lnterest
Controversial Items
The Broadcasting Authority
The Functions of a News Media Syetem
THE STRUCTURE OT THE NEW ZEATAND PRESS
The Daily Newspapers
The Suburban Press
The New Zealand Press Association
The Press Gallery
The Newspaper Proprietorsr Association and
Public Relations
METHODOLOGI
MuIti-level
rsubject-content
Catpgories for
Newspaper
Quantitatl"ve
Analysis
Coding Procedure
A News Prominence fndex
Data Processing and. Editing Routines
Sampling Procedure
THE NErlJ ZEALAT\D PRESS ASSOCIATION SERVICE
The SubJect Content of a r{eekrs News
Regional News Sources
Inland Newe
News Source Authority
News Generating Sources
1
1
5
7
9
12
14
20
21
2'
3o
,4
41
51
55
55
5o
51
58
69
72
?2
84
86
90
92
98
98
105
108
110
115
I
Chrpter VI
1.
2.
5'
4'
Chapter 1III
1.
2.
3'
4.
Chapte.r V:EL[
1.
2.
,
)o
4'
5'
6.
Cbapter IK
.tri-i.
T}IE TENKtrJIA}ICE
OF T}M NE1{SP4EE[ STETXM
Sys ten Clrarac te rlstics
Other E&ltorl,al
Content
Total Edttori^r,l
Content
Conparative
Perfomance
of tbe
Newspopers
P} TE]I'.IS OF NE1.7S SETECTION
lh Values of the Systen
Ihe Perfolsrance
of flre Newspaperg
Gatebeplng
DEcis iong
Pattcrns of llews Selction
SYETM,I C,/TPI.BILMIM /$D ETI.OBI.EIiIS
The Lol-e of tlre N.Z.P.A.
The l{ewspapors
ConpetitS.on rdth the Eleotrorrlc Modla
Gonfllct or
Consenarut
The Educatl-on and. Tnaini.ng of JournaH.cts
Conclusion
APPEIDIX
Goncorda,nce Test
The Nordneyer-lfiarshsU
Excbange
Ihe Vietn-en
Pnofust Novenerrt
N,Z.B.C.
News Servie Menoranda
NoZ.P.A. I{essages
Multipl-e Layout
Card. Forrr
SecurlQr H.Q. Fi:r
120
120
111
13t+
1ry
1r/+
1w
1n
155
169
180
1go
i8a
196
26
211
218
218
219
220
221
?22
22,F;
ut$
?25
225
u7
228
229
2p
232
253
235
255
2fi
2n
?+o
2l+'l
w
243
w
246
1.
2.
3.
/t-
5.
6.
7.
G,hapter X ErBIIOGB/]IHI
I
. Auclience
Rosearch
2.
Bibliograplrtc
Shrd{es
1.
Eroad.casting
4.
fho Control and Responsibiliff
of the llass Medla
5. Content /\rralrsis
6. Econorric
Strrdis s
7. lhe Education
of JournaUsts
8.
fhe ll.eeiton of firo
press
9. Batekeeplry
Shrrrres
10.
HLgtodcal
Shrdj.es
11.
Other Medla
Stud.Les
12.
Tho Orgaruieatlon
of ths Msdl,a
13'-
Personnel
Shr&ies
1JF.
The koss Councl]
15.
Relations wit.lr
Goverrenent
1
6. Space C onnurllcations
17.
[e]ev:isLon
g@!.
TI{E rittNcTra{s 0F rTE NriI ZEALAI{D I\ArE ttED,rA
1. t4sprA IlIsg0{s-4EJrIJtI:Eji
Tho nows rncd.ia proviclc a fonun for critics as well as for roportors
of govornnrent.
This rosponsibtlity is traclitionol$ aocoptorl by tho
'l
pross-
ancl is implicit in tho actLvltios of rad.io and tolovislon
iournallsts d.osignod to provid,o ncns sorvicos and. public cffolrs pro-
Sronmos
thet aro usoful as uclI as entertafulng to nass sud..iences., As
sorvlco agoncies assistlng thc political.procoss thc nerrs nod,Le arc
useful channols in o nassivo i''xchangc' of inforrnatton betwoe'n govornrnont
ancl citizens. For ncny purposcs they ccn bo coruidored os
t
oonnon
camicrs of
j.nforrr:,tiont2
whoso onployoes nood. show Ltttlo concr-lrrl about
thc' content of wh.rt thoy carry, except to scc thot lt conforcrs to aoccpt-
ablc stanclarcls of propriety, fairnoss, scopc and accuracy. Houever, tbc
rnod,ia aro also cxpc ctcd. to bc' guardicns
of
Erblic
irolfarc, chargocl nith
tho rosponsJ.bility of spoaking critlcal\y on thcir aud.:lcnco
t
s beho]f
about tlrs actlvtttes
'of
govornrrcnt, ancl Trith placlng ohc*cks.on Lts scolxl
by clrawing attontLon to inportant issuos or by threatoning to nobiJ.lse
oplnlst..against it irhonovor in' thoir vicn ttrc situation nood.s Lt.. In
tho flrst rolo,
journe,lists
aro, in offoct, participating in ono of tho
ovor;rd.qy funct5.ons of govcrrnrccnt, end. bcroby t}oy nfuht'ovotl .havo sono-
thing in connon vitlr tho civil sor\rico which is prinari\r an instnrsent
for ttro oxocut:Lon of thq polLclos of, d.ocision-trEkorer In thc socond,
thoy aro potontial\r
ablo to tako up positions of dlsagroonont cnd
opposition which nc;' bo cloniod. thc civil scrmntr ed
',ihj.ch
nay
.d.otrrcncl,
ln
,thc last rosortr otr tholr abllity to nalntail thonsclvos in Eono
dcgroo of lnd.opond.onco fron govornnontal cuthord-ty. Thls ccn bo
sunnarised by sayLng that Ln a d.onocrctic pol-itical systcn the nows ned.ia
not only supply usoful servlcos by reportln6 ttre activltios of govornnoat,
thoy Lntcrect with tt by crttlcislng it end. soektng to kr..cp tts powcr
Fttbin botmd.s.
'*ull]Jarr
H, Hachten,
tTho
prsss
as Reportcr ond. Critic of Govornnentt,
Js= paLi_sn
Q., [O:1,
r,inter 1963, 12-18, puts tlris sucdnctlyl
rA
ffrndcncntal bssis of f rectlon of thi. prss 1s ttlvr press
t
rlght cnd.
obligction to report snd criticiso thc rctivitii;s of tlre governnontf .
V.O. Key, Prr}]lg Oplnion and. Amrlc.m Dttocrecyr. Nolr Yorlc -196L,
t95.
VIfiORIA
UNIVTRffT
OI
w TLLTNG ION
LIBII\AV.
2
2.
According to Dan D. Nimmo] the reporterfs role is inherently
rpoliticaL t
but there are three different dimensions of activity
to it. Some reporters are recorders who simply transcribe the fac'bs
of a given event or situation and limit their discretion to the
task of sorting from encyclopaedic detail the material for a short
article.Others are
rexpositorsf
who are specialists searching for
stories that rnay serve to convey depth and understanding to a readcr
by interpreting the facts they have reported. Finally, there are
t
prescribers
I
who state what they think rnay or may not have gone
right or wrong, and suggest future courses of action.Prescribers act
as self-conscious watchdogs in the news media.In such an analysis,
the reporter could even be described as an agent of those who are
governed,
representing his mass public
Just
as a popularly elected
representative doesl performing the functions of issue articulation,
scrutiny of official actions, transmission of information and forming;
of opinions,
Such an elevated view of the
journalistt
s responsibilities may
owe a good deal to the special status of the V{ashington press corps
(
f rom whom Nirnmo obtained much of his material
)
and it may be
dependent to some extent on the guarantee of press freedom which
has been built into the United States Constitution by means of its
First Amendment, but in practice much the same range of activities
characterises
tae press
of any democratic society.For example, that
the press
has a responsibility to scrutinise the actions of
Sovernment
has been acknowledged at the apex of the New Zealand
political
system. T. P. Shand
,
the then Minister of Elec tricity
,
in
the course of an explanation of government po]ricy said it was not
only the duty of the Parliamentary Opposition to critj-cise the
activities of government,
but that the real advantage to the
political
system was lost unless this could be followed up by the
h
press
in hard-headed and unbiased assessments of what had occurred.'
In the case of the British press, it has been argued that it has
political power
as well as responsibilities.2Thiu is because it
can shape or influence
,New
York 1964,
4 Reported in The Evening Post, November 21
36,
1965
|
1 8.
5
Colin Seymour-Ure, The Pieqs
rPolitics
and
1968
t
jo?.
'
the Pub1ic,London
3'
tho oplnlons of road.ors, it ca,n hevo on effoct on tlre pooplo s.nd
instttutions it singlos out for attention or puts prossuro upon, and it
can ilf luenco govornncnt
clecis ion-naking, Ths osscntial principlo
bchind ths Britlsh sys torn of d.enocracy has becn tlrat a strong contral
govornncnt
is rcsponsiblc through Parlianont to olectors who shall havo
power to change thcir govcrnmnt by rrloctLng a cllffcrcnt oDC. Horrever,
for tlrts to work ru,quircs that at all timos tho govornmnt of the day
sha1l bo op.oosod by an cff cctivo opposition rihich sots ltsc3f up ae arl
oltcrnativo govornmnt ancl domonstrates its capcbiltty for office by
vigorous crit i.cism of current ackninis trati on. Onc, i.of c ct of thig s chonct
is, hovrover, that Pcrliamont ancl opposit ion in the zOth contury na;r have
lost rnrch of thr".ir trocLitional control ovcr ed.cdn:istrction bocausLr of thc
onormous growttr in thc porrt,r of tho Prir:rc i.:inlstcr and Cabinct.o Con-
soqucntly, sorlro of thc constitutionaL f\rnctions of rvatchclog cnl guardian
of thc
trnopIe
I
s Lnterosts noy hsvo d.cvolvod on tho
trross
for laclc of a
bottor chanpion. 'jihc
thor the pros s ro cogrriscrs it or not
,
in oountrios
whoro thorc is a Parli&nentary d,enocracy it has a politlccl rosponsibil-
ity not on\t to act &s a channol of obsorvctton ancl rocorcl but also as a
mochenisn of control in tho polltical syston, a custodion of tho
lnoplof
s
wolfaro and. a. chock on logarry constitutod. authortty.
In d^cri\y practico tt is vory d.lfftcult to illstingulsh botvcon tho
variod. tasks of tho
journalist.
Tho publLcatlon of a vorbotLn ropont
of tho procccd.ings
d Parlianont, for instcnccr noy socn an unconplicotod.
onough oxanpLc of the scrvico function in rtrich thq
;nrticular
nowspaper
or olcstronlc ncd.iurn acts as a noutrallconnon-saruior of lnforaatlon.
But supposirg the offect of a Parliancntary report or broacl.cast is to
pronoto increascd politlcal participation or oven protcst on the. part of
citizc,ns recoiving ttris sc''rvicc; in such o caso
r
FGroIy by provicling an
account of staterents nacle by politlcal decision-nakers the oe&ium ndght
find itself acting in a rnore
responsible and. st6nificant vray because it
hacl nacLe it possible for popuLar attention to be focused on a sig-
ntflcant is sue
r
or for criticisrn of a poIlcy to be stimulatecl in ttre
D5rtcls of its audience, The result is that Cabinet rninlsters,
ctdtrnltnental'hbad.s and adar:in:istrative ofr'icials general\r
are involved aS
a ponstant
d.i.alogue with
journalists
erro.
'their
na^es publics over matters
6 SoSnnour-Ure, loc. cit.
l+'
i
to uhich the medla oay have clrawn attention in the first pl.acer or t'ltltch
my have suclc)enly acquired significance by virhre of being singled out
for nedla attentioni It is not difficult to fi.tnd. alnost daiJ,y occurences
of thi"s kird, and. so coffl
jdorablo
ie thc poncr of tJre nerrs ned.ia to focus
attention on public effairs and to dellrreate the amas for cnitical lnc1uiz5r
that it has cvon been clained, that they constihrto
ra
fourth brandr of
govotnnent'.7
This clain has 1on6 boon
implicit
in
'i;hc' 'braditional
libortarian
thoory of 'ulre froocl.on of the p""rr.B
It rosis upon a constitutional
analysi.s of tho rclationship betwoon citizen and ste'i;o in whicb tho pross
is cons id.erod. to be a prot o ctor of ind.ivid.ual rigbts against tho powor of
tho stato. Tho role of tho citizon in tho stato is not always consistcnt
with his potentia-litios as en in*ivichdr9 and. somctimos tlrc prcss is tho
onlJ channcl roadily availoblo to a pcrson vrho ricnts to mako a
trnotost,
ad.vanco & causc, or conplain about an injwticc. Conscquontly it can bc'
arguotl that thc prcss has sovcral naj or rcsponsibilitios, It shoulcl, pro-
vldo a two-way ir:formational cxchengo bctvcen government and citizcns for
their mutual bcnef:-t, c.nd it should. also bc, compt'tcn'i; to cnrs0clc on bohalf
of tho rights of minoritias, or to lntervcno in public affairs undor its
otrn motivati on r,.hcnover it
judges
it nc cessarlr. But tho legitiurcy of
such claims is not ah.'oys rc)cognised. by
BovcrnrL',n'cs, inrticular\r
whon thc'y
flncl thonsclvos eq)os cd t o public criticisr! or ridiculc
..rs a conscquenco of
7
Sc'o Douglass Cator, Thc-Fourth Dranch_of
-gv_cg$,
Boston L959.
I
tlho
charactcristic of thc lib',rtarion concc''pt of thc'functions of thc'
gross in socicty
o r r is thc right and duty of thi pr+ss to scrv(r as $r'1
extra-lega-l chock on govc,rrrurctrt
|
.
F.S.Sj-i,bert, T.Fct{:rson lrrrd F.Schramnt
4or4:
TELoFi,:_s- of_
.l}c
f.rcss,
Urbana 1963,
56,
Scr. also Eyvind Bratt,
JoGna1isCg.,-2T:5-, Sclptcmber lr9t+4, 185-199. Brett eoyg thc'
Pross
h.rs
a function comtrnrablc, to thoso fulfill*.d by pr.rblic adninls'i;rativc
orgirnisations ona thc politicel
lnrtlcs.
Tt nust proviclc i.ndications
as to tho stato of public opiruion an<i i'r, ;rust elso i;u.tch the ectivity
of odninistrati.ons and by scnrtirisirg hoi; la$s enc1 adninistrutj.vo
ntlings telcc off o ct
,
g iv c inpo tus to nc. ccssorX' nodif ications or
innovations, For this rcason tho prcss ce,n bo considcrcd.
as a
rrhool
in thc. machincry of govomnorrtr.
9
|
Both Poriclo s cnd. John Stuart itit.I night renind, us tlilt statos should-
not noroly bo ovalu-rtocl in tcrms of thoir ebility to funotion
officiontly as stotos, but far noro in tcrns of thc typ,os of poreotl-
ality and. charactcr thoy prodrcc Bnong thcir citizons, sd of tha
opporhrnitios tlrcy offcr to all thclr citi zcns for lnd,ivid.ual-
clovol-opnont
r
.
Karl
-,i.
Dcutsch,
,
Now
1963, lgl-.
gvv \,-as\.aae a
-ffi-'
York,
5";
rocceia attentj-on. fn Nerv Zooland., thc daily
prcss and. thc broadcast{ng
ond.
tolovislon
gorvicos
ncy profcr to seo thcnsrrlvos as custocli;ns
of appro'.'.'t'-
social valuos, acccpting thc rcsponsibility
to inforn pooplo 8o thet thoy
can play an ad.cquatc.
irart
in tho af,fcirs of
'bho
stcto
-
e' vcry c^lffcront
mattor frorn socking to rqtcind thcn of thcir rigbts as incliviclutlls.
In
thi-s viovr, tlrc
j
ournalist
I
s rclationship to t}rc stato rosonblo s th3t of a
woLl-bohavod araught horso rathor thon a vrgilant rietchoog.
2,
gHn
i{il';S i'IEDIA ffSTEI\i
Tlhatover tlro alproach that ls nad.a to tho problcn of doscr{bi:rg
thc
tllvcrso activi'i;ics of tho mass mcclie ix tho politici:1 systcn, sd irhatcver
tho icLion omploycd, no sinplc formula is ad.cquato to dcscribt: thc conplcx
interplay ;nd. intord.c.pcndoncc of pub lic off icials
,
political lcadcrs,
onci
journalists
thi:nsolvcs irho hovc to assumc ihc rnrltiplo ld.entitics of
roporter-critio-r'ratchdog-ontor.talncr
r.rnilcr varicd and conplicated. clr-
cumstoncoe, Thc norTs mod.i$ ancl cl1 thc nultif arious agencics of, govoxr-
rrrrnt arc ljJrkcd. togcthe r in complcx f ic, ld.s of interi.,cti.on
as an esscnti'a}
acconpani*nc.nt to thc politlcel process. This cornploxity
is rcflectod
in
ttre rorgcr of nctaphors r*rich writors in thc,field. of tnass ncd.ia studiss :
have omploycd to illustrutc thcir descriptivo
analysos: co{nnon caricrt
convoycr be1t, wetchciog, niror of socic'ty, f orun, tc,actrc,r, and. lattorly
a
varicer of eloctricel ond. nr-,ctranical systcns nodel-s. Perhaps tlro nogter
onaloguo ifiich convoniontly onbri:.cos this dcscrip'bivo
torolJcoloAy ig
rthq
1n
nerves of
{jovt-rrlrr(,rtt
uscd by Iiarl if. Deutscltr.*"
ilis noclal has tho ad'-
vantagc of inplying not only e capaci-ty for
growth on thc part of a
particular sJrstcm but a sophisticatccl ability to for:nulato
goals and &iroct
it solf by a corro ctJ-v c, sclf-stoering
pro cos s of ad.jus tnc'n'b onci ocleptotign
in rosponso to a fIo';; of i.nforqration about thc onvironnont.
Any such
organisartion cen bo stud.icrl as
t
^ solf-nocbfying comnuni-c;tions
,rotrrork.4l
Honce Doutssh looks upon govoznnont as involvin6 lcss o problon of poueri
ttran a problom of stcc,ring on tho part of
polltical systons rhidt c{ul
coruloquont1ybothoughtofasnotr'orksofdccisionarrclcontro]..Thosc
aro highly d.opondcnt on thc
trroccssing
of infornation.
fho
Inorvogf
of
.
-
10 ibid"
-
1,1
S!9.
81. Such a notwork rroulcl bc,
tany
systen cirsrccterisocl
by a
rolovant dcgrc'c of organtsation, cosuun:ig.:tion,
ond control rogardloss
of thc. particuli-lr
F?.
nq sos by ihioh its ncsseges
orc tronsnl'tted'
onC.
its functions carricil out
-
whcther i,y' ,,rords bctrrocn indivicluals
Ln a
spccial organisationr oT by ncrvcr cclls and hornoncs in a liv5-ng boclyt
or by clc ctric slgnrls in an .,1e ctronic
rlevi co .
I
6.
go"rnElent
are the channsls along which Lnfoneation of uso to Buoh a
polltLoal
systen oan fllow. The nws ne&la are a hfgHy irtr]usrttaL prt
of aqy infmational
nehrork of this ktnc1,
flrl.s shrqy fusorlbes the d,elly prass(*tA also broatloastlng and
teleylsLon news serviaes) aa nws md:ia ohannels by whioh a flow of
i:rf,o:mation abotrt political- a.ffaj-:re is tlirectecl at nass publlos ln New
Zeal.end..fhis is one of the
irrportarrt
tasks d the nass red.La.
12
In
d'lscussln6 the work of these nel/s reclLa clranrel-s as agoncles of
trnlitLoal
oonnun:ic*tlon
1J
it i-s connen:ient to regartl then as consu.futl$g a news
recl;la systen rrhioh not only services tJre polltlco1 systm wlth esssttLol
irrfornatLon, but is ineviteb\y tnvolved. lx intersotions witJr Lt.
1l+
lhrot8hout this stu{r, then, th tern
rnews
nedLa.rystemr is used to
fusorlbe the inforrotion-hanclJ.Slg
charurels, ancl tlre processes
connootocl
with thonr of both tlre New Zealand dai\y press ancl ttre New Zealand.
Broad.oasting
Corporation. fhe procssses of thiE systen J.nolude alt
behav:iour assocl,eteil
witlr its oporotions, and partLcrrlarly tbe Llteract5,ons
wluich
journohsts
and. nanagenonts have vr:tth thelr nsws sources ana
ourliences
on questions
of a
irolltical
sl.gnifl,@rror lhe tenr
12
Ttus;
r...
ttre
8eneral
effect d oxpogure to tho nc,dll,a ts
a poLlt-
lolsing ono'. Roberb E. tane,
po-rlt_r_q3]-_L1{e
e
New
york
1g5g;288.
tThe
systen of nass cor.urun:lcettong
crr'i-ainiy tra.s tnf,ort for tlre
potitl-cal
systen both in its role e*e a neutral tran$dtter of
inter
]lenoe
of political
relownoe ancl as an bd.otrnnd.ent soutoe of
out^look toirards politiosr.
V.O. I[ey,
-g-L_
git.
r
1?O:
tsfuroe
few
oltLzens ever have rruch lenecltato expe'ieniE in polltLog, nost of
r&at they perceJ.ve about polltLcs Ls fl-Ltered ttrough the nase ned5,at.
Robert A. Datrl,
@_
-G5r^v-a4g?
New ltraven 1961
,
256. In New Zeal-anlrthe
stuSr of nass neclia llfluence is soarca\r in its tlfanry, but surrey
tlata fron two r:rban electorateg aftor the 1963 New Zeal.^anA gentraL
election shovred. tbat
f
at least four-ftfths of the eleotors oa,ne lnto
oontact vrith the ca.npatgns
(
ff at all) nobly bv f,re{rrro of, t}re nass
nodJ.o of oonnunicationg (
tfre press, radio
,
telolrisi-on and. pntr*rlete)
,
sui:plnented. by the notrryork of personal
relations irr th oonnurltyt ,
Seer A.D.
Roblnson and. .d..H. Ashenden,
tMass
Connunioations anct the
1961
Elootlon: A helininerv Reporttl Po'}5Ff
4s.lelo"-,
1622, septenber
1g&t
7-.?2.
15
The pturase
fpolitLcal
ooiuunl-cationr ls
I
a strortlrand. way of refetrhg
t,o tJrat subset of conrnrnloatozy aottvity whioh is estrnoS.aJJ;r relevant
to an r.rnd.erstand.ing
of p];1tLcal
llfe
|
. Riohard R, tr'agen,
3o$-t-tpg-ggg
[o.ryqrqlc-q;_bfoq,
Boston 1966, 1 8.
1lb
f
connunl-o;tirns os a prooess perva,cles po]:ltlos aa an aotlrrltyr
r
ru,.
B.
3.
7.
I
political systcnf is usod very broad.ly to refor to the total cornpL'x or'
tnstitutions, md their eccompanylng pro cossos, thct are concornecl with
the affairs of govcrnrcnt and thc goneral conduct of political activity.
TH]i COI\IIROT FUNCTTCN
Thc interaction betl'roen tho nsrrs medla systcur and thc political
systom takcs aany forns, but ono of its rnost inportant roquircnc''ntg
is
thet tho modic stroulci act as pert of a feodback netirorkl5 by mans of
irhich political de cis lon-make rs can re ceive up-to-d.ate irformation about
the effe cts of polici.e s and actions and can bo s timulated. to introdtrce
usef\rl noclifications into their perfornanco. Viewed fron the per-
spe ctive of p olitic al comm.rnic at ion, dl pollt ic al sys tems
r
Do matter
what their philosophyr or rlhat their stage of dovoloprrent, have
gelf-
reg.rleting capacities which derive uftimaioly fron soxlo ilegreo of
sensitlvity to the cl.enancls of their clientolo. A rnod.orn political
syston will be likoly to keep informed about thoso through such obannsls
as interpersonsl relationships
r
elections and eleotion canpaigns,
political partios, pressure groups, a varioty of ropresentative
ancl
1e6l-slative tnstitutions, ed a multitud.e of adninistratlve agencies;
but one of lts most inportant sources of feeclback will be the nens moclla
antl their ropresontati-ves. Tho existonco of regulatory fooclbock net-
works lmptios sono noasuremcnt and. ad.jus tmcrnt of goal and putpo"ut6 ancl
therofore, rnay be thought of as exerting a degree of
"ontrolU
over the
oporations of tJ:e politi.cal. :;r;tono
In conrmnications thooryr govcrnnont itsclf becomcs a vast amay of
oomsnrnication nctvrorks, vrith tJrc nnss rnedia actir:g as inportant antl
15 Doutsch def inos feed.back as
t
a communlcations netvrork that pmduoos
action in response to an input of informetion, md inclucles ttto
results of its ovln action in the new
j.nfornation
by which it
rnod:if le s lt s onrl sub scqu ent b ohavtour
|
.
olr. g"it .
88.
15
lbs,
g.
17
rThe
control of e machino on tho basis of its actual pozfornonce
rathor than its cxpected porformanco is knovrn es fceclbaclc and.
j.nvolvos
scnsory mombors which arc ac Luatcd- by rnotor rrcmbers ancl
lnrforrn
thc f\rnction of tell-talo s or nonitors
-
that is, of
olormnts vhlch ind.i-ccto a
lnrformonco
...
I
Norbcrt Jionorr
$1
Sqqeq
Us-q- of Hurnan B.c.1g1gs.
F.'rton 1950
,
J.2,
B.
inf luontlal intermeduiaries between decision-rnakers
and theLr
prb 1i"" -18
In this stuoy it i-s argued. 'chat
one of the resl)orrsibilitie
s of tlre news
neclia is to convey regulatr,ry
jnformation
about political aifairs to
government in such a rray that it contributes
a steering or controlling
i3fLuence to the poIltica1 process. For this rsason,
the relationship
between the New Zealand news meciia ancl governnnent will be clisoussedr at
sone length, vrith the underlying assumption'bJ:at
it shouLcl not be seen
entirel;r as one of passive articulation of .-.ews and irtrornation
on the
part of the meilj-a, but that
journalists
'thesrselves
can
also b e expectecl
to play a self-conscious
part in the activlties of goveflment by acting
as
Fescribers
an6 controllers
as well
as recorders
and expositOrs.
The terrn
r
control- flrnctiont is used here to refer
to those regulatory
ancl
prescriptive capacities on the part of the news noed.ia system
and it con-
prehend.s not only tire transnissi-on of service
inforruation,
but the
interpretation anc. criticissl of public affairs by
journallsts.
In d.iscussing the responsibiLities
of the news media it nust not be
overlookecl that people are not entirely
aependent
on nerrrspapers
or on
electronic
journalisr,r
for their information
about
public a^ffairs.
They
mey learn a great deal by talk or by listen:ing
to ihe conversation
of
others, ano tliey caiL, if they wish, augnent iheir
j-rrf
ornation
by
reference ',;o
a range of weekly perioCr-i-cals and
iournals.
Magazines
of-
.19
cosr.ment ancL
j-nierpretation
liJre
E, SeiFjt-qu.E
aoa
Flf
neqPeq5 Dises-t.
'
which have compara'uive1;, large circulations
jn
llew Zealand. nay have sone
irrf luenoe iJr shapi.nr6 the opinions of their reacl.ers
about cument
is sues
tn international politics, to s ay nothi.ng of the value of nore
specialised publicatlons like
Tlt"_nS9gqqt-4,.
Nevertheless,
by reason
of its massive d.ai1y clrculation ard. its d.elibera'ce
and systematic
coverage of a very n'ic're spectrum of pub 1ic af fairs
,
the claily
press ls
t9
See Lecter li. iiiifbrath
, &e-i'lgqhinslqF-
-f'g!!y.15.bg,
Chica
8o
_1:961i
Dan D. Ninrne, gp.--gi!.i nerrrard C, Cohen, fhg.-..Pfe:g-ry
Egl{gg,
Princel;o-il8$; Douglass Cater, oP.
l**;i
ancl
i{illiam L, Rivers
,
Lhe--9prjtto.f,t^
llelpqq-,
Bos'bon L')b).
According to New Zealmd-&gp,
3:4
April
-
I.{ay 1962, 20,
Tlre
Reade4'l
Digr_q! has saI;ffi
of more than 150'000
a nonth,
ffiTas
a clrculation of
Jorooo
per week ano
NelFweek-,
Br50O
per week.
18
9,
enormously influential &s an
jlformation
source, quite alnrt fron any
powers lt might have as a contro l1ing influence
j-rr
the pro cess es of
governme nt
,
an alloc ator of pubIlc5-ty
,
a cLelineator of what is of public
significance,
ed even a creator of whet D.J. Soorstin has called
I
pseuclo-eve[ts
'
,20 These are synthe ti-c noveltie s presoribect by
journalists
for popular
corlsurrlption rather ttr"n passively recorclecl by
them. F\rrthermoro
,
it urust not b e o verlooked. that even
j-n
supplying
service information r{:ith any range anil d.otail, tb press is like1y to
en counter consid.erabLo te chnical d.if ficu ltie s.
I+. TECIINICTIL DIII'f flIUIIE S
Not the least of tho se d.iff icultio s s.rc concorned wLth tho ptgrsical
capacities of news channels. Some of thc, most inportant channols of
ttre Now Zealand. nerfs me&ia may bo afflictcd' (firc most nodern mass
commtrnication systonns) with the problem of information ovorloadrzl
*
conlitj.on in vhich a communications systen cannot handlo all the Lnput
mcssagcs avtniLablo to it. For this reason it ts tochnically i.n-
practical fol nost nerrs mod.io channcls to attcrnpt to transmit the flrll
quantity of infornation available to thon in aqy ono porioct of op,oration,
The total amount of matorial potontially at thcir d.ispsal is likely to
bc so voluminous that it has to bc ac commodatod. to tho output dL^oonsions
of tho particular
channel-s in uso. In the ca.so of norilsllapors, tho
anount of writtcn natter ovailable he,s to ba drastically reclucod. to ftt
the avCI.i lable page sp aco; in the casc of rad:io and. telovlsl_on statlons
,
the verbal and. pictoriel content at the clisposal of the staff hss to bo
organis ecl
with some pre cis ion t o suit the transmis sion tine and ttre
elrcnnels available.
Cons equently, a good deal of content seLoction ard
compression takes place. For instancc, not a]I the footago of nowsreel
film tho N.Z.B.C. buys or obtains by lts orrn resources will actually
be usod. in progranmos.
Similar1y, about 5OO stories a ctay &re hand.lod
by its nati.onal news s crvice, but only about lOO aro aetually usecl tn
noT.s bullotins. Nor d.oes the d.lrily pross retrrroduce all tho word.ago
20 The Imjrgo olwhat
_Happqngcl_lo
'bhe, rinerijqfr
lroan,
Iond.on 1962.
2l Richard. R. Fagcn, op, cit_.
91.
10.
of noris natter it ro coivcs each tlay through thc clrannols of tho ltTcw
Zoalancl Frcss Associatlon.
Every nass comrmnication systcn has a ccrtcin a,rnount of infornation-
less or wastoge" Journalists and others have tho task of deciding what
to cliscarcl andr vhat to stlcct in accord.ance rrith lhatever worklng con-
vontions they are ablo to d.evlse
r
or r-ft,stcvor principlos happon to bo
laid cloun by thoir nanagomt'nts. This rcsponsibility
h:s beon thntst
upon thcm largc'Iy by the sht i.,r
6;rot*h
in voluno of ness comnunication
contcnt. Boco.uso a ness connunicetion channcl carurot publish tho
cnti.rc. volunc of ncus a.ncr other info rni:tion thcorcticcl\y evailcble to
it, thc'19tb ccntury id.r.al of a frcc narkc't pl,rco for
j.nfornationr
in
i.'hich citizcns could. rxrkc
t
prrchascs
I
fron rival firns supplyittg
altern.ltive
I
brancls
t
of inf ornation, has suffcreil thc, f etc of nost frec-'
narlcets in thc 2oth contury. fhc narkct has bocorn rogulatcd. or nanagc
r,
to suit tho capobilit ios of tho conrnrnications inclustr;'. Not only d.ocs
it havc physical lir:ltations of output, it is also afflictod vith tho
problons of largo-scalc produ ctlon. Its output has to bc d.os5-gnod to
sui-t the no ocls and. clonand.s of vory divorso corlsuno rs
,
ranging fron in-
fants to tho adult and. c ldorIy, f ron the s carccly litorato to thc highl;
oducated and
'i
nforrccl. It is incvi-tab1c that quality end eonploxlty
of contcnt nay havc to bo sacrificod. to brcvity and sinplicity if any
wiclo clcgroo of auciioncc attontion is to bc attoine d,.22
Noxt cn ovcn lrorc sovcrCI dtfficulty prc'sonts itself. In practico,
tho operators of nas s ncdia notrrcrks arc liabIc to bc f aeed irith ir-
rcconcilable C.cnand.s if they insist on sup;o$ing citizens with cloar and
tntthf\:l accor.rnts of c.vents and. thcjr backgror:nd.s and. causes at tho
cxpenso of norc entertaining contcnt. L{ass aucllences r,'ho prefer pop
nusi-c to Beothovon, and rcports of ::rurclers to sernons :nd. eclitorials,
22 Soo Zechari-ch Cha.foo Jr.
r
golloln-nertt
_+q.d liqqs _Cp
ti
,
Chiccgo 1947, 18. Thc drif'b tovtcrds concentra'bion of povucr in
thc industry d.j"scouragcs the
f
srilf-rlghting groccssr in lshich
truth is suppos rd. to cnergc' fron ttra clssh of opinions, ffid thc
onsot of lcrgo-scolc conr:uniccr.tion r:cthod.s rc'r},rccs
tth.
conrron
intercsts of a connunity to thc' lowost cof,rnon d.onoainator
t
.
11'
ca.n
gcnc.ral\y fird. rrays of clononstrating thoir proforonccs ancl. putting
prossurc on Hcncgononi to givo thon lowly entcrtainncnt
rathor than up-
lif ting
jns
tnrc tion, lrrcdi a opo retor s l,ho ac copt soi:c kind. of
t
so ciel
rosponsibilityr2J to try to givc unwilling or in*ifforont audiencos r'rhat
thoy think is good. for ti:on a:o alvays 1ikc1;'
'i;o
bc forcocl
j'nto
a
conproniso r;ith tho roalitios of aud.i onco respons c. Tho supply of in-
f ornatir:,r fact has to be wetercd. clorsn with popular anusenent" This
still further l-init s the anount of us eful i.nf or:.rat ion or instnr ctlon
that cen be.roleyoCr by tho neci:ia unLoss i'b con so:ehov be d.ra;ratised or
dis6uisod., Tho rosult ls Likely to bo that spocic,lised
publics who
rcquire roportago ancl. co;nentcr.v in dcpth o:r public c.ffairs rather thon
huncrr intorost stories and. soap operc,sr i.ic;r fs obligod either to consult
othor rcsources or to tckc pot luck in a nasslvc hotch-potch of trivia
iurd. sensatj,onalisod U.ght ontertiinnen'b, elccd. out irith whctover con-
ccssions tho rrcdia can nake- tol'lrrd.s thc,ti'c"rtrent
of &i-fficult or
controversial subjects. Hore broadccsting lr,ls a consid.orablo ad-vontago
ovcr the press because it ccJt diversify its pt6ran:.lt'rs cnd, place ther: at
d;iffcrrcnt ti-ncsr otr differont chrnnels, accorcling io thc' norits of their
subject nattcr and. thc,d.oc:and.s of ilifforont sogncnts of its ft1,s9
aud.ionce. Thoso noo*-ng spccialised lnstnrction can alweys tr,rrn to
periodicals and librari-c s
,
both of irhich c^ro of enornous
lnportanco ix
any n'ass coanunicction syston, but goncrally spr.clc5ng,
ncltspepors and
thc populcr chennels of broad.castirg and. t elovis ion stations ect as
hosopipos shovcr,ing nouris hing drops of inf ornetion along wlth nuctr
rvi:stc nattcr on thc cloan and. tho u.nclcan, thc blcssod. c":C. tho profanot
tbo
jJriti
atcdr and. thc ignorant ali-I<e ,
l, hctire rtlrc' onount of dls-
cussion of cont:r:ovorsiel ovcnts, ir:fon:icci r:rlticis::, end trutiflrl
roportagc of occurrcn3cs nixecL into 'chis cruc'l-o d.isclr,ergc is cdoqueto ls
largcly a net'i;or of ind.ivi r}r c.l opinion
,
bc ceus c 'd:c
crit cria for
doternining a proper lovel of public affai.rs contc'nt
aro unconvincing
and largely subjo
"tirro.2lt
23 J. Edrrard GeralC .
t*
So.itl-R-o.
P-ons
igi l-11Yg-tgIl999'
Minnc,sote 19:63.
--*-
2l+
rOn
tho who1c, th talk about pross f'unctions and
fnritfuI end. turns out to be :ostly
''rhat
soneono
should do, and is qu ite arbitrcly .
t
Honry I'layt:r
,
$Ejpfjg,
liiclbournc I96t+,
5J,
C.utie s is not
thinks the press
Thc Prcss in
12.
5.
GAgre]I{G PROtsIfiiE
The theoretical ains of the news neclia cre of nscessity ful,salistic
arrd. generalised,
rather than speciflc.The tattered. rer:urants of t}re Dpen
narket
i:lace
thoory of
jnfornation
flow have as thej-r basis tlre propositict.
that li'Lrerty of op5nion d.epend.s on the citi.zonf s opportunity to try nan3'
vi.orqioints !c or{.or to select tho one
'best
suitecl to the tine ancl cirolln-
stances. But sc tbai citizens ry knor what brancl of Lnf ornation they ane
tlryin6, ne.',?s neilia chanr:els hond.ting norrs and. ilfornation are advised by
nost denocrati.c theorists to label fac'b and. opinion so as to keop then
clearly r,-listinguished.,
even though it has to be recognised tlrat
taIL
focts
have conte:cts thet noed. to )o e:qr1ain"U ***explsnations cennot entLrely bo
uncolourc*d by the opiruions cf repor*ersl.
-'
nuthernore, the gatokoepor
studies of lfrttterBreori.rGteber an,l othu*t6 rlenonstrate that objectlve,
inpersoffil, unbiasod- re;orts ilr the scLontLfLc ssnso of ths ternp a.re a,
journalistic
fiction.trfhatover
j
orrnalj-sts and. their enployers nfght profess
about working principles, neTs is what nevrspapemen(ancl electronLc med.la
journallsts)
neke it; yet even ttrat deg;ree of shoice hrrs sone further
Iirr:itation inposod. upon it.
rNews
d.oes not harp alr inclependent existen@.oo
it is the prorluct of crq-)n l?ho are nenbers of news-gathering anrl [ows-
or:-ginating br:reaucraciesr in whi-ch
journalists tencl to becone donl,nated
not so nuch by their subjectivity as 1t:/ the values a.rd. expoctntions of tltc'
25 Gerald., gg.*cr5[.
165
26 Seo D.l,{.ilhite,
I rrThe
Gatekeei)er" : A Case Studry in the Solection
of
Newst,
&lg-$ipgg.
,
Z7:lerAutrrnn 1950,
\B>lgOi
r"l,fr
Gatesn Rovisitoi:
t 1966 \fa-rsion o-f Tho 1949 Case StuCyt,
JWJi-qp-g.r
&:JrAutunn
1967
'
419-1C7.
lfla].ter
Gioberrt/'cross the Desk: A Study cf 15 Telegpph
Eili.torsr, lq,1glt*JguF.9.,
3Sz4rlutunn
1956t lq23432;
rHow
tlre
trGatekoepei$r-ltieli
f,oiaf Ci'rit1 Llbertjos Nowsr,
[qg:gtg]-isgg.
,
3722,
Spring 196O, 199-2O5t.
,tTvro
Conrnruicators of the News: A Stuqy of the
Roles of Sources anrl Reportersr,
$;-l*1"-{og"
t
39;1 ,
October
'1960,
76-
83i
rNous
is Y{hat Nowspapemen l,iakc ltt, in BepplolSoo_ie{
gn$__l{Ug.
@g+1"S3*Ie.,
L.r. Dexter and. D.ii. wnite
(EarJl-cG-ncoE"7-g3tiltrH 83.
Wamon BreeclrrNorzspaper
rtOpini.on
Lead.ersh and. Processss of Stand.arcl-
isationf
, &ggf*i"p,n3.,
3z,3rSurmror
195,t 2Tl-28lriISocial Control irl
tho Nensrccnr,
Eg".igl_Eo._r-cg5-t
35zta,
ld,ry 19552
326-iJ5.Robert
Judrl,
rThc'
Newspaper lbporter in a Subr:rban CiQrf
, @g"r3}!_sgg.
,
fr:1r'$r5lter
1961
t 35-lQ.
Lerzis Donohue,
tNe'rvspaper
Gatekeopers ana Forces ln the
Nem Cbannelt
,
Prrb.
9}i+!-q5r-p.,
J1
21, Sprln
S
1967, 6149. Roy Corter
Jt.e
tNewspaper
Gateke.perJ ana tne Sources of Nevsr,
B]L..0pJ**-qq9,,
2222, Sunner 1958, 133-11*. Abrahan Z. Bass,
fRefSnir
tho
t'Gatekooinr"
Concept: A IIN Radio Case Studyt,
Jggg1glis_g-1Q,
1
ta6z1
,
Spring
1969169-72.
L3.
parttcular organtscr,tion in r,hich thoy aro onployo il27
Many
iournsl,lsts
are so task-orientated by the requirerents of their
jobs
arrd. the ex-
lnotations
of nanegement i-n certain areas of
rur434atheri.ng
ancl news
selection thtrt they perform negative processes of selection against
certain classes of
.oot
ential news rnateriel guite automatically. In
response to cuos fron man;geroont they sinply omit soIIF lterns
r
or give then
such clelicatc trgatnent that they are in no position to
rtell
the story
as they see itr but are in f act |rand.ling lt in a prcscribecl wa.y. Tlhat
a nevrspapor prinis has boend.escribed as a function of neny factors.
The event s vrhich
I
rnako
I
the nev.s
,
the iaatorial rlhich is
etrarurellecl into tlre paper by wiro servicos and by other nevrg
sourcos, md the prossures for publicity exortod by organisod
groups are oxarnplos of infl-uenees ovor wlrich the papor has
little, if arlXr control. How a givon story is
tplayoclr
ls
also ctope rdont on thc irovrs
juclgmcnt
of ono or r;tore od.itors
and. upon tlro corunon contcxt provid.od by the other nows of tho
d.ay. Sornotimos a ner.rsman ruy be subjcct to policy prossurog
fmm within thc norrspaper organisation, md inovitably his
*t7s-gathoring and nors treatmont oro affoctocl by tuls,.,own
as sociations
,
hfo own bolj-ef s, attihrclos and .valuo s.
Zo
Ad.d. to this thc fact ttrat in any noris-g&thoring structune a ohaln of
people opcn ard closc soloctivo
tgatesr,
allowing sooo messagcs to passt
othors to b e d.lscard.od., and. it can be scen that irhat finally gets chosen
m&y bo a vory arbitrary sclection ind.eocl fron tho totaL available
materi aI .
It may ber that
j
ournalists by oxperience
and, trainirt can
gonerally agree on tho aaj or newsworthy stories that are availablo to the
2q
systeor" so thet thoir aud.ionccs are not being doprived of sluch of najor
inportance; but there is no such orccrcnt about tho subnergod part of
the icoberg of less spoctaculsr noterial.
'f:hat
one gatckooper rojects,
another might welcone. Novls sc,Icction for sofilc of
'tlro
contont of the
inodla can bo
just
as subjective a process as buying & now suit or frock.
For this roason, tho veriablos of individual sonsibility strongly affoct
27 Waltor Giobcr,
lNcrrs
is Wh-t No',;spaporncrn iickc itt, op. git.
28 Roy E. Certcr,
I
Scgregation und tho Noirs : a Regional Contont Stu{yr
,
JoLrrnplisg-.-q.,
3r:1,
llirrtor 1957,
3-L9,
29 Soo David. L. SandGrB.
Uews_S&ry
Eva-1ugt-_ron-q114--lienspapor Roadorshfp,
Cincinnati 1951.
14"
nany of ttrc pro ccssos of ncws-gathcring and. ner,'s-writirl6, Novorthclos s,
howcvcr uncortain thc realityr nany thcorists continue to urge ttrat
infornation provid.ed b-v tho noirs nod'ia should. bc trcatc,d with so
s cnrpulous a rcgard f or thc vhole ne s s of tnrth :rnd tho f rirnc,ss of its
prescrntation ti:a'b
'.',rc..r-.i'r.:L
r.-'..<l'for thcr.:c1'lcis by thc oxorcisc
c',f rc'ason
onA con$cie.n;.:2
i'nr1 ful,ilnt,r.'l;;l- c',i,.:i-:;ionl: nccessery to thu dircctjrn
o:f
'bho
govcrnmcnt encl their ll'rc
"'
.30
Thoso arc bravs
',rord.s,
but l-rhat in prectice d.o thoy signify to
nclvspepcrs and. railio and. telcvj-sion stations hcavily cngagcd.
j.n
rotailing
aclvortis irrg natcri el andu popular cnterteinrnunt
as vcl1 as nc)lls ano useful-
infornetion? The feu pronouncencnts riad.o by Ncu Zc'';land. nens nedia
oanagorlcnts about thoir wo::king convontions and. social rcsponsibilitios
ghow
sorncr uncortain',;y ovor tho key problens of function, rolc dofinition
antl responsibility.
6
"
rru_TnQFQi:Lf;WQIi8:{=.T44S
Tho Now Zoa1and. ncvspapcr inclustry sold.on nakcs public statcmcnts
about thc functions of thc necl-ia''
ls onc spokc$Ean for a soction of
tho industry put it:
tTho
only
'L:Luro
I road. about
journalists
j-s
lrhcn
thoy
t
re boing buriod' .
Jl
f{hon
j
ournal-ists' onployors thooriso about thc
activitic s of tho na dia
'bhey
tend to soc thons clvos nainly in 'cho servicc
porspo
ctive, supplyi.::g e nct?s scrvico i;hich carns conrnrnity respo
"!:2
and. rihich takos proccdcncc o',/c,r the criticaL, lntorprotativo ,o!o.33
Thcir eriployc'cis for
'-L"c
r..i;'L
;3-.;
acccp'b this victr, but'somotimoc
conplein ttrat thc prass d.ocs no1; ahrays offer cnough loadcrship in local
32
GoralcL,
.9p.,.*c1i]!..
166.
J. Turnbull ad.t::c''ssj-::g an annual confr'rencc of
jor.rrnalists
in
lfclIington, rci:o:.'bod in
ltfp-
ttqw
4.".-t-gg4-
Jg-qrp"f'1*
,
2Bz), 1963,
4.
P.R. Sooble, thon p:csid.cnt of the llcvi Zcal-and, Novspal:c'r Pco-
priotors
t
Association, rcrported. in
qhq
!g"lg-tjlt,
I{arch 2 196r' 10"
G. Frcunan, rctiring oditor '
t
Th,.:rc, is a placc for intorprctative
wri ti,ng
,
but ncils nu st be poranount
|
.
Rcportod. in Ttp 1tveJuing
3o"5
r'pril
JO
1965, !2,
33
30
,T
].5.
or national affeirs, and, is too pro-occupiod uith a d.otormination not
to givo offcncc and. not to talcc too big a part
j,n
conmlnit;r
lrrojo"tr.A
Othor oriticisns ero that thc ltlcl; Zcaland pross d,oas not invostigato
public affairs in sufficiont dcpttr or rrith sufficiont ski11.55 Doos
th:is ncan that tho
trrcss
is to sono cxtont f ailing in its control
flrnctions?
Tho bclicf that it is, lics bchind. sone of tho conflict botwecn
journalists
and, ncvstrlepcr nancgononts, &d botvcen c variety of intorosts
and. thc gpvornnont, i;hj.ch took placo in 1955 rrhen Lord Thonson, tho
Canadien nowspapc'r nagnetc tried. to buy
''lcllingtonts
norning nowspapor,
The DoFlnion. The
takoovor
r,?es prevernted by logislation passod, at tho
roqucst of tho ncrspapor propri-ctors by tht.' Nationol Governncnt. The
Nows Mod.:ia Ownership logislation of 1955 v;as intend.ed. to keep newspapers,
raclio and. tolo vision stctions out of tho hanC.s of ovorsce.s owners by
inposlng statutory rostrictions on sharc,hold.ing. Thooroticallyr Ro
ovorsoas concorn coJr now hold. noro than o 15 pcr ccnt. sharohoIding in
angr Neri Zeeland. nolts conpanic s, Thc govornncrnt thought that too nuch
ovcrscas control of Ncw Zoalard.f s ne\?s nod:io rlas in principle u.rl-
d.csirablo
,
not so nuch bc c,lusc it coulcl. &i-sturb thu, oquilibriun of thc
prosont ind.ustry, but because it coulci
placc a powerf\rl lnstnrnont of
nass conrnrnication in potontiolly d.angorous hc,:rd.s.
Journalists, ninority political. p;rtics and nany pr5-vate citj.zcns
consitlcrcd' thcr't Thonson should h'rvc bcon encouragoc.'ln thc bollof thet
tho ontry of eny nc,v oporator into a field. tha-b rias only noninally and
sluggisltly conpctitivo could. bo oxpc,ctccl to bring rcfrcshing con-
soquoncos. Sono
j
or:rnalists thought it niglrt givo ihon frccclon to
writo noro critically ancl to oxort thcir control fr:nctions with norc
35
J..d'. Ko11cher, thcn prosidont of tho Ncrr Zoaland. Journalists
Association ad.drcssirg a confcrcncc in Tollington, Soptenbor 21 L965.
$co
f
Our Dc,jily Prcssr, C-olsuner 26, Dicr.rch 1966,
5-25,
for a dis-
cussion of thc quali-tios of the Nor Zcalanci claily press. Tho
neterial for this ;rticlo lyes obtained. fron 11510 rospondonts to
a survoy cond'rctcd.' by tho Consunorsr Instltuto. To a quostlont
rT'Jihat
are its na-in dsfccts?
|
over
90
por cont' of the respondents
oro reportcCr to heve coeplained. about
I
srtteness, tinid:lty of
controversy and. a lack of writors with porsonelityt.
v
16.
'36
vLgour; othors could. soo opportunitios
for bc'ttcr
job
s and' groate'r
atlvancemcnt. i,,lost of thc chanrpions of Thoason accoptod thc'proposition
thet noro conpc.tition
iJt the Now Zcalancl prcss would. lcacL to bottor
scrvi cc to tho c oBsuncr becaus c thorc would bo nore choicc
in tho ki.nds
of nowspapcr offoring. Thet, in fact, conpetition
does not ncccssari\t
raisc tho quality of aatcricl publishod. by a, nallspaper but.lal drivc it
into incrcasod. scnsationalisn has bcen shorm by onc stu$f
r'
' vhlLo othors
ind.icatc that therc ncy bc no grcct C.iffcrcncos
in contcnt cnd quality of
whot is publishcd bct'.rcrorr papcrs in a conpctitive
sih.ration und tttoso
fti ch crc rorr-cor3potitive ,
J8
As ogains t this it was arguo d that
Thocrson was knomrbo
givc his ocii-tors a great d.t'cI of autononyr
.Pro-
viclin6; tho ir activitie s cont inut: d to bt. profit c,ble .
This
,
it rles f o1t
t
could. ne an that
j
orrnalis ts in su ch i'!n org:nisati on would. bo soro f roo
to vritc critically about curront i.ssu.-s than thcy hcd boon undcr
eristing nedic oryncrrship cnd. contro 1. Such a pro spc ct
gains sonc
support fron c:vid.cncc thlt big ncrisp!,p()r units arc less^subicct
to
cnployca-publishc,r
d:irection
ancJ. bias than snall oto".J9
Dis cussions ;bout thc anor:nt and dcgr.,e of political bics actually
shonn i.n Ncri Zcelcrnd. nci,.s ncCrla orc-, 1o noro sophisticei;ce.
thcn thcy havcr
boen in thc co,sc of ttro riustri-lian prcss; thcy genc'rr}$ consist
of
allogctions that not enou6h of e ccrtcin kind. of nc'\rs has boon
publishod. or th,r.'c i) calculntod
ancl c,xccssivc'
d.istortj.on
hus bc'cn
36
Scc L. Clcvolani,,
rHori
Scouro is tho N.Z. Press?
t
qgpggg!.r
7:1t
Doccnbor 1965
t
7-9.
37
G. Rarick anC. B. Hartnan,
|Tho
Eff'octs of Conpotition
on Ono g,tifJ
Ncnspapcrr s Contont
|
,
Journclisg Q.
,
4J:4r
lutunn L966
r
459-463.
Stcnloy K. Bigncun,
rRivals
in Confornityt
r Joqln4ilra-Q.
r
ZJzl,
Iiarch 19+S
,
1-72-L51-i itcstlcy F. 1ii11ou5hby,
riiro
Two Conpottng
Nc-,;spcrpcrs Noccssrri.ly Bcttor then 0nc?r J-?-uSIj&9.
I
J222,
sp"jire-Ig55tl97-2o4;Gorarc.H.Borstc1,@Conpotition
and Concont in 20 Snr.11 Dailicsf
, {rylls,n
q.,
3322,
Sprinl 1956,
220-226; Ray:rond. B. Nixon cnd. Robcrt t
-
Joncs,
rTho
Contcnt of
Non-ConpctitivcvSConpetitivcNewspaporsr,J-g@Q.'31z3,
Sur.rncr 1956
,
299-3\i /Jex S. Ed.clstcin,
t
Conlont of Conpotitivo
vs Non-Contrx,titivu and. Chain-O,rnc'C. Nctsil.tpcrB
r,
5-n Pe-qspc ctivcs-
ln
Loq!:unig:tior1,
Coponhagcn J966
,
27-28,
D.R. Boriors,
tA
Report on Acti-vity bJr Rrblishc'rs-
in Directing
Nows-
roon Docision$f
, -{gq{I}gtiFqjd.,
l4:1, SBring 1967, I+!'fr.
38
39
L7.
introduced. by meerls of presentation and. di"p1"y.Lo
Thus, the New
Zeala^rrg Is.bour
party
consistently
malntains
that its a^ffairs are given
unfavourable
publicity by a hosf,ile press biased. in favor:r of ttre
National Party.+' This more than anything elser
nas what led the
Iebor:r Governgent of 1935 to S,ntrodu ce the broadcasting
of Parlianontary
debatos ivhich
l:
ttrought were being
I
s cantily
anci tendentiouslSr
reported-
in the pres u, .4'
During the Thonson takeover d.ispute
the Social Cre&it
Ioague clalrcd that
ralnost
every d.aily
ner.?spa*Der supports the lTational
Party, whothcr in or out of office, Md bccause thcro is no roal coo-
potition in noris or in ncws cornmont
and. prescrntation, minority
groups or
minority
points of view rccoivc
scant if any tri''etmont.+r
The Inaguo
thought compctit ion nould. bring Jv.ss of tho
I
gontlononr s club etnos-
phcro
I
of thc exis t ing daily pres s .
Such allogations of bias
(vihcn thoy conccrn
i.hc trc'atracnt of norrs
es cli. stinct f ron c d-itoriul opinion andr oomncnt
)
i6noro tho to chnical
problccrs of ncirs sclo ction and. prcscntation tha''s exist in thc production
of no1:s.oeq)crs, and they takc litt1e occou:rt of tho f act thet nor;s sourccis
arc not ell cquel\r &ccossib Jc
,
vocaL or 1cliablc.
Thcpo is a d.iffcr-
ontial f actor in '.;hc supply of ncris. It f,Icaits
,
for oxarnplo
r
that sonc
of the Isbour Fa;ty|s d.iffiqrltic,s in ob'baining what spaco and attention
it thinks its vicr;s cnfr. activitir, s should. comnand. might sten from the
possibility thai on somc occ.:Lsions and. on sonnc issucs it mey hivc been
f cr casier for
j
ournalists to obtain inform;'bion from its r
j-vaIs.
ligrispeper ed:itors
anci n.magurncnts usually tr17 to rcbut charges of bias
rith an e qually sub
j
e ctivi', rhc toric i-n which it is cl-gimc o thct the
t+O Iierury liiayer,
.gp:.
-q*.
U.
rHardly
an oi'ganised iirterest in society
has not at so'fr.'1bjnid or another simply eciuated. i'cs orln cernancls rt:tth
unbiasod truth, sd, f inding a rl,ifferent scalc, of valucs in the
press, hss not failod. to donounce it as biased.
I
41
N.V. Douglasr prosidont of lJre Ncw Zcalend Labour Party, stated
that
I
i,he clcvolopnont of tLre rnass rnccia in this country constitutos
a threa'b to d.omocrocar
|
.
He ad,C.ed. thst
I
it
yres
inportant to his
party to f
jnd.
a vray round. press biasf . Reportoo in
T!g-.EJenr44
&E!,
ir'.ay
4
1:967
,
J-7.
42
Dean i. irici{onry,
tTh
Broad.casting of Parlianontary
Dcbatos in
Now Zcsland. and. Australiaf
,
@,
TzJ-t larch 1955, 20.
l+5
!E-::gg-&g!,,
Xiarch 1 L965, J2,
18.
Now Zealand.
press is frr.e
,
balanccd, reliablt'
and. non-sensati-ona1-
One
formcr cd.itor hss ropeated,ly
statod:
tI
a^p no-b subjc'ct to any clirecti-ve
as to publication of nolvs in my pap('r, .ir libcral
policy is followcd
ana
all ncr.rs cons id.ercd. suitablo
is pub lishod.
'l'4
Perhaps
this assortion
d.c.rivcs sono floribility from tho inplications
of the vords
I
conslderi-'d
suitable
|
.
It sec,ns
-bo
takc littlc accoun'i; of thc gonorally-accoptcd
fact that in ovcry ncris cirannol
r
f,o m*'i;'bcr ';,'lut its clairos
to ob
je
ctivity,
ncr?s sc.lcction
is incvito.bly
thc subjcct
of
*oartisanship
and of d.is-
agrcenents about neiis valucs and. is accon*Dallicti
by nany kincls of sub-
jcctive
anil institutiona]
.orcf
orcncc s. Pcrhairs thc viow
1fiat tho
Thonson ortanisation riould bc bonc,volontly
froc fron such irnporfoctions
rJas, undcr tirc circumstancos,
a Utopion illusion rathcr
than a hard-
ho ad.ccl cal cul-a'bion.
0n this quc stion, Thonson hirnsolf saoms to havc
hclcl vici,,s of e naivoty cnd, insignificerlcc,
natchod on\r by thoso of sono
of his lcssct: contonporarics
in Nor Zcalapd.
If tho sc ncrrspapgrs and magazinas
and-
-cclcvision
stations
uhich I orirl or contro I arc, making r.lono;,'
,
then I knor they are
rendc,ring & social- servicc.
Thc bi35.;r-tho operation
grol?st
thc grcatcr the servicc belng ri'ncicro A,+2
Liuch though ltlcvr Zoal-rnd mulo.gr-.monts
ni6h'i; havc ad.mirc'cl such ontro-
proneurial vis ion une f orthrightnc'ss,
they oxprc'sscd.
no littlo unoaso
at
thc pr opos r cr.
j-nt prvcnti
on of Lord Thomson
and thc hopes of salvatton hc1d"
out by his aclnircrrs .
The indus
-bry
s,;rr his ontrX' into the Nen Zealand.
ficld. as & threart to its corporatc' structur",
r-'trich is hcLd. togetber
largcly by thc mrmbu.rship of its individual uni'fs in thc Ncir Zcaland.
Press Assocj-ation. It vls thought thet
t
oncc' 3 hugc overscxs
publlshirg c'mpirc.
acquircs
control of a largc Ncr Z*raland newspap.'r tho
cconomics
of the ind.rstry;ould incvi-bcb1y rc'suJt
in'bhe expansion
of
that cmpirc ',;ithin Ncu Zoal-anil..to- Although i'b wos ad-nittctd thgt
l+5
Goorge Burns, thcn cditor of l]re--[hrls'bcirurch
S'b-Sr roportcd
in
irtojuo"i"e
iqel,
Junc it 19521-6;---@
AOdros s to thc lTqw York
.rruciit Burcau of Circulation, rc'portait in
Ttrs Timos Llto-rylr-:$ulplg4glt-,
Octobcr
2l- 1965,
937,
H.N. B1und,c11,
prcsid.ent of tho Nel;
Zcalancl Ncuslaper
-Proprictors
I
iissoci{:Ltion, iopo"tod. in fq
ivqpfn--Boq!-,
i'iclrch
I
L966' 14.
46
U+
19.
conpetition irithin
'fhc
ind.ustry was not i-n itself unciosirable,
it vras
thought best that Novr Zcaland. vicwpolnts on all major lssucs should bo
prcsontod"
t
f airlyt to,
ln.
nition and. tltc, t'rorId. by kecping control of the
nod.:!a in local hatrd.s.*t
Govcrnmcnt, mind.ful of this problcm.r nay hcvc' boon in a cliloroma.
Lct Thonson in, cn4 thc pos sibility of thc p:rcss intcnsifVing
its control
function by oncoureging
journalists to wrltc morct critically
and. rdth
lc s s rcstraint
about govc'rnmcnt and politics ni6ht lravo cmorgocL;
thcrc
could. also havo bcon s lovcring of sta.i:cii:,rc''l-s
gcncrally in thc no:?s meilia
if tho nc$comcr, or sontc of his corcpctitors,
haci rcsortod
to incraascd.
sonsatLonalisnr to
5ain
circulation.
Thcrc cou1d. also have bocn an
in-i;onsification of ncvspapcr nonopoly if hc'i:ad. absorbod. cornpetitors.
Kecp hfu out, hoi;cvcr, by rostricting
thr, frc'cd.on to publish, md some-
thing likc a Jocal nonopoly would. hnvc, bcin cnshrinedr..
To some cxtont
this i;ss tire c.ffc ct of tho Noirs },{cd.ia O,;nership
Act of 1965, but
lrhotcrvor spccial consid.cration
in thi.s affair nay havo bc'c;n cxtc'nded. to
thc, l,iew
Zcslancl rrulirspcpc r proprlc tors by L synpathc
tic National
govcrnncnt
,
the
.urobl
orTr rras tkre f ar:rili:r onc of
'brying
to clc cidc on an
adcquatc' pollcy emid a utlter of conplcxi-i;ic's.
To so!\;' extt'ntr its
d.iscussj.on';,re:s
impgclcd by a fai-lur.t,to consid.crthc'neiispapcrs
as only
one part of
-bho-
cntirc nc,;s ncdia systan.
To thc: f.'&l of forcign
monopcly, and. for
-that
nattcr, Loss of rtrstrli-::t
oVrar
iournalists
hoping
to cxcrt ihcnsi.lvos noro nil-itantly,
govc'ritnc'nt in lii'',1 Zoaland has for
neny yeus had. a por,'t rful
atrsrrcr. Its control
:nd. influenct' ovor
broad.casting and iclevision scrviccsr
47
J.J. Sinclalr, chcirnan of dircctors of t]rc Otago Daily
Tinos
and'".fttncssConpanyLta.,reportec1inW,Fcbnrary2B,
t965,
3.
CHAPTER II
BROADCASTING IN NEW ZEATAND
Broadcasting in Nevu Zealand has been under some form of public
control since 1911 o Before then,from 1925 to 1)J1, a national radio
service was operated by the Radio Broad.casting Company of New
Zealand Ltd., but this was succeeded by the New Zealand Broadcasting
Board which extended the national system and also supervised the
programmes
broadcast by some
70
privately owned stations that were
operating in areas where reception of the board
t
s stations was
unsatisfactory"t In 1936,however, the board was abolished and its
property waa transferred to the C:own.For the next 25 years, broad-
casting in New Zealand was administered by a government department
t
and control wers formally in the hands of a Minister of Broadcasting.
The Broadcasting Act of 1915 provi-ded for the programmes of
"tl
privately-operated
stations to be subject to Ministerial scrutiny.
.A,dvertising was prohibited. except from commercial stations and was
controlled by the Mini"t"""] fn 1937
r
a commercial broadcasting
service was introduced, to be financed from the sale of advertising
time.Revenue frorn this source was soon sufficient to make the
commercial service finan:iaI1y independent and to augrnent the income
f rom licence f ees, F:-nal1y, in 194J, the Commercial Broadcasti.ng
Service waa e stablished as a separate entity. Both it and the Nationer.L
Broadcasting Serr'1ce passed
to the administrative control of a sing)-e
director of broadcasting under a Minister of Broadcasting who was
responsible to Par'lianent.In 1939, a v,'eekly periodical
,
The New
Ze?lpnd Listene_{,was started by the Broadcasting Service.It carried
the fulI programme
schedules for each week, but more important, it
provided an avenue f or the pr'-blicaticn of short stories, book reviews,
correspondencer feature articles, and occasional. editorial comment-
aries on public
affairs from a'rariety of sources and viewpoints.
The New Zealand National Orchestra was also established. under the
controJ- of the Broadcastlng Service.
From 1943 to 1
t5O
there we:e no important changes in the adninis-
trative structure by which radio broadc.rsting was carried ort
r
though
2
3
See
fRadio
and Television Broadcastingl
Yearbook,Wellington 1958
, 168-r?5;
also
ionr in An Encyclopge4:Lq of New Zealand.
,
Section 15(1)
"
Section 14(1
),
(Z).
in the New Zealand Official
I
Broadcasting and Televis'-
'Irel1i
ngt on 1956
t247 -?52
"
2]-"
considoreblc
progrcss Tirs nad,o ldth thc cicvolopncnt
of progra.nne scrvlccg
cnd. thc 5-npro vcnont of stotion covoragc.
Sonc cttontion
'r,;Js
di'vo tcd' tc
tclcvision scrvicos
,
though it \;as not unti'l L95O
(
af ti-'r a privcto i''x-
porimontal conp,.l,ny
had. bcu'n oorrying
on rcgUler
transnissions
in
j"uckl*ni-
f or sornc) t
jner
)
ttrat the lloi Zealand. Brcad.casting
Service bcgan its own
regUlar tolovision sorvicc.
Hoi;cver, during
the 1960 oloction
campaign
thc,rs nras nidcsprc,ld. d.issctisfaetj-on
';rith
thc
'vrey in ;rhich botlr telc'-
vision ani rad.io ncus serviccs
vJere bci:rg run
und'er
Sovernalrnt
control'
Thc National
party
proaiscd thr:t telovision
trould. bc tri:n"sfcffed
to soEtc'
f orn of corpor.ttive
control, sd in thc, cvent,
whcn tho nc-'t;
National
govcrnmnt \res fcrned a.ftcr thr. oloction,
bo'th radio
and tc'lovision
sorvicos rloro brought undcr thc edninistration
of the Ncil Zc'eland Broa&-
casting
Corporation wh:ich iTes sot up in 1962 to op'oratc
J5
ra&io
imil fou:r
telcvision stations. Thorc f ollovccl a vigo:lous
progracmo of expansi-on
of tolcvision sorviccs
(vhlch i-s sti11 in progross) and. tho ostablishmnt
of a full-scclc nc-rls sorvice.
Thc
.urosont
corporation cons ists of scvcn nen 3 a f omor
licjo3-
Gonoral of tLro ldor Zcalcnd Army, four busincssllon,
a rotrircd
latrycr,
ond"
a forrnor gorrcrcl menager of a provincial nci;spaPc'r.
It is a policy-
nokin6 body; rcs.?onsiblo
to it for the runr:i.:rg of thc scrvicc is c
Dircctor-Genoral
(
ct prosont an ex-occountunt
)
*rtd to hin in turn, ttto
vorious hoads of thc difforcrnt branctrcs l;ithj-n tho scrvice itsof aro
rosponaibl-o . In l:969 thc rc rrorc t+7 nc dium-rril.vL', rad.io s teti ons and' a
singlo-chcnncl
.bclcvision
nctuork operational
tbroughout most rogions
of
tho countrSr.
Tho J61y-poiiercd shortlravc
transnitters
also broadcast
progralnncs to thc Pccific lslancis and.
.,'"ustrali;.
1. rlIE-
ll$,I- SBIIIE
In the d.ays of dcpertrrantal
and fornr.l
L'ij-nistt'ria1 control,
the
nerrs servicc consis'i;cd.
of I carci,ly norc thcn ono cnployce
uhose
i
ob
wcs to c&lt a brlef filc of itons providod by thc Govcrnnc'nt
Tourist
and. Frblicity Dclil.rfuicnt
ancl to appond this
to a rccord5n6
of thc BBC
ovorscas noirs l;hich lros thc,n rc-broadeast
ovcr thc national
Progrs'nnc
at
g
prrir. cach ovc,ning. Oftcn thc Nclr
Zceland con'r,cat of this sorvicc
u.
oonsistecl of litbIe nore than thbl,y tl-lsguised. liirrlsterLaL hand.oute.
Following th clunge to corporatLon control, the nerrs serrrlce hag been
gratly
expandeA to ttre point lrhere it ca.n now compete uigorously lf
recrd. bo with othor nws nod.i.a. Its
nnin
naterLal oones fron a sta^ff of
f,rot'o than 13fr journalists
and.
coneranan who do the basic rrcrk of
lntervlarring and. reportago. Tluis i.s suppl.mented, by news fltln fron ovarsoas
agencS.esr by the nonitor{ng of nows broad.casts fron oversoos sourcos, ancl
hy
en overseas
oable seryice obtalned. fron the New Zealand. Pness
Ass ooiation,
Nevs buLletj.ns aro prepored
by a centrel sts.fle in T{eUJr:gton, with
branohes tn tlre other nai:r centres. [hpse serve t]rree lerrcIs of Lnterest:
the national, the regional anrl the looal. Notional bulletfurs for radlo
are prepared.
in Wellington arrcl are supplied to
gs1 inrrsd.late
tiJrk of
stotions to whLoh the neirs is read. fron a
centnal poLnt. ThB caso of
telovision bul-letine has been nore conplloated beoause unilL rneoently,
for tea,hnl,oal
reasons, regionol televlsion stations couLd. not be operated.
oontJ.nuously otr
one
national 1i:rkago.
Consoquent\r, news dfloeng
thror6hort tle
oor:ntry noul.d send
gtories
they consl.d.erod of national
lnterest to Tlellington rihere gatekeepfu6
deolsio4s about the1r use oculd.
bs nafu by nens supenrisorso
ThF terts of centralJ;r propared.
bualetlxg
r{ere then sent frm tho
oent:raL novsroon in Welltn6;ton to the rogionsl
stations by telepr5.nrter.
These al-lorted,
for the i,nsertion of l,tens of,
regional lnterest on\r, as weIL as fcr 1ocal fi]n shot ttrat d.ay. ${
Tn
llgi;s of natione*l interest ros sh6,nx as soon as possible
fron all ctarurels,
trut beoause copies harl to be nad.e for oach one, sone vlnwens t1pul-cl.
gee
&
ft.tn a clay later than others, depenrL5rrg on the orfuinatfug polnt of the
filnr clr the day it amLvect, and.
on tho strned. uith which lt coul.d bcr
proces.secl and. then d.isblbuted by air. Hovever, by lats 1969, t,hg
oori)ofetion had. $rcoecd.ed.
jn
llnking its television stuctjios tn the
four-nailr centreg so that natlonal newscasts, and. oertatn otha programnes
Iiker for instance, the coTerage of the 1969 general
eleotion ntght results,
carld be transurittecl slrrul-taneorsly throughout New ZeaLand,
In addttlon to nei;scasts, a congldrrable varfuty of news support
ancl
trubltc
af,fairs proffp,rrres, aft weIL as
,3.{scusslons
and. ta.Iks, are proparecl
b3r the oortrnratlonrs staff
,
rith the asststanoe of oontributors who o$ep
lf rreessarTr, consulted by long tlstance teleptrone.
2.
.Zbt
TI{E BILOADC-"STING ;-CT
Thc Brooclcasting C orp orat i.on Act 1961 at'i;cmptc'd a conprchonsivo
d.ofinition of tho tasks rhich tho nciily formcd corporlti.on izas supposcd
to porform by rcprod.uc ing much of thc tcrninology of tlrc British
felc visj-on Lct of l.954,_ It laid tlor.n thc
I
f\rnctions
I
of the sorvico
anct clcfinc d tho rc.lati onship betilecn the N .Z . B. C. end thc govgrnmnt.
Und.cr scction 11 the corporetion lras oblicd" to
I
conply lrith tho geinorol
policy of tlrc go verror.rrt of Noi; ZoalinrL with rcspc ct to broad.casting
r
ard. to
I
conply irith ar\y gr-nc,,raI or spe c ia1 d.ire cti ons given in
''ri
ting
by tha Ministc,r pursuont to thc policy of the govortrmont in rerlation
thoretol. Undcr a sulslrqucnt arnond.nic;nt a copy of evr.irf suctr notico was
to bc loid. bcforc, Parliarnent rrithin 28 d.eys i-f ParLianent r,'ore in scssion,
md, if not, vithin 28 d.rys aftor thu start of the noxt c,nsui,:n6 ,ourion.4
Fornal Ministcrlal- cl:iroctions lravr.r bc.cn r"lra, though onc roason for this
may wc,l1 bo thc obvious onc that no6otiation cnd. consultation at many
ilivorso lcvcls bot'roon corporation and. govcrnnont hcs bccn thc" con-
vcnient custorn. lrccordiJlg to a f ormcr I\T.2.3. C. produccr, Gordon Bick,
this is a subtlo procoss:
In Nc"u'Zcaland,, political
jrrtcrfcrcncc
is nado cosy. It can
takc moro subtlc forns tdran 'cho ',rrlttcn d.ircctivos rihich a
tr{inistcr of rJroed.casting is rcquirc'd. to rnakc to tho N.Z.B.C.
if hc uants to influcnco pro6rannring. In a snall, intinato
so cie ty uhcro rclationships orc vory informal
,
pros suros cc-n
casily bo applic'd on a fricnd.\r basis by c nt-,rc, tolcphono
call. l,iin:isters, thc Dircctor-Gcncralr md d.opartmontal
he ed.s arc al l on f irst nanc torns
,
Thcry have to live rrith
oach other and. d.cpcnd. on each othcr
I
s co-opcf,ation. The
N.Z .8. C. vants a quiet l-if c, cven if it docs noen bolring
a littlc this vay or that in thtr politicel r;ind..5
Thc l.linister of Br"oad.casting is a1s o
obligc d. to ansrror questions in
Parlicncnt ebout his aclninistration of bro"ld.ccstirg! consr-qucntlyr or
many espccts of its ectivities, thc corporstion may be
just
cs nuoh
und.cr t'Lris forn of polittoal survoil}:nce as on orclincry governnt;nt
d.opartncnt. For oxample
,
during the 1953 Parliamc'nt:.ry scs sion,
qucstions llcre ons!,rercd. on subjects involving tcl,cvision translators
l+ Sc.ctlon 11(2).
5
Gordon Dick,
Lh-c 0_o.qpjr_qs_rj1q,
Christchurch 1968, 104.
?4.
5n raranatctr6 erquipment for new televlsion studlosrT t"l"vislon
Rq
receptlon
jn
ltreIsonr" television aclvertising rates,
r/
the prochrctlon of
television plays in Auckland.,
10
the ooverB.ge of orloket tests
,
"
the
47.
provision of a satellite receiving station
,
"
ri.quor aclvertisenents
,
t
t
televislon advertisjng by the 8gg Mar*:T Authority,
14
r"uther rop ortsr''!'
ancl the adeqr.lacy of programlaes about pol-ltJos.
'
A 1957 anentlnont
to the Broacleasting CorporatLon Aot allowecl tlre
DiJector.4eneral to be appointecl
by ttre ooryoratJon itself nathsr
than by
t}e Governor-General
jn
CounolJ on tho reoomend.ation of the oorporatrlon,
but tlre arnond.nent specJfied. th^at he lma to be paid orrt of the ronsoliqstei
rcvenue account
lsuch
salary as nay frm tine to tiloe be
apprgpr{.atect by
ParLianent.tl7
This means tlra.t his salaryl anct preg,rebly his aotLvities
as hcarJ. of tfte
servioor oxe subjoct
to
pagla*untf
s sonrtLt\y
Just
as
rmoh as if he woro an officer ln a govornnent clepartnont *rloh was dopend.-
ent on the grmting of f\rncts througb the nornal me ahanlsn d
tlre Pa:rXlanentarS'
ostiarates
.Ind.ced, a f\rrther form of eontrpl over tlre NrZrB.C.
ts
to be
found in Cebinetr s supervision of its e:qlenclttule. Uncler sectlon 29
of
the Broadcastlng
Corporation Act the corporation ls obllgecl to
Brepaae
esti$ates for its ycarly expenclJ.turo
ri.n
a forn apprlved
by
ttre Minlster of'
Fjnancer of the arnount of the e4pencllture for ell pruposes ancl the reooipts
of t}"e corpcrationf
. In recent years the regour@s of the
gorporation have
6 Pa,rlianqr@, vol.
355t
July 10 1968t
515,.
7 7
1958,
iz+,
B
lb;-*q.
vo1.355, July 16 1968,
U73.
9
ibj.d.. vol.
556
,
Septc-nber 5 1968
,
1585.
1 O i-bjl.q. vo 1.
355 ,
July 2t+ 1968
,
7O3,
11
ibi-q.
voI.
355 ,
July 17 1958
t
528,
t z
'fi:.iE..
vol ,
35,5, Jof Zg lgll}i
-z+,
1
J
ibid. vo 1.
355
t
July 1 8 1968
t 579.
1L
Lb-a-q.
vo1.
355,
July 10 1968
, 317
,
15.ib=id, voJ..
356,
August
1l+ 1958, 1324,
16 llia, vol.
156,
Septonbcr
11
"968t
1686,
17 5eb11on 16 (z).
25.
been vcry greatly incrcasird, and. thc profits fron i-ts operations havc becrl:
substantial. During thc fincncial yeor oi:d.oci March
jr
1968, for excurplo.
tho N'Z.B.C. hed a not revcnuo of
$19r576rO14.
if,ter poyi-n6 tarcation,
and. al1owin6
.i;2
,
IU
JI9
_ _
in deprc ci at ion, it hact a surplus of
W ,5671011]8
l',ccordin5 to one criticf9 thLs rcprcscntccl. a 19 por ccnb rate of profit.
The N. Z.B. C. clairas that it ncecis such substantial surpluscs bccausc it is
finan cing capital vorks out of its oi;n rcsourcos and. is f accd. rrith sono
vcry hoaqy dcHands in its attonpts to conplctc
iro
jc
cts likc tftc oxtcnsio:l
of tclovision
covcrago to all parts of Now Zoalantl, tho buil&ing of tclc-
visi on studios
,
:nd tho pr ovisi-on of f acilitic s f or tho ro captLon anc.
re-broadcast of satcllitc-transnittcd.
progranncs. Obvious\r a corpor-
ati on involvod. i.:r cos tl;r d.cvolopnental pro
jc
cts of
-bhis
kind is nct
likeIy to risk arousing thc antagonisc,r of s Cabinet rihich virhrolly hold.s
thc purso strings. tr\trthornorc, thr' 1c,gc.cy of thc corporationt I ycarg
as c govcrnncnt
d.clnrtncnt nay h:vs, c consid.ertblo influencc on its
counci ls
. }largl of its top off i cla 1s hcvo b eirn tr.ril,? d in the adnin-
istrativc r.rnvironnc.nt of thc public scrvicc. ,
.rccordirg to Bi ok, at tho
t5-nc of thr. change-ovc,r thoy wcrc:
. .. thc sanc faithf\rl, 1oy,:11, d.cvcrtcd crou, rovrin6 with thc
scne clutious, obccLlcnt r.rind.s in thc sa;l(\ crirccticn ... fron
habit cncl yc'crs of ccnditionin6; thus., iu.n i,'Jnti-'i. a quiet lifo
frac of any controvurrsX likc1y to offrini
-bhc,
politicicns.
None of ther had. a clue about tc,lsvision
lrroclucti.on,
and.
pictorial journllisn
i;rs as unkno',,'n ls'bh.,c,thc,r sidcr of thc
rloon. Thc Jtc','.'s d,crpartncnt
6rc',r
out of iourist end. R.rblicity
Dcpart:ont henclouts
,
a,nd. thr", publi c ;ff airs dcpartncnt clc-vo-
lopcd. uncl-c,r thc, safc grriii:ing influencc. of on agricultural
officcr.20
In its troatnont of high-runkilg govcrrlfitcot officials }ilcc, tho Princ
Ministcr, thc N.Z .B.C. has custonc,rily tcncLc,d. to takc e sof t Linc..
"rJthou8h
a stanc.ing
j-nstnrction
to its
journalists
scys th:t statcncnts
by &iinistcrs or othlrr
Govcrnncnt
,.:uthoritics
shoulc bo troatocl on thcir
norits as nciis itens, tho achral nothod. of trcatnr,''nt i.s ofton cautious
and. d.oforcintial. Thus in L967, i;hon tho Prj-no l,ii-nj-sior (f..f.
Holyoakc)
18 Rcport of
_thc
,
1,'erlin6ton 1968.
19 C.G. Costc,llo rc'portcd. in Tho
DoniryLoq,
Novonbor 14, 1958
,
j,
20 op. cit,
96.
26.
rcturnod. fron on ovcrsoas trip, thu corpor:,ti . nf s stz.ff h,i,. to nake
soveral takos of o tolcvision
j.ntcrvielr
at ilclltngton airport. Thcso
rlcrc subscrclucntly shorm to luii:r so that hc coulc'I. select thc bost for sub-
scquont tclocasting, Lccorcling to Dick, Ho\rolkc ahrays ;tanted. to loarn
bis lincs in acivenco and. sonetincs obt.rinod. ad.vance.lists of qucstions
fron tho N
,7..8,C. to prcporc, hinsr'}f for an i-ntcrviori. No sticky
quc'stlons
r;orc alloircd. to bo slipped into the intorviev at thc' last nonont
to catch hin of f grrttd..2l
Thc rcsult of such practic us has bccn that
tcrpicel pr ograniles havc sonctines sccae d.
I
too cautious and d.efercntio. !'
.22
For cxa.nplo
I
ottcr tclevision viewor conplaincd. cbou'c an intcrviolr vith e
Cabinot ninis'bor in thcso toras:
t
iThat I found. nost noticcablo r/as tho
troa&ing uith ceution on cvory quosti.cn put to ttro l,ii-nis tor.'23 Tho
corporetionrs officlal roply to this crj.ti.cisn ri&sr
fTho
N.Z.B.C.ts
ilpproach in all nol;s intorvioris is to sc.ok si8nificant infornation vrlth
duc inpartiality,
rcspcct and. courtcsy, .24
Thc neturc rnci- s]:fc'n1 of the irrfornal influcncc of govcrnrrcnt
circles in the progre:.Ero content d.ccislons radc,by corporetlcn nonegonont
hcve been clis cusscC. in the course of a nunb cr of public controvorsic s
over the scloction of prograrLrrLl crnttnt lnd. thc desircbllity or otherniso
cf chlmgc.s in thc systc:-r cf licens5ng for broadcasting and television
stetions. Thc N.Z.B.C. has becn heavily criticised for its tinidity
and d.eforonce, but
'..hc-n
accusod. of unneccssary or sinister d-efcrence to
govern:rent interests, its nen?.gcr:cnt has gcncrrlly dof crnC.rrd. itsolf
by falling back on tho tl.rninoloy of the Jroadcasting Corporotiun ;","ct.
This stci.tos in se ction fO( f
)
in vorJ gc,nc raI tr',rns ttu.t thc corporction
I
shall camy on c broed.castin6 service
',iithin
Nr".ri Zc'o13nc1, ffiC. frs,n tino
to tiHc icvclop, c'xtc.nd. :nC. i::pr ;vc th:t scrvicc in thc public intorost
I
.
If it is :lssunod. th;t thesc word.s ncir.n thet thc Br-,rvicc itseJf, as itoll
2I
ibicL. 2L But accori]ln6 to c riclIln5ton
journalist
rrriting in
8 c-Ner Zoalend. Listonor*(Uoconber 20 Ig6E,
il
this h,as not always
bcon the casc nnd. Ho)yockc has provc,d hissolf
I
as rdl}in6 to ansror
&ifficult questions
nd.thout pre-knowled,go cs any politician.f
22 Ian Johnstonc,
Tho
Richt Charinol, Dunoclin 1968,
J8.
2J
@,
Ju\v 11969, Lo.
24 Loc. cit.
27.
es the e.xtensiorlsl developnents
,r.nd
i::provenents, is to be cn'rrLed on
in the
r
p'ub.Iic interestt
I
the only addi-tional.
directions tbct
g:ive eny
gul.d.ance n,s to how thct interest is to bo served
cre the provieions of
secfioni IO(2) which clecLue thct the corporrtion ls bound to aatlsffr
lteelf
(i) thatl 8o,
fer
.as possiblernothing is included in the
progl.lnlrles
wtrich offends o.gainst
good. taste or decency or is libl$ fo
incite to crine or load to d,isorder or be offcn.qive to
publ'io
fe elin8;
(
ii) the.t thc progranne
s r:rintrin a proper balence in tbcir $bieqt
nettcr nnd a. high gencral
strndard
of guality; ind
(iii)
innt sny rrcws g:ien in thc
progrcrmcs
(in
wnr.icwr foru) is
prcsontccl wlth drrc r.cclracy r.nC i-np,=tiality
cnd IfiLth duc rcgard
to' ttrc public intcrest.
fn s scrrse, thc N,Z.B.C. hc.s bccn
grantcd. a Lerge
e.nount of nuto'Ircnyt
but its cxtcst rcnnine spcculctirre
bcc:usc tho Act docs not r;f,tenpt to
dcfinc oly of its tersrs.
I
Pub.Iie i:ntcrcstt
r
t
good
tcstsr
r
I
deoencYl
r
c.nd.
wh.r.t .constltrrtcs
tiuci.toncnt
to c:d,ne,r
r
crd what klnd of pno6fcrufc
co'ntcnt coulcl
I
lcad. to disord.crt or b,c
toffcngivc
to public fccrl:ingl
trnvg so fu bcen lcft I,-rgcly to the a&-r'i'aistrotlvc disorction o.f the
N.Z.,B-C. itsclf to detcr"nine. Sir.rifu.rly,
I
propcr brlsrcct Qnd
I
gcncrrJ
stnndard,
of qualilr, havrc bccn intcrprcted, to suit circuustance re.tlrcr
than d.:finccL in nccorclcncc with cxr.ct
principlcs. This ilry bc w\Yt
aceord.irg to Johnstonc,
I
in : scnsc, thorc is no ,"rccc'. for thc cotultryr s
ttcstnb'l
ishacat'r to try to i.rrflucncc pro8rfffrle s. teft to itsef f
r
New
Zccl.o.ud,r s tofcvisi<in systog, will srr on thc sicl.'
of clutionrrill
.prcfor
thc .s::fc to' tJrc touehy, rrill fccl norc
,--.t
ccse with c rcport ebout
he,rbo.ur fncilitic.s th..rn nith ogc cxnidning c.bortioo, .25
fn thc c&sc of thc prowlsions coDcurnin6 ncus, thc i:rtcrprctation
o,f thc e1l-i-nportr:rrt
pbraot
t
Cuc rrgi.rC to tho public int-'lrostr ig
slso largcly e. n,^.ttcr of discr.ction;How thc cor?oretion l:nd. its officcrs
intcrprot thcsc lrlrds in thcir cleily .:.cti.vitios is ccnsoqucntly of
d.ccisirc sigxaifie.-lrcc;thc Act i.rurely lqys dor'm sonc broed stcndcds
which ttrc Ni Z.B.C. is cr+eetccl. to n:int.in uithout cny fo:m,cJ. Ciroction
na to hon it is to intcrprc.t thcn.Thc soci,rl
pur?oscs whiclr thesa
stcnd,crde
nrc intond,c C to prono.tc
,
r:rC h,cncc tlre clogree of rigorrr
;frf ofr
25
_W:_-c-+.L.
,9.
2p.
is to be lrrfoucd frrcm a torm such as
lpropcr
bal,encot
r
aro not nado
oxplicit and d.opond on whatovor constnrction is pJ-a.cod upon tho amorphous
oxprossi.on
tpublic
jntcrostr.
Sinilarly tho /''ct uses tho torn
rfunctionl
as a synorgrn for
I
oporations
r
. It make s no attcmpt oithcr to concertt
ltsolf uith problons of sorvi co antl control as suchr oT ovon to rocogniso
their oxistcnco. Ncvorthcless, such activitlc's are implioit in the
notion of public intcrcst, and as a mattor of vrorkin6 pnactice, somethtng
of tho kind is recogniscd by the N.Z.R.C. when it states thert its aims
arc
I
to pro vid.o the comrrunit3r . . . lrith entcrtairunent, inf ormation ancl
scrvice uhich is d.osired. by thc aud.ionco, is presontecl in a manner
acceptable to it and. is practj.cablo within the availablo f inano o,'26
This ctofinition, ho,,'evcr, hos the shortcoming that it tend.s to seo the
N. Z.B. C , as tho pas sivo creahre of its auc.icnca rather than an in-
novator or eve.n ins tru ctor. Sorc b roecicasting sys tcns have talcen a morQ
ad.vcnturous viou of thcir rosponsibilitics.
Thus the r.ustralian Broad,casting Coruuission has no hcsitutlon in
asserting tirat ono of it s nnos t funportant ob
jc
ctivos is
I
to nolco pooplo
21
thinkt
.-' ,"-long thcsc lines tho British Sr"oaricasting Corporation Board.
of Govornors rogards itsclf as not on\y thc
ttnrstco
of thc national
intorcst
r
but es thc cus todian of thc, kind of
t
rnoral and. social valuos
t
which it thinks shouLd. characteris o
I
good.f public sorvico broadcostirrg.2q
In t$oir pursuit, houcvor, it clai-ms to exorcisc its authoriQt largcly
by a pragnatic procass of iliscussion ancl rcstrosln ctivo rovici,r of
pttgranmcs rathcr than tho dravring-up of broad. cod.os of othics. Tho
Focloral Connnnrnications Conmission
(
tfro Unitod Statos broadcast U.consi-ng
authority) in its not a-lvrays succossf\rl strugglcs lrith this quostion has
somotinps triod, to go a long irey f\rrther by argli.ng that ttro emphasis
should. be upon tho scrvice vhich thc connrunity acttrclly roceivcs, ed
that tho stnnd.ard of
I
publlc lnterost
,
eonvsnicnce or ne cossity
I
shoulcl
26
27
28
/rlms and Ob.Lectivos of, lri.Z.B.C. ProgramninF, I{.Z.R.C.
t
"{ollington
1969.
Tho
/,uqtralian,
Scptember 10 1969
,
2.
Iorcl Norrmnbrook,
!!tr-
Ibqqtio4l- ql
ltto-.P.p.C.
t
s Covemors, Iondon 1965.
?e,
bo congtnrod. accorclir1y.
In this conccption a broad.castS.ng station
booomos a
rrnouthpiaco
of tho ajr
I
for thc conr,nrnity it sorves, md rocentl;'
tho Comnission has claimod that it has e ri6ht to instnrct rarlio anct tolc-
vision stations und.cr its control to clcvoto oc1ua1 tinc to the prosentation
of controvcrsial
issues fcahrring in progrcni;ros.
Sonc ovcrall
conccpt of function in this sons c of conmrnitSr sc,rvice
is nocosserXr to the ncr.?s ncd.ia. ,lithout i'b thoir nano,gcnonts arc
1iko1y to find thonsclvos
dovoting tochnj-cal resourcos ond talont to
buildlng sorvicos thet nay bo toclrnically and conncrcially succcssful, but
uncl':istinguishod.
b3' aqy othcr purposc
thcn tho filling of thr.rir channels
vith rrhatevcr
netoriaL corur s to han d in ord.er to satlsfy ttp d.cnand.s of
tho bulk of thcir iles s aud.i enccs
. That sonothing othc'r than the satis-
fcction of ncro crud.c' appotitc
for popular
cntcrtelnnont was intcnded by
thc Ncu Zcaleind 3r'oad.casting rrct can bc. inferred. fron section t2 lfteroby
tho corp oration has po'r;-er to us c its f actlitio s in su ch a nann'lr as night
bc thought fit for tho pronotion
and assistanco
lof
the arts and. cultural
pursults i'-hich are usual\y includod. in thc purpose of broaclcastlngr.
It is also authori sed. to publlsh periodicals and d.o things
t
in thc
intcrcsts of the conrruniQr for tho purposc of d.ovcloping and inproving
broad.cast talont
I
but hero again this is only gcni..raI authority Hithout
vc{f strxr cif ic guid.anco.
Lack of d.cfinition of what crit ;,ria should b c invoke d r,hon con-
sid'criry; the public intorr.''st d.oc,s not, of courso, stop thc corporction
fron d.cvcloping its orrn stJ,nd.arcrs in thc courso of daiIy oxperionco.
Ind,ood., only thoso
involvod in tho d.uy-to-d.ay oporation of a nass nod.ia
systcn can clcterrrlnc how nuch or uhat kind. of nc.lrs, od.itorial conncnt,
culhrr al cdrrcation or entcrtainnont
should bc ctis sorinatod, bocaus c thoy
aro the onlJ pooplo who arc in any position to cstlnratc tho guality ancl
calculcto tho possiblo
offccts of tho natoriol- at their disposal.
Tho public intarost can novor bo d.cfinod. ix so nany iorcls bocauso it
tlepond's on un$rod.ictablo
circunstanco. Thc s ocial rcsponsibility thoory
of nass ncd'ia opcratlon plcces the onug for this kincl of B,rrarcnoss, and.
accoptancc of the responsibillty for naking such pragnetic
oalculations,
squaroly in thc hand s of tho
journalis
ts anc'. nc d.La progranners
thonsolvcs
.
3.
lQo
So tho question arlses: hovl rl.oe,s N,2.3.C. nanegcllent 5nterprc't tho
adnjnistrative dis crotion it has bo,n grentcd-?
BJ.I,/NCE JND THE }TffitIC II{IXINST
First\y, liks r:ost ned.:ir opcraiors in Cr,.iflocr,ltic
political slsttrrls;
thc N.Z.B.C. is dctcrr:inca to obtain a securc basis for its operations
by naking a profit. It has bcc.n assistoc] in thi-s by bcing granted' what
hos, until 1969, bccn virtuclly a nonopoly in broad.ocsting
i,n Ncw Zcalond-,
and. it hcs cotloctc'cL substantial rcvcnues fron llccncc fcc,s andr thc salc'
of advcrti sing tinc. Ncvortho lc ss
,
it lres bcan strongly
apprchonsivc
of tho cond;it ions s o urbiguously laid do';m in ilro Droad.c,:.sting Corporati.or:
i,ct; oni- it rcgulatos its pro6rerl"o contc:rt in ilccordonco irith sorlc
cautious intorprctations of thcn. In its nei?s scrviccs it accopts e
vcrsion of
'bho
trad.itional f roo-r.rarkot-p1acc-for-inf
ornation ob
je
ctivo
,
but linits this lri'oh sono inportant qualif ications.
fho ain of tho N.2.3.C. ncTTs servicc is seid to bc to
rprovid,c
c
sorvice of lnfornotion upon uhich tho
lnoplcr
of thc cor.urtry can forn
roi'rsonablp
jud.gnent
on world affairs ancL thcir o!?n cffairs .'29 But in
camying this out the N.Z.B.C.has not only had all the usual ilifflculties
of trying to present news with reasonable impartlality; it has been in-
volveil in unccrrtaintie s over the meaning and application of the words
I
proper balance
I
,
Most nowspapers and noyrs agencies are able to avoicl
such dif f icultie s of d.ef lnition by aiming more modcstly at the productton
of fair and. accurate retports.
r:.1-1 nevs ned.ie proprietors, broadcastors
as we,l1 as net{spape r pub lisho rs
,
f ird. thems eLves under an ob ligation to
publish fair and. accurato reports bocausc, anong othsr things
r
fallure to
d.o so can result in ]egal pro ceed.ings f or d.ef amation.
thcy also have
qualifle d privi le6e to publlsh f air and. ac cut'L1te rcports about a groat
many public aff airs and logal snd, ParJiaoonta4l
pro coedings on the uniror-
standing that ther se reports aro sub
j
c ct:'.'r'i to sub sogucnt oxplanation
and
contradiction.
Thcy noy also
,
thems elves, mako f air comnronts in good'
f &ith on nattcrs which thcy consid.cr to be of suff icient publi c intorogt.
Tho N.Z.B.C.
I
howcvor, consiacrs itsclf to bo tnoro circumscribed.
than
this. rtith comnonclablo propriaty and. pnrd.onco it sooks to noaintain a
carcflll ncutrality in thc hand,ling of controvorsial nows itoms,
Nervs and, Comrnontaries 29 RPC
8ra
Sorrncl ancl Teluvision
,
N.7'.D.C.
31
.
particulor\y in the
qrse
of oontroversios betmeen
polltl,cal partlesror
attaclcs on the poHcy of governnentrbut i.tr its treclt!rcnt of this naterial
the stand.ards of
inpertLality,
accuracl enil good, faLth are not su*eisbntl
reports nust also betbaLsnoed.f .
The nean5ng of this
'bern
has boen intr:rpr"eted by the N.Z.B.C. to be
firstJy an absence of distqtj-on or sensatirnel enplaslsr
anA sgcondJ,y
Borrettring ospocially epplicabln to nhat ls consid.ered ',,o
be
f
politLcal.f
reportage and. d;iscussion. [hjis approach requiros tlrat a lci.nd of verbal
piJrg-pong shal-l be unFired by the N.Z.B.C. gatekeepers. The nrle heus been
ttrat str^rternente med.e by one faotion in a controvorsy shoulil.r vhere
possible, be counterecl by any rr.lternative
'
vlertrlolsrts that are enal-lable.
These consl,clerations aJre not very d.i.fferent frora those nornalJgr
attacbing
to the irrLtilg of a falr retrnrt, but the danger with the N'Z.B.C!
g
opproach
to tJre reportoge of politLcal af,fcuirs is that in the pr;rsuit of
the elusive niceties of balence, controver$y n56ht be danpect clow:r.
p
**",
of courser mJ/ nell be the N.Z.B.C!s intention on sone nattersrpartlouJ-ar1y
those touctrilg the s ensitivitles of po}ltiol,a^ns and. interest
groups,sone
of rtron are notoriously prone to a ccuse the netrs ned.ia of bias on wrTr
slight pretoxt,
But tf polltician A oannot or wl-l-L not balance tbe
utterances of polLtician B, iirat happens to tlre news iten, or to t;he
oor:msntaef? Is tt cut, or is the progromrs abancloned. altogether to avoid
accusattons
of bias arrd. inbalance? In suoh case,
vhat has bappenecl to
th prbltc interest and the neetl to interpret publio aflfajrg as weLL as
report therf? Is it in the interest of every inclivicluol menbor d the
nass public which ttre ne&irr.o pr:r.norts to ssrva that statenentg or view-
points of gg, reasonable lcind. stroulcl be suppressecl, pa.lrticu]E^rly ff t,hey
happen to concern natters of pubJ:lo irrporbane? If by siLence or evasion
e polLtlclan, a poJ-ltLoal officia.J. or a pronlnent personality oan ensrle
th,at an issue is not fulJy reported, or Ls not rlisstlssod. fttILy arul
pubHcJy, cloes that nean thot sone potentlal news sources ca.zr
30
R.S. Clark,
rBroadcasting
and Pr{wte Brterprise
-f$e
koposocl
Broadoastine Auttrorifft,
Ltg_ N-efn*_4e--+1g91-d-J-ol1gg1+1,
.Rrb]&c,.ffin-
g!*98,
1Q22,
March
1968, 2)-JAs suggests that bale.ncrd. zubJesb netter
provisions
coulct be interpretett to nean thot racLio ancL telel{sion
operators are oonnon ceuyl"tu of i-rrformation l*ro coulcl be reguirecl
to
give ti-ne to all coners in nuch tlre sane way ttret ttts cornnon @rrler'
in the fielcl of transporb mrst take any passenger aho
lresents
hl^nnse$.
Consequently, a broaclcasting station night even be
rrnder ttre duty, not
neoessarily strarecl by newspapere and other necliarof being f,atr to
.:
al l vievs on oontr"overslal issues of ir:olnrtance.
52'
nanipulate
thc N.2.3. C. by hiding bchlnd the skirts of thc corlrcr-
af,ionrs ow:? narrowly intcrprcted convcntions'i
l:Ihich is more inlrortant
to the nrlntcnanc.: of thc publicf s int;rcsts -- supprc ssion to sorvc
adrninistrativc conrcniencc and to avoid injury and inconrcaic,ncu to
the few, or
publication
so that conflict of opinion
Tf,ill
bc maintaincd
in a controv;rsial arcs. of publ-ic affe.irs? How can pcoplc fo:rm
rreason-
ablc
judgrncnts
on world affairs and thcir own affairst if relevent
inf o rm ati o n i s r,ri thhel d fron thc n?
Ihc anslrcr s to such que stions d-pcnd on ho w managcncnt constnrc s
thr funciau;ntal but anbiguous t.iiu,
I
public intcrc str
'
f f it b,: takcn to
Inc a,n
t
b.,nu fi t to thc public consid;r;d as a wholcr
r
p:rhaps on somg
issues th:rc nay rrull bu
justification
for silincc or onission; but if
it b; thought to ncan
r.r_c.sp.q.ns.e..!.q
-th; -n.g.c_.{s. .o-t.t}c..c.omm_r:nifi1-co-n-q!!el:.4
gs,
-p"
.c.oppl-_cx.
js.,r.ic-s...oL p-u-b_1_ic_sf
e
then $rruly
a frou nark't place policy
o f ir:stant di scl osurc o f all info:mation, and thc vigorous discussion
of all issucs, should folIow. This nay not bc as difficult to Danagc as
night be thought. Th; silcnc,: o f a nc r\rs sourcc und.cr interrogation need
not e.lways result in the failure of comnunication on the
pert of a
responsible nevrs serrrice.Journrrl-ists often trl<e the initiattve in such
situations by substi tuting thei r or^r?r. explane.torly connient on
a
sourcer s
behr.lf
,
giving
an hone st rendering of ryhat the position is; so that a
fair report in good faith on a matter of public interest can stilI be
published.
f n o ther vrordsp both sid:s of a controversy can be can.vasse d
in dopth, whether or not one perticular news source autho,rises it.
Ilovever, this reqtrires that
journalists
should. be encoureged to
carry o ut their inte rpre ta.tirre ro Ie s end should no t be erpecte d to beha-ve
&s mechanieal a.ncl. neutral processors of
e[asi-
factual material on a
perfectly
balanceC assei:ably }ine,
JII
t is iulortant that
journalists
f nterpretative renortlng i s de scribed in J. Edwerd Gera.ld,
f-E
.Sg-ci.ql. _li.e.spo;r.s-i-bi.-1-.i.tg _p f.
-!.4e.
P3.e-s.e ,
iii-nne so ta 1965, T54r 8s
requiring the
journalist
t
to fill in through inrrcstigation end
truthful re;ortr f acts overloolced or not stated in the public
discussion
--that
i s, to supply the tnrth about the factsr . He
d.efines objecti're reirorting as requiring the writer
t
to lceep
neutral his wants; taste s and rnoral a,rd re ligious belief s;moreover
he nust curb wishful thinking
".nd
co.ncern hi:ose1f w'ith proof based
on first ha-nd. com?erison of r:rrorts b)r eredible vritnessesf . l{arren
Breed,f Analaysr,rg Ner.rsl
Sone
Quesf,lrrns
for Researcht
r.,]lou3n;qliQg..Q. t
7124r AutumnTg5St
467-477,
cl.:scribes objective ner.ts renorts as
reli a.ble in the sense thet i f te sted against a second or third
story
about the
saiile event, all r'lould. convey the seme esseutial
informati on.
5T
'
33.
who wish to clis cuss publlc is sue s should be able to do so with sone clegree.
of 5-nterpretative freocLon und.er their o!?n names, or und.er pseudonyms
or byllnes. It is not enough to present a versj-on of
.'rns
basic facts,
they must of ten be interproted. so that the is sue s of the day are nad.c
uncl.erstandable. Howevcr
,
thc N.Z . D ,C .
practi ce has be'en that in the
sclection and. presentation of nevrs thcre is to be no irfluence
tby
z2
od.itorial or nanagenent policic. s on topi-cs th;,'b rt&;r be' contentious
|
.r'
N.Z.B.C. news staff are to treat content
robjectivelyr
on its rnc-'rits as
news, Thi.s moans tbrat authoritativrr sourcc's have
-bo
be founcl to
substantiate coruccnt or criticisn, and. if
-bhqy
a rc not f orthcordng, the
sorvico rnust renain silc,nt .
This
couLd. rcsuLt in a f ailure of the
control function, eithcr through thc
enf orced- silonce of an infornod but
inpotent
j
ournalis t i-n the scrvice
I
s cnploy, or through thc virtual
gagging of a m5nority gmup in tho ovent of its op.ooncnts prcfcrring to
rcrnain silent on sonp controvorsial i,ssuc.
Reccntly, howevcr, i;ho II.Z.B.C. has lq:gun to faco up to thc problcn
of b alan co by adn:itting that tho v arious argunci:t s in a controversy nocd.
not be airod. in thc coursc of a singlo pro6ramne and that opportunity
for aLl slgnificant vi-errtrlo5.nts can bc prc',sented. rvi'r;hin a rcasonablo periocl
??
of tLre
r" It has bocn showing gri;'.atcr read.i-noss to all-ow
journalists
ard spe ciali.sts to c onnont on publie a^ffairs in televis 5-on progra&nog
liko
t
Gal1c'ryr and.
I
Compass
I
and. i-n radjo progrannos lil<e
I
In the Ncws
|
,
lCheckpolntr, tVi,,:r,rpointt, r.fr.spectt
and.
rFerrinine
Vielrlnintf
. It has
also sct up a nuch-ncedod' rad.:io d.ocunt ntary unit to clcal with subje cts of
topical interest and exanine social prob l*",ns in d.opth. In tho N.Z .X. C.
I
s
public affajrs progranne s, pcople rrith sone spc cial or oxport insight
arc askc;cl to connont on ovonts. In sone casos tl:e conncntary conos fron
the N.Z.B.Crs otJ:n staf,f, ix othc'rs it is obtained. fron casual con-
tributors or oven by long distanco tclcpbonc caI1, oftcn at consiclorablo
rxpense. Nevertholcss, this aspcct of elcc-i;ronic
jor:rnalisn
ssons still
in its infancy
j-n
Now Zcaland, partLy b"causo of the shortagc of suitable
32
IIPCZ. Naus_gg$._Cggnontaric s
( gouncL
and.
lglq_yjg*gl)
,
N.Z . B. C.
ni.neograph, \'i'ollington L957.
33
ziins aqd objcgtiyos ol N.Z. D. C.-&gg-EIlILinA, N.Z.B.C.
e
ilcllilgton L969 .
3)+'
talcnt for this exacting typo of work, ancL partly because cf the falluro
of tho N . Z. B. C . alirays to tLcvote suff icient resource s to it.tr\rrttrernor'
,
such pro$ro^cl:ios
havo lar;eIy Leen restrictocl to rad.ic; tlre dtssussion eurd.
interpretation
of public a.ff:jrs on television, for the nost partrhas bson
carriod- on a'b a love1 of cautious nodiocrity tJrat is frequontLy naitJrer
ontortaini,ng
nor instmctive,o
Certainly fovr televlseil publio af,falrs
pro6rannes
irc.ve yet ai:proachecl
tire stancLard. of, for 5-nstancee sone nrra]
broad.castin
serssions in which criticisn and. debate havo a naturallstic
vi6our that stons fron thoir concern vith the farning i:rclustry and. the
frank d:iscussion
of th* arJ.ninistrativo
anC. pollcy-aaking
roalitios that ofe
central to ito
The ccntinuation and. intrrovencnt of prograxures
that are
crLttcel of
1rubltc
a.ffairs is inlnrtant bec,ause if for any reason the p:ress is
rel:]ctant to exert its control functions ancL give ];lboral access to
clLssLclent or protesting
nlnorities, ortra onus falls on the N.Z'B.C. to
soe thot its nens support service d.oes Bo,
This woulC. require nana6enent
to thtnk of
tbalancer
in a vory
6;eneral
sense rather than in tho extrene\r
narrofi perspective
to ivh.ich it h,as boen accustoned, but suoh a otr,rnge of
poIlcy
soons rrnl:lkely without fr.:ndanental alteration to th cm;nsl,tion of
tho oor?orotionr s presont
nenborship, and perhaps sone substential ohangeo
to the
lroad.c.e.sti::g Cortrnration Act.
4.
caurRo]EPfr,ii1*qqip-
In the ae,se of tho N.f,.lj.C. notrs sorvice, controversial itens,
particularly
those concemecL lrith politioal and.
j.ndr.rstrLal
nolrs, ue
custonarlly refomocl to tl:o ncirs eclitor or his c',eputies who in appropriato
cascs consult ths Contrcllor of Nsrirs and Cu:lrlcnt Affal:'sr or the Dlreotort-
Gener&I. This procodtrre
j.s
sin'iler to thot arj.optod. by aIL neffs organlsations
anil ix effect d.elineates & responsible ]rj.erarchy of suthority wh-tch
prosicles
over the noirs-gatherjng
buroaucroclr Exporlonce& nerrs officers
atre
exp$cted. to use thoir
judgnent,
but wh.en irt
35.
?l
cloubt they are requireit to rcfer to their suporiors./s This can easlly
1;,-'
done by neans of the teleprinte,r circuit nhich li:tks all N,Z.B,C. regioruti
nows officos to tho hecd offico of the serrrice in lleLlington, Thus tho
Auclcland. office askoiL he;{ offlce to investigate a r:unour that a neetin5
of prison chaplains at ldt. Crawford prison hacl passecL a resolution
rrrgS.ng
that honoscrtla}:ity in prisons sboufd be cond.oned..
and tl:slt legislation
should.bointrocluced.accorrlinglyrbutitr/!.sto1d;rl.iewould.notusetJre
eq
story in eny eventr. " trThott tito Govornor-General ind.icaterl lre rrorlci not
_/
1iJ<c to bcr televised. during a" church servie, the assigrrnent was droppod.''o
Beforc interviowing a
llaori
nonber of Perlienent on h:is return fron an
overseas conference, tlro Auckl"?.nd. news soction f or.rnd it necossary to
consult its head. office as to
tirhethcr
it would. be in ord.ort
.
17
I' state-
r:snt lssued. by tho Auclclend. Peocc for Viotnan Corrlittco hacl to be
ralearocl
by tho hoarL offi.ce oilitorf in ffellilgton beforo any part of lt could. bc
?'R
usoclr^ a.s &td. another sensitive iten snnr:uncing tho si6htin6 of sevoral
eo
Japaneso fishins vessc,ls off the North Island @ast.
Jr
34
S5.rri1ar\y,
trrodrcers
nust have a d.e
1
icate dcgroe of sent-autonory.
rA
prcduccr nust loror his adr:in-istrators.
. .arxd
lcaoring then, horr far
he @.n go lrith:iri thoir franework.Thcn he can bc.6ln to nuclgo.t
Ropor*ed. in
Tle,
Doplini.or-r;p_unrlay
-Ti,*9g,rJantrarir"E
1969
t
27.But tho
nudging
Frocoss
has cbvious Lin:ltetions irhich ncrc d.cnonstratod in
1969 rrhon Kelth /ibcrd.ci-ne rr, f,rcnbcr cf thc
t0onipass l
tean, rlas
disnissed. for rc'f\:,sirg to acccpt otitorial changos to thc scrli t of
a controvorsial
irrogrenne
on tho attlttrdcs of Chs.than
lslandcrs
towarcLs the New ZeelancL Govcrnnontrs adninistration.llo clained that
tho change s rlcro cLenand.e ci
t
bo cau se of a f ear on the p art of N
.Z .B ,C ,
officirls thot thero could l:e politi-6a1- reporcusslons if the sorlpt
was used. as mittcnf
,
ancl that
t
consorship by supilosition vias all too
'.proTtlcnt jn
the N , Z
.
B. C .' In ansrrer to th:is, thu Dbe ctor-General
of ttro Gorporati-on, G.H. Stringer, stated. thst instnrctions rlre
given to alter the scrtpt firstly to avoid. ed:ltorial connont
ag
d.istlxct fron a presentation of facts on a controvorsj.al
subject,
and seconc).ly to lnlrove balance and. i-ninrtialaty in thelr
t)Foserrt-
ation.
Reported. in
$1
-Dp*+-ig,rsoptenbcr
19 1969
11
.
35
See Ch. IXrAtrrpond.Sx, Section
[,
rN.
Z. B.C. I'lerls Sernrice
lvienorand.&f .
j6
gb.39.
37
ir-i+.
lB i!&.
39
!Eg,
36..
(
o) Rad.io llg.uraki
These exanplos suggest that tlr i{.2 . D, C. nctts servl-co nay be htghly
sensitivo to thc inplLcetions of broad.castfurg nctTs of an unusual or
controversial naturo, padiarlarly if it could. huvo pollttcol nclnr-
cussions. This sonr:tinos rcsults in high\r nci;si;orthy cvcnts being
troatcd. with consorvc,tisn. For cxanplc
,
thc nc\rs sorvi.co
i nposod
rpasures intcntlcd to play dovrn a public controvcrsy rrhich took placo
over thc activitios of an .i*uckland. pirato rad.io conpany in October 1955.
During thc' hol6ht of thn gc,-rcrol
olcction canpaign
'r;het
yocJp crr urr-
liconscd radio statlon known o.s Racllo llauroki had. bcgun trcnsnission
fron a snal-L vcssol in thc Hauraki Gulf, ncar Auckland.. Its progra.curcs
consistod. nainly of pop rccord.s, and. thc enthusiasn riith vrhich they rlcrc
recoivcd by a young scgr:ront of thc broadcast rcdlo auclioncc d.rcw
attcntion to thoir &lssatisfaction vith cxistS-ng N.Z.D.C. prograrrncs.
Thc L{i.:listor of Broad.casting used. his polrcrs und.cr scction 11 of tho
Broad.casting Corporation Act t o rrito to tirc corporetion askirg it tcr put
on
I
bri-ghtort
railio progranncs
fron thc YD stations. Tho N.2.3.C. sub-
soquently put thc YD network on the air for longcr hor:rs and. varicd. its
progranne
contcnt. At tho sanc tino, thc National Party announccd in
its eloction carrpcign nan5festo that it would. set u{D a nev licorrsing
authority to d.otcrnine tho need. for ad.ditional t cI,;vision and radio
stations, and. to is sue warrants to succ..ssful appLicants. But bcf ore
these dove}opncnts took pIace, tho crcvr of thc pl-rcto shtp rlere Lnvolved.
in lega1
Proceodirgs
in the .luckland.
Magistrators Court. This was
because they had. trried to sail the ship out of harbor.rr r.rhore it i;as boing
held. und.or a liarino Dopartaont d.etention ord.er pcnding an exan'jJurtion
f or soelrorthine ss. Thoso
ovonts rcro l;atchcd. closely by thc nows nedjia
crtd. r;oro extonsivoly reported throughout Nolr Zealand.. Tho N.Z.D.C.
head. offlco nrlod against publicisS-ng stetononts m.C.c by tho nanagcr
of tho piratc rad.:Lo station on thc gror.rncls 'chat thcy lroro
f
purcly fon
,./"\
publicltyt'r'"
ancL e,gainst using an lton about a forthconing protcst
nooting in l.uckland..+'
An instnrction was givcn not to usc any nowg
lro
lbia.
'-
hI
I!S.
t7,
Ltons concerning thc Rad.io Hauruki affair uithout refoming then to tho
oclltor of the hcacl offlco nows soction, ./, story conccrning
pub15-c
synpathy for t he creir r/gs ro
je
cteC. on the aC.vice of thc corporationr s
solicitor who thought it could. bo construed. as an attenpt to influence
tlro cor-urt boforo the conclusion of its hoarin6 anc'. henco night be con-
sid.ored contenptuour.4J
(
U
) EJcc:b:Lglr
Canpqieq Coverae-e_
fn its troatnent of ner/s support progrc.ff.D I thc N
,Z,D.C,
h:rs 8o!llo-
tinos shol'in egual caution. It custoncrlly talce s c,-iro to sc o tlret aLL
sirlos of an argunont arc prescntecl, but it has sonotinos gono furthor
than thls to bon progrannos entiroly. Drrriq tho L966 oloction c&npc.ignt
for cxanplc
,
vihcn ccndicLatcs ancJ. party loadcrs rlcro givon tino for
eloctionocring broad.casts, a nunbcr of ncrls zupport prograntns soro
suspond,od. on tho ground,s that speokors night have allovrod. prtialtty to
ontcr
trrogrannc
s at an inconvcnic nt t
jno
. Hovovor, tlxis policy nas
vigorously criticised, partiarlarly by tho rogional ad.visory connittcos
which havc boon sct up by tho N.Z,3.C. und.cr soction B of tho llroadcasting
Corporation Act to of fer cd.vico on progranno contcnt, ard. in fornulottng
its 1!69 clocti,on covoragc poliry thc corporetton clocittod. to continuo
its cunont affairs end. othor ncvls support progrecrnos into the final lcok
of tlre oanpaign.
(
")
lhe
Dic& cqlo
Tbc casc of Gord.on
Bick
r
oD N.Z . D. C. tolc rrj,sion prod.ucer, drew
wiclosproed. attention to thc relatj.onship of thcr N.Z.D.C. to the govCIttt-
ncnt and. thc naturc crf tho problens crisi:.rg fron it.
In
Ootobor 1966,
Bick resignod. fron his post as producer of
tConpassr
("t
that tine
tclovis ionf s onJ.y critical public aff oirs conc,cntery)
as a protest against
what hc allcgc.C ras governnont interfercnco that hccl stoppcd. c clocunontsty
invcstigction of tho possibility of pri-cc risos occurring whon a
nationa]
chango'ovcr to cloci-nel currr.'ncy took p1acc. Dtck said. he was tokl tho
N.Z . D. C . had.
t
d.o
qld.od.
to postponc th;t progronno till a later d.oto
t
4
tc g!ig.
t+3
&ig.
l* Rcportcrd in
,
Octob ar 2 1965,
3.
38.
and the date suggested was rvell after the November
general election'
He claimed that the programme was stopped
because it could
have
been embarrassing to the government, and this was not the
first
time
tthe
tovernment
had got wind of a Compass story and had it
stopped,
I
The specific allegation of government interference
was denied
by the then Und.er-Secretary of Finance
(R.
D.Muldoon) who claimed
that he had not been able to appear in the
programme to state the
government
I
s case because there was a pre-election ban on the
eppearance of candidates on television. He consid,ered
that he could'
not authorise any of the administ.rative officials
concerned'
with
the introduction of decimal currency to appear in his place. The
Director-General of Broadcasting(G.H,
Stringer)
also denied that
there was any interference or censorship
by the
Sovernment.
He said
he had withheld the programme because representatives
of the Decimal
Currenc.y Board. were not availab'l e t o appear on it to present their
views.This meant that the
programmes could
'
not be presented
rwith
4s
4ue accuracy and inpartiality
t
.
-a/t
The chairman
of the corporation
supported him and emphasised the N" Z. B, C.
I
s passive qualities
'He
said the
job
of the staff was
I
to slft the views of people, check
them for accrrac1r
and to
present them impartially...the
corporation
itself does not ha.ve an editorial- opinion on particular issues. It
.45
mirrors the opinions of others.l
The New Zealand Journalistst Association
criticised
this approach
to the affair as well- as the o'/er-protective
attitude of the N"Z.B^C
'
in refusing to run programmes which they thought
might offend the
4z
susceptibilities of politicians.
-'
I t thought the task of programlne
content seJection was best left to the hands of an editor-in-chief
who had both training and, broad experience
in the craft of
journalism.It
considered that Stringerf s statement was
proof of his
finability
to
grasp the roLe of
journalists in the gathering and
dissemination of inforrnation to the public who are best left to
judge
the accuracy and impartiality of prograrnmes for themselves
t
.
48
toUer 4 1965, 13.
The Dominion, October 12 1966
1
1
ra
1965,
J, The Auckland Star, October
3
45
46
47
48 ibid.
70
J./ a
Othor cosmontators clainod. that tho N.Z,D.C. rlas
rgubsorviont
to
both political partiost ancl. vas lmposin6 its own sclf-oonsorship
in
coneoguonccr Md thet its policy of avoidling controvcrsy bocatrso of tho
dlfficultlos it causocl noant that
1lrossuro
groups woro virtually in a
posltion to ilictato rvhat progrannos ruoulcl go on ancl whst would not.
Although Parlianont clissussod tho Dick casc, lts J.npllcations wero
not consld.ored. bocauso ttro d.obate lapsoct i-nto a d.iscus sion of tho
proprioty or othonviso of Bick productng a tapo rocording of an in-
portant tolophone convorsation with an offlcial of tlrs Doclool Curronoy
Board,. This ro cord.ing adtd.ocl subetanoc to
Diclc
t
s allogation that
I
ths
tovorrunont
wos botuind. tho supprossion of the progra&no on docfunal
,.Q
curronoy
r+/but
any d.lscussion of tho fu1l signiflcanco of this wct
ovoid.ed by neans of allogattons nad.o in Parliament ttrat Dick had beon
acttng
runothicallyt
in rocorcllng somcthi-rrg tlrat riras supposott to bo
toff
5a
tho rocordf . Bick roplictl to this attack on his oharactor
and. crod-
ibility by soying that tho govornmont rtas rnoroly trying to put up
|
3
groat big smoko scrocnt and thst vrhat was noodocl. was
la
fow froo-ttrinklng,
quallfiod rnon lrho coulcl use tho norliun in tho prblic c.ffairs flold to
challongo authoriby and. koop tho pollticions on thoir toos to cnsuro
that rlo havo tha riglrt non in public and ll Parliencnta,ry offlco. In
Ncw Zoalind. thoro wes a groat nood for tho oxprossion of frco thought' .5\
Lator ho connentod. that
tunloss
an inclopondont broaclccsting anthorlty
suclr es tho N.Z.J. C. usos its lndopcndoncc to qucstion, probo and. analysc
whotovor is proposod by
6overnmcnt,
and. unloss thc pross rotains conploto
froctlon to rcport, our democraq' is likc1y to chengo slow$r end. suroly
into o totalitari-an state
t
,52
lvlocnyihilc the N.Z.D.C.
f
s orrn nens sorvico hacl been handling tho Dick
a,ffal.r with do1:lcacy, For instance, tlre Auckland nerrs sto.ff subntttocl
ttre toxt of thc following statemsnt by tho Auckland Iobour Relnesontatlon
Coruulttoo to tho novrs odito:r at lTe11lngton hocd office f or a gctekooping
64
tlccision'.--
t+9
&g__Eggtlr^,1-Pl*,,
Octobcr 12 L966
,
19,
50
Tho Minister of Droaclcosting
( il.,l,Scott) rcportod
Octobcr It 1966
,
!,
!1
Roportocl in Univ-crsil.LJggg, 1:I, L967, 23.
52 Tho
Co4rEr-Fs_Fi1o_, Christchurch
1-968,
98.
55 6n octobiir'
7
1,96d
in
lbe_Esrg,
rr-
40.
Thc oxccutLve of tho Aucklancl Labour Ropresontation
Comittee
last nrght oxprossod its d.eep ooncorn oi the apparont
jrfrlngenent
of
the rlghts of free extrrossion cli-otatecl by the iloent supiJre"uion of a
televlsion docunontarXr
on . d.ec{nal anrrency.In its stsienent ttre
Labour Representation
Corurittee poi.rrtecl out thet the New Zealancl
Broad.casting
Corporotion was e stablished. to renove &n intrnrtant
or8an of sofftunication
fron clirect polltical
control,lr1y d.trect
lntorvontion
by one political party in the work of tlre ilew Zealend.
Broad.cas-bing
Corporation nr.rt onLy re,cluses its eff e ctiveaess as an
infupenc.ent and. unbiased. rrcioe in the cournunity, but is sJ.so oontrary
to tho princ5-p1os
of free expression on rvblctr it was established..
The peopie
of New Zoaland. are dealicaterd. to these principles bocauso our
donocratic
way of lifo is clepondent upon then.It is p\:inly the &rty
of tho govornnent
to nake it clear to the New Zealr.nd. Broad.castlng
Corporation thet the.ro wi]] bo no political. prossure brought to Uoar
on lts work.'rrfe
feel thst Mr Gordon Bick shouLd. be asked.to reoonstchr
his resiSnation and. bo al-lolred. to pursue txis pJans
fe presentlng
controversial
topics such as decincl cunency to tire public.
How faithfUlly
the N.Z,B,C.
tn:lmored.t
the opi:rions cf a section of
lts nass publlc
on this
jssuo
can bo
judged.
by oxanilation of ths ftrll
t;ord:in6
of tho text vlr:ich was sub-oguently aplrrovecl for broacicastlng.
It road. as folJ-orrs:
The oxeqrtivo
of tho Aucklnnct Labotrr Ilrrprosentatlon
Comnl.ttoe has
caIled. on the gov;;:.rutont
to rnzko i'c cLear to tlre Non ZeaLcrd.
Broaclca"'!iog
Corporation
ttult-thoro wiLl be no po1it5.oa1 prossure
brour3ht to boar on its vork.
A+
By oulttin6
cerbo.in lrorfo in ttro statonont, the N.Z.B.C. Tras Lrr faot
supprosslng aspccts
of a pol-Ltisrl grcnrprs opinions about a m.ttor of
considera'ble publi-c 5nportancer ond.
interest, It nay have been tr:ff5g to
rsstone
lbalancsr
to the treatnont of the cortrorrersyi Lt nay have been
tryfng to inposo its notions of
tinportialiQrt
on the stateraent; prhaps
it was tryin6
to
sovere critLci-sn
critiolsn of the
trnotect
itself as an econonlc lnterrest group
faclng
in the dai\y press
i
it noy have been tryins to soften
governrnnt;
it nay even have beon reducing
tert to its
just
p-roportLons
as a nows lten. f'fhatever tho reason for ttre
cut frm 19O
to
J6
worC.s, the result vras ttr loeg of c
oertaln
51+ ir.ccord.ing to a head, office nef,rorandrrn datecl October
7
1966.
41'
anount
of inf ozr.ration.,
a rccluction
cf thc signiflcencc
of ttrc statcnont,
and a iLi'inishncnt
of the ttr
,?,.8.C.
rs
capacity as on ogoncy
of connunic_
ation.
Tho
oxanple
of thc Sick
af,fair
sug6csts thct ttro re:l d,angor to thc
N
'
z
'B'
C
'
is not that in tho trial-and-cmcr
cxtrlloreti cn of its social
rcsponsibilit
ics, o fo',7
:ocrty
politici,ans
nt6ht ccnolain of unf air or
inclis
creet trc;trr,nt
r
an o ccasional
citi zon ni6ht considcr ho haC beon
antagonisod-,
or evcrn tha
t
an cxpens 5-ve nistake night b., raoo.
55
rt is
rothc'r
th'et any
kind. of onission
or ru,gIcct of rosponsibllity
to publish
could bc covclrcd
up rrlth thc clain thrt silencc
iles ln tho public
intore
s t.
5.
TllE
BR0:,1$._-STING
r.UTHO$,fTy.
fn accord-ancc
rrith the l,l,:tional
Partyts
oloction pror,risc, a
jjroadcastlng:.'thority
Bill vues i.ntroduccc,.
d.urin6
flrc rg61 sossion of
Parlj'anont
ancl passcd.
in Ncvcn,bcr
I98. rt
sot up an authority
co'-
sis tin6
of a chairr:en (
vrith 1cgal
expo rionco
)
r,nd tno othor
'onbors
appointod'
on tho rccorrlond.aticn
of tho tl.inister
of ,iroad.casting.
This
tribunaf
i;ook ovor
fron tho Broad.casting
Corporation
tho
rosponslbility
for hoaring
and' d.ociclin6
applications
for warrants to opcrato
broad-
55
ftrilip
ri:ast,
I
ittitud.e
Toward.s
thc
pros
s es a tr\rnction
of rntorcsts
t
,Iourn?lisn
0. ,_ JBIZ,
Sur:nor
19d1
, 3774e1, d.cnonstratoa
that nod:ia
,
oporators
arc b ound.
to cncor.mtor
clisplcasure
fron scno
trnrts
of thoir
au*ionco
by reporting
controversial
,ro'..ls.
Road.ors horiing
oxtrone
viol.ls
orc likc1y
to uo antagonisccL
at ono tino or another
rogard.loss
of hori obicctivo
the pross
sooks t9 bo, incloec.
-b-ecarrso_
tho pregg
approachos
objo ctivity.
This
cond.ition
ro*ro
i
"i',
a'rl
rono(y
d'oes not appeer
possiblo
or c).c'si-reb1o,
Thc sanc. conclttlons
opply
to broadcctli,tg
r Po
rhaps evcn norc stringently
in the. case of tho
N'z
'D'
c' ov'ing to the
rcquironcnt
inposel
on it in sectton ii'tiiirl
of t ho Drocd'castirrg
Corporation
/'ct
nct to incl-uic aqythlng
in tho
prosranrDs
which is like1y
to bc
toffcnsivo
to public
f.-ollngt.
Tho
oxistence
of such e provis
icn is likcly tc iake i,ooqy d.enand.s
on tho nana8onont
of a broc.c.casting
organilation.
,".ccclr*i^g
to
/.sa Brig6s
it roquir,;s
a nen cf ir:.nensc
courago and. incginotion
to
ryl c public
broad.castir$
agency,
partly
b ecause of the nooc] to be
cble
to stcnd.
up to puopro
I' pluiiions-
oe powor,
and. partly
bccouso
it rcquires inoginctioi
tc realiso lrr,t
ibroadiastlng
or
tclovision
csnnot be
run purc\r
on thi, besj-s of buying othcr p,ooplo
r
s
progranr:F
s or ap;nasirr6
exls ting intercsts
|
.
(
r
Quirilv
ct the
croativc Lcvol
f
,
roporiod. i"
Irlq-Agn*2"q1@j o"tou or z\
1959, 10",/
I+2,
casting stctions, cnd. it nos
6ivcn
a nunber of othcr inportant dutLos.
It can ad.visc thcr I'ii.:ejs ter on nottors he rcf c,rs to it
,
it can
publish
jrrfornation
in pan;ilr1ots and periodiccls
rfor
ttro bencfit of thoso
cngcged. ln broadcastlrgr and it ncy co-opcrc.tc
(prc'suncbly in cultural
fio lds
)
with otho r pooplo or orginis.:tions.
It
hos bert''n
givc'n clis-
ciplSncry polr(-rs to punish li-conco hold.crs liho oporatc contrary
tc its
nr1cs, oithor by susponsion or rovocgtion of liccnces,
/'ppcls against
its clocislons aro to bo rcfom.,cl to the ncwly constituted.
ad.ninistrativo
d.ivision of tlro Suprcno Court.
Thc Droad.casting /.uthority ;ct contcjns
pr cv ision f or the liconsing
of all stctions oporatod by tbo N.Z.D.C. rrith thc con:lng lnto forcc of
qA
thc lct.
/"
It rcpoa-bs tlre pr ovisi ons of so ction 10 of thc Droaclcasting
Corpora.tion
,,ct lrheroby stanclcrcls of go c,d. testc, de ccncy and, inoff onslve-
noss tc public fcclin6 hevc to bc obscrvcd in progrenrlc contont
as woII
as c
tpropor
balancor of srrbjcct nattcr ani. an i.npartiality in tho
provision of norrs which nust bc
6ivcn
irith
t
duo rogard.
to tho pblio
intorostf
.
Dut brocd.casting stations
(
inclu&tnrl thoso opcratod by tho
corp orati on) arc als o to be given guid.ancc ln tlre intorprotation of thosq
vaguc gonoroJltics. Uncler soction 10 of thc /'ct, the authority has
powor to nake nrlcs for puttin6 ttrcso roguircncnts into offcctr for
lros
cribirg tho stanciards both of ad.vcrttsing end. of progrannes
r
ond. f or
tho inclusion in pro6renf,n schcdulos of as nuch nattcr producecl" in Norl
Zealand. as is reasonebly possible.
Both the !rcaricesting Corporation
r".et anc':- tho Droad.casting /.uthorlty
Act c ontain an oqually vague doclarati on as to ttro extcnt of l.{inl-storlal
control to bc cxertod. ovcr tbese organisati-ons.
In the worcls of
so ction fZ
(
f
)
d the Droadcastlng /.uthority ..ct 3
In the exercise of its functions and. powers und.c:r this ,'.ct
tho autJrority sha1l conply rrith ttre goneral poliry of thc
govcrnnent in relation to the f uncti.ons anc.- povrcrs cf tho
authoriQr, cnd shJl1 conply rrith any gcneral or spe cicl
diroctions
6ivon
by thc Liinister to tho authc.rrity by nctice
ln rnri-ting prrsuant to the policy of tht, govcrnncnt ln
rolation to thoso functions cnd po',rors'
56
Soction r]G)
b3t
Sub-scction ( Z
) trrrovid.os
f or a copy of any nrch instnrction to bo
leid. boforc ParU.anont. The relovant section of thc' Eroad,cdsting
Corporation lct was amenclod. to conform to tho above wordlng. In vien of
tho extrenoly inpreciso intinetion of functions and rosponsibilities
contai-rn d. both ln section 10 and. s ection U of tho Broad.casti:tg /'uthority
/'ct it is prob abl-e that tho lrord.s
I
thc gonoral policy of tho Govornrpnt
t
cou1d. bc intcrprctcd. to ombracc'' almost any aspo ct of thc broad.casting
..r.nil l.lcens5ng activitj-os of oithqr thc corporati-on or th*'- authority tzhothei'
in tho arca of prograruno
contcnt or in thc flcld. of broaocastin6 toch-
nology. This lumboring, i11-d.cfincd. nnachinr-'rry rlas d.oscribod by a
spoakcr in a tolcvision discLlssion of tha Bill as
frathor
likc taking a
shovol to squash a f1y
'
,57 Ccrtain$ thc effcct on tho N.2.3.C. of
soction 12, as r;cIJ as scction 10, of tho r.ct nay ba to cllninish rathor
tlran incroasc its autonony by prtting it unrlcr thc nccossity of scrving
tro mucldlod- mastcrs, thc ldini.stcr and tho authorit;r, whoro forrncrly
thoro nas only onor fo oxtond. tlrat autonony it wou1cl non bc nocossaay
to ronovc both thc corporation and. tho liconsing authority complotely
fron I'[inistcrial
control, to tlo]otc tho anbiguous provisions conccrn5ng
offcnsivencss to public feoling, balancc and impartiality
(which
havo
givon
so much troublc to N.Z.B.C. nanagoncnt) from both the Broadcasting
Corporation /,ct and. thc Brcad.castirrg i'uthority r.ct, and. to loavo broad.-
casting stati-ons froc to ffmago tho contcnt of prograuups nithin the
normal restraints irnposed. by tlro 1aw and on the sane tcrms as those
ondured. by the pro ss in its troatrnent of od.j-torial contcnt .
Tho incapacity of the N.Z.D.C. aI',vays to interprot tlre moanlng of
thc restrictivc, generalitie s of scction 10 of the Droodcasting Corporati-on
Act with tho enterpris e and. cnorgy that sonc publlc issucs havo cLenanclecl
was rovealingly cl.emons trated. ctu ring the pas sa.go of tho Broad.casting
l*rthority iict itself . The N. Z
,B, C. had planncd. to shoil o
I
Conlnss
r
programne on the subjc ct of this 1o&r sl-ation, but hed., of its ornr volition,
d.ocj,d.ed to dcfor thc progranne until aftor thc lcgislation sas passod. on
57
Thc Evonl46_Fos!, Novorober 28 1958, 22,
w.
tiro ground.s tSat
I
it wou}l ha,vo bee[ preswsptuous for
participants ln the
I,,rugfennc,r
to give their vtows rritlrout tlre fllt IslowleclSe of wh,et t,}re
f inal posit5.on r?os
jn
this leglslation. . i
t
fr
and the.t tb oorPoretion
itsu1;f ha4. an interest in it end night therofors cono und.s-r soEto susp:lcion
of partiallty. Fo'llowing conplnints in tho prass, anc). the recoipt
of c
lotbsr fron ttre tdinistor of Broad.casti.ng urging that the progranno should-
continuo,
c. substitlto
1nncl
rl-:iscussion
';ias
hurriodJy
proscntod' How the
illinistor of
jboad.casting
vont about i:rfllencing rattrer thon
5nstnrctinS
tho corporati.on bocono apinrent during tho public disousgion
that
acconlnr:ied these ovents,
Questionc.rd
as to whstftor ttre epq)oraticn
bed"
ovor refusod to ccryy out a MinjsterLa-l
suggestion
unl-ess it irorc' backo0.
up by a forr:aI i:tsttarction, the llinlster of Broad.casting
(Ir.3. Adnns-
Schneider) seidn..
rI
believe itt s only necessary
to lndicate whot tlrs
govorr:ncnt vie,'i ist
"
59
l,toanwhllo tho oorporc.tionrs
olrn uncertaLntLes
in this affair had-
gLven
r{so tc scna sharp criticisn. Tl..u- Lead.er of the Opltosition
(N.8. Icfrk)
,
60
scid. it was alnost taiL-wa6ging in its desire to plecse the governnentr"
and the Dcnj.nion connented. od,itorS-al1y
ttrat:
o..the coryorotir;n couL1 be rr.rlied upon to shy
cwoy fr-o1
anythi-ng
politicolly controvorsial, Its reflexes
are no17 so well-con&ttioneil
thet it euionaticclly runs for safety...tfte
cot?or&tion
should' have
learned. its lesson by novy.i:fiust rro riait till its public-setrvj-co-
conrltticned. ad.n'j.nistrators have gone into retironent
before
it awckens
to its public rosponsibilities?.l.It
is
lrartry
bocause_
cf tbis tinicity
fur its approach t; nel?s cg;. r:eQFrr61f
that the BlLt
has been
i-ntrodu@d. Tho Governf,ront
j-s
of tho cpi-nion
tlrat in the
pgblic
inte:rcrst, conpctition with tho corpor&tion
j-s
Croslrabl".
-51
(
")
tba*Hsg_be
-.L,t49.
I!.e:t
-1,-qgif-t"!{oq
There ore threo n3.i.1r
Wpes
of broad.castlng control
qystons: fLrstly
thoso in which broricLca,sting is camie,l cn l:y a C.epartnent
of, state
(tt
u
situetion
jl
l{ow ZoaLanc1 fron 1931 to 1961)i second$t, thosc ire w}ulo}r it
fr
L.L. Scects, thon act5ng Dirocton-Genoral
of Broad.castingr
ropcrted-
irr
grg,-tr+FrigrNovonber 12 1968t 2.
Reported. 5re
T-bg--Mt--Legl*p9.
-t4i.".t---ogge
l'Iorrcnb et 29 1968
t
23',
Reporbod in
'Tlro--P:gi+*g,
Novenber
12 1968
,
1.
ibld.. Novenbor
13 1968, 13,
59
6o
61
I+5.
ls cr,mied. on by sone sort of corporation ornrcd. rpinly or entlrely by tho
state but perrritted.
sucre degneo
r:f
responslbl.llty for the day-f,,6-{sy
o!.rorations of the service
(
tfru sl.tuntJ-on Ln New ZeaLand aftor 1961),
and. thfud'\y, those in wtvich b:road.oastJng ls
oamLed.
on by plvate
ctt{aens
and oonSnnies with the
state
;rrovi&ing
the orur-all re8ulatory supelrision
(tttu
situatlon in tbo Urulted. States ond rrarly rvestern denoooecbs). A
prinotpal obJect of the governnent
In passing the Broaclcastlr:g
Authorlty
BiIL vas supposedJy to tntroduce
a nod.ifl,ed. version cf f,he
inlvate
oyvnersltip nodeil whl-oh wan1d. bo in so.r,ie degrrea of oonpetltlon wtth the
cor;ron"tivo s3rsten.
6'
,n, rlghts and. vrongs of thls were derbated ln a
vay vhich chamotertses an interssting and
irerhaps
ftrndamntaL d.tflferene
betveen tJre naJor
l:olttLcal lrartios
J:r Nevr Zsal.and.. [h National Pctrff
mphaslsed. tiro benefits of conpetition rrith a dogree of prC.vate ott06!sh{B
anri. sorre &tspersion of e,ontrol lrltluin the broad.oasti:rg servJ.ces. ThB Labour
Parlr reltetrated ite proference for stat contno1 and. deoii.q,sd, that Lts
polLcy
was to establlsb a seoond televLsion ohsnrel whLch would. bo
d.lreoted. and. gontrolle,l
by a eeix"rate organisation. Later tt explaJ.ned.
that thl's woul"d. bo a non-advertLsil6 ohanneL carrgring progrlarnos designecl
for
g.rlhrra]-
n:inorlttes and. fe,eturcn6 sport, errucail-on anc,. tlre arts. Tho
otber chaanel
would. bo fra6rentea 5'txto th:r.ee regional- conneroLa.l
corporatd,ons supporting thenselvos ol1 the rewnue fuon eclvertisfurg
At thi.s stage there
can onI;r be specuSetion about tho L5Jcely effeots
of the olrange iJl tlre systen of brmad,castJqg contro1 on the neug neclLa
AJrsten as a wholn.
If
trn*inate
broad.castlrrg
stations (etther
ra&io or
telo'rrLsion) bogln to
conpote rrith the N. Z'B.C.
thj-s nay rrean that
'Iistenors
o:r vieivers nay hanu a1.ternatlw
nJerrs ctrannels at th3f! d.is-;oseJ.,
ancl these
clrannels
couId harrc oonsLf,erabls resorxroes behlncl. tlrera.
-]
4a,- -
---.s.t-----_
r,_ _
62 Cr*l'tlos of tho goverrrnent,
howovor,
suggested a crnrd.er explnnatLon.
The authorit3r
rras sot up beoause the gJvennnent had. to fi-ia a way
out of the enbarnrassing
sl-tuetion
cteatecl by tlre continued. exlstene
of Rad.lo IIoumJd anrl tlre fact that the N.Z. B.C. hatl reftrsed. to g:gnt
lt a lLoence
to operate Logal-ly ashore a*s it
yras
o11 along
enpowered. to
d.o urrcler the Broad.oasting
Corporatlon /,ct.
&1.g.
Nonenb$ Zl 196g
r11 ,
65
!IF.
^ll*ve-nin6,P_qsj,
Ausust 21 1969,
27.
116.
EvLdance was given dwing tho sennitf,se stage of the Broaal,cast5lg
Authority Bill that
ano. TII:_ augkland. Star wighocl
to oosrbine to provid.c a br^oad.castirg servi ce which wou1d. recoopense thcrn
for tho 1o ss c s i.n
'
'drvertis ing rovenue thcy had. suf f c'rcd due to tlre advent
of radio and tclevtsion ad.vcrti, irrg.5t* It nas also stated that anothc,r
strorg applicant for a ra&io licenco would. bc RaCr,io Haureki, the plrate
stati.on at that tim transrnittlng to Auckland aud.i,.'nces fron the Hauraki
Gu}fl. Ncws Med:ia L'fd.. (publishors
of llqw Zealgrg_Tfutlr and The
9grl0al
Nevns)
heve long been intcrested. in the possibility of entering ttre
blpad.castin6 ficId., ancl. ri-thout d.oubt nany o'Lhcr nowspaper companies would.
bo ogual\r attractcd- fn July l)6), a consortium of forrr of the largest
cotuDcrcial firms in Nen Zeal.rnci appliod. to i;hc authority for licences to
onable thcm to sot up a rutional
railio and tc',lcvision nctvrork which
would concpote with the N.Z.B.C. But tho nain boncfit of ar{y competitton
in the olo ctronj.c nows mo d.:io f icld. might rosid.o noro in ite cffocts on
the Iil.Z.B.C. than in tbo actual
contribution mad.o by nowspepors or any
other nair lisonco hold.ors. Tho N.Z.;.C.
could possibly bo stinul,atod.
to o norc libcral i-ntorprctation
of its role. It
j-s
ovid,cnt that tho
no ti ons of balanc e, 5-npartiality
,
public int orc st ano inof fenstvono s s
e
havc bocn intcrtrroted-
by its offi-cials
in an unad.vonturous rr&]r Com-
potit5-on
could. chan6o thls, but thrrt is by no mcens a cortainty, nor
d'oc s it f olIow that eud.ionccs would rocoivo a bottor sorulco. Thcre is
no reason to assunc that nith tho ostablishncnt of a Broad.castirg
Authority thore will be argr loss confusion about rvhet d.uties sna
responaibiltties ero inplicit in thc terninolory of thc Act, anct lnrloecl,
ttroro nry bc even noro, l{uch d.epond.s on the qrralit ies of the peoplo
appointed. to the authority, horr much they und.orstand about the probloms
of runrring nelTs cnd inf ormation s ervi ces as uc1I as entertajnoent no&ia,
and how far thoy arc prcparod to go in d.efinin6 the rolo of the N.Z.B.C.,
ancl if ne cessary, upholding its ind.ependencc in tho f aco of opposition
frcm govc:rrttuc'rrt
or from porzerful pressure
6roups,
Tho inttiol
appolntces,
an Auckland.
lavryur uith a l,icthod.ist Church background, a
ITcllington
stoclcbrokcr and a Christchurch draix''r, m,y havo sone
6t
lgtgttgd
in Tho Noir Zealancl Pcrliamcpta.4l-Dcbcu!-os, VoJ-.
. j57,$optonbe:r
1q
195S
,
L9b7,
i
n.
rpre sentational signif icaJrco of a ge ogrnph5.c
.:nd.
occupational nature
rbut
they seen to possess no special talents or aBtitutles for such a potential);r
i mportarrt pos'b.
Expc+rience irith tlro governspnt-appointecl rrsmbers of ttre broadcastin6
corporation itself has been dlsoouragir, md oven dismaying. The corporat-
ion has beharled. largely as an adnjirlstratirle agenoyr concerned.
pragraticaS-y
ryith the techn:icalities of operating and. exber*ing
a transuoitbing senri-cc
t
silent, iJ' not un:i.nterostocL, on the zub
jost
of some of its Sarger
respoturibiJ-itios to the
oonmunity, scoctines cavenienty
rrnarlatre tlrat a rles
med:ia ssrvice rilith any pratensions to quality nust be moro thana mlre lcni-
speakerr it mrrst attempt to be an instrument of i.nvestJ.gation and. inquj{f .
Bef oro tl:e N.Z.B.C
r
s corrtrol f\rnction^s cor:ld be more ful-1y exertecl in tJre
news-gathering and publlc affal-rs fie3.cl it wouJd be necossary for even
fiuther changes +n be nacle to the Broaclca.sting Gortrnration Act. Tho N.Z.E.C'
is most un"Likely to achfuvo the klnd of 5rrd.epend.ene it neecls to define alrC
pureue its functions ad.eErately until it
j-s
conplotely liberatecl from
Minlsterial- supervision or irfLuence a^s ireJ.l as from the restrj.ctLve
provisions of seotion 10 d the Broadcu.stj-ng Authority Aot ancl sectton
10
of ths Broad.casti.:rg Corporation Act. It need.s also to ber prnittecl to
rranage its finances
r,Tith
more freedorr55 ancl in partiarlar, alJ owed to
regulate capit.r.I expend.itr:re without ttre prior aptrroval of Cabinet.Under
section
12 (Z)
of the Broaclcasting Corpmation Act, the cortrrcretlon is
obliged. evcr1r yc'ar to subnflt o
Frograrnme
of proposed capital works to tlre
Iviinister of Broaclcasting for hjs apprcval, antl uncler se stion
12 (:) lt
must not only have regard to any &irectj-ons as to capital e:qnncliture
ho
might nake, it
j-s
prohibitecl from und.ertaking oapital e:qnn&iture for any
partlcular purpose to an ertent ix oxcoss of
$5OrO@
witlrout his @nsent.
As some items of equipment cost much more than this it nea.ns that the
govenrnent has an inclireot control over any substantial erbension or
mod.ernisation of bnoaclcastixg. Thus the N.Z.B.C. was forced to wait sever:ll
years before it obtaj.ned. Cabinet a.pprov&l to buy a computerrmd
t,tre plrc
jedt
io
e5 A;;;di" T;"thd--fti;-tit#of Broaclcasting
(1,,.R.
Ad.ms-Schn"eid.er)
ttro
N.Z.B.C . ha.s asked. for amen(hrents to tbe Br.oad,oast ing Ceporati on Act
so that it can obtai.n more ind.epend.ence in the atrpointmont of staf,f and.
nore freed,om to enbark on capi-taI works uithout Mirdstedal
qpproval.
Reportod ir]
_T_}e_qven:rr6_P.gt,
April 16 1969, 16.
tS'
install television facilitles on the iiest Coast of the South Island
(involving an expend;ihrre of
$ZOOTOOO)
went before the Cabinet i'Iorks
Conrnittoe three tims before it was fLnally approved. il}rile as a state
corporat{on the iil.Z.B.C. msy reasonably enough be requiredr
to take accor.rnt
of the governoent
I
s economic policy when deternining its roajor capital
inve stment s
,
the stringcncy of oxis ting controls conf ors on the lltnister
of Broadcastlng, ancL on the Cabinot
gonorally, an und.esirable degroe of
influenccr, probably cnough to onsure that on rnattors of significance
thoir
wishos arc likcly to bo anticiptod. ard. oboycd., ovon if no fixocl ln-
struction is over fornrally givon.
During the clebato on thc Broaclcasting rhrthority 8i11, governnont
spoako rs said. ttrat tho Bill was intcnd.od t o solnrato the functions of the
rogulation anci liccnaing of broaclcasting sta'i;jons on the ono ltend, sd
thoir owncrship and operation on thc othor. It is d.oubtful wlrothor thc
1o grs lation, in fact, doo s this bo causo of thc onormous resid.ue of
govornmcnt inf Juoncc arul controI which remains built into both tho
Broaclcasting Corporati.on Act and the Broarlcasting
.i.uthority
Act, I'
passing refcronce to the controL which govcrnocnt still rctai.ns
over
broadcasting services by neans of the functional clauses in both Acts, for
exanplo
,
was rnacie by a Iabour sln akor,
f
'.,lho dof inos public i-nterost?
|
he lnquired..
r
Ttris is in fact nothing moro than nind.ow dressitlg for
intervention by the govcrrune nt' .65
tfhother or not thc authority
interprets the publi c interest to nnec t evel'y
aspc ct of goverrurc nt wl'shos
t
as tho N.Z.B. C. has tend.ed to d.o in thc' past
r
or lvhother or not govorn-
ncnt policy is oxprcssod fur fornnal instnrctions
or continuos
to bo in-
tinated, in d.iscroet iriinistcrial hints and suggestions tlepcnds on how thc
torns of the act aro applicd in practical situations.
In thc noantine
lt is apparont that broadcastlng
(which includc,s both radj.o
and television)
Ln Novr Zealand. reoains firoly under the political ontrol of tho
govern-
rent. Although a good doal of time and. in6enui,ty havo beon clovoted' to
settin6 up a licons ing autbority with supol'visory
pontors ovor tha wholo
broadlcasting syston, nothing essontial has changod.
Unclor soction 12
66 J,L. Hunt, roported in Non Zoalancl
Fprli-qEentarv
DobatjPs,
VoI.15l
,
oot"-b.,r 2 196A, 2%7.
l+9
'
of tlre Broed.ccsting AuthoriSr Act,
Crljnet tr.rrci
the Mjnister of
B:rcodoosting still- have ther stc.tutory
inluer
to d.etennjne vrhat stotLorLe
shaIl or shall not be licensod.,
jwt
ns under seotion 11 of ttre
Br',ord.ccsting Corporetion Act they lnve porrer to prescribe vhat eguitrrnnt
and. technolog;r she3-l be use0, and erren,
jf
necessltlr, what progrn.nEres
shalL or sholJ- not bo trsnsrrltted. In prcctLce, e parttaulnr Mlntster
ru-ly ref,roin cs nuoh as possible fror: intorrreruing 5n detail-ed rpttes of,
lntcrnrl adrrj.nlstration cs welJ- cs in :r.rtters of programre eeSection, md
poJatical
consfuLerations ncy restrciJr governnents frorr issuiag fornal
{nstnrotj.ons
i
but this is only the ;:ore liJrely to result in
irdo:rral influence being brought to beer in.:tead of di:ect oonnand,. The
rtere oxistence of such statutorXr
inocodr.rres
f or
j.ntervention
fuiinsos
flrbstontttl li
ni
tations on tfre free d.un of tha c orpo rationo
Nono of the problsns of governnent irrfluenco ond. control owr
broad.ccsting lr':vo boc'n soJ.ve.d. by ttrls J-egLsJ,ation, tirough a solutLon to
Eoile of then corld ensily be, obtr,ine'i by giving the
Bpvernnent
an
eIerent of representation on the cor;;or.rtLon ltself, e perheps by
roorganising the struoture of tlr cortoration so that governnent beocne
& substantial sharchoilor
'ilith
o
voice in policy rather then
lnssessing
sonettring llke, co:plete nastery of it. lluis is the c{}se rrit,Ir other
erterprlses Ln vrtrich ttre stcts has e naj or involyoner}
,
for i:rstanoe,
th"o Nov Zealand. Steel Corporati,on or ths Tssnalt Rrlp ond Paper Ccnpaay,
nnd. thero i.s no rec,son ritgr thi.s
i:a'btorn
of orgcnisation sould not be
followed. uith broad.oasting. Certainly sone attention shotrld. be
trnid.
to
tJre oonstltution of corporation nenbersluip if it
j"s
e'.rar to be anythfug
but e nrbber stanp for go.rernnent wishs. Its conposition should be
rralrled. to include rrorking
journalists ( and. not necessarri\r nevspapr
editors), an aobive rrritnr, a paSntnr: or sonebo{y rzith creatlve
attatnnents in the vlsuaL arts, scrroboSr l'ri-tlr acad.eulc status in either
ttre arbs or the so cj,:l sciences, and s mnbocly to introdrce the Tronanf s
rrl-enpoirrt into lts councils .
o
I
ir. nore tot:gb-ni.td"eA and better lnfored
67 thus w.lT. F:reer,
.p.*-{[.
voJ.
iS'\,
october
16 1968, 2fr3. Ubrr only
lfay \re c&n gpt c truly 5-ndeinrrlent corporation.o.is for governnent
to appoi.nt the chai.rnen arrd. perhaps tuo nenbers, and. fon org ,n:isations
Lnteresto(L
i.:r cuIfirre, tlte arts, mrsic, drcna and. nore parff-orlarly
youth activitiesr
to norrjnate, in rotatlon, nerrbers to the__
govenuing
hoqy"
t
boFsibly
the-Qppo'si_tion
i.tsetf could be g4rgctJ:y
representeri o,n such
-a
rbconstitutea corpo:ra,ti.onriust
as it is o!1
the Lotte4l Pro,fits Board o'f Control
and on the RepresentatiCI'n
Comni ssioa.
50.
cortr)oration, Bnd ono not so overvrhel"ningly bound. by comnercial ancl
political
calculations of expcdiencyr uould. be nore likeIy to knovr ttrat
to any suggestion of govcrnment
intinidation lt abzoys has a ready rroapon
at its dlsposal
-
publicity,
It roufd. also bc norc likely to knou tt:e,t tho
justification
for
broad.casting
boing a public utility controllcd. by a corporation lies in
its abili@ to provld.c' e bottor scrvico than ind.cpend.ont comnercial
narregenent cen of fer. Thc' tcst of perfonmncL, is not nc cessarily
cngineering
c'fflcicricyr profitability or cvcn rc.liability or furynrtialif;
it is the extont to r,hich creirtivo starrd.ard.s are appliccl to tho pro-
cluction of pro6"*oorrS8
anct it is also properodnoss to act vith
rcsponsibility on occasions whon the public ri-olfare rcqu5ros an
unj.nhibitod troatnent of problcns. Tho altcrnativo, tho pursuit of a
semblancc of political
tlqn-portisanship to thc po5.nt somctimes of osF
barrassod. sj.lonce, ccJr rosult in a tcnd.enWr inhcrcnt in all nass
connunication systcns
,
to f init tho s copc of ciis cussion about public
d.ocision-nakin6 to carcfully circunscribca and. roJativcly ncrginoL arcas
of nclrs6citlnring and. roportage, .cny vigorous prosontation of a point of
violr willr of nocossity, annoy or offond sonc listcnors or viewors,
Coru oquently thcrc may bo a tenptation for broadcasters to segf,-pecLal
controvcrsial d.iscussion and to lirnit nuctr progroJnne
contont to onter-
tainncnt which offond.s nobody. Such a pollcy thwarts any effoctivenoss
broad.casting night have in a d.onocrecy.
On tho othor hand
,
it ca.n be consid.crcd that a low levcl of
controvcrsy in N.Z.B.C. news and nei;is support
:orografftos
is only a snall
prico to pay for an accurate arxl authoritative sorvicc, and thgt any
lnstituti-onal inailoqu ircie s in tha N ,Z ,B , C , co vcrr.6c of publlc cvcnts can
clsily bc ovorcono by thc incllvicluel citi zcn ;rant5-ng infornction. He
hes only to fum to a ncrrspaporr ox failing that to a poriodiarl of
sono kind to obtain it.
-r'fhat
is not provid.od by onc chcnnol nay bc
found somcl'"hcrc clsc in thc r.rarkot rosources of the total syston.
This argunent nqy be uscd. to oxcuse fccblc porforncncc by ono
lnrticulor
58 Soo Alcxand.cr Maclood., Tho Ncri Zoalcn4
_L.istc.not,
JanuarXr 10 L969,
3.
51
.
media channel
,
but it is not without def ect. If all the channels
of the system were to take such a vier,v the citizenr s chance of
obtaining unpopular or elusive information
would be likely to
shrink disastrously wi.th every ac t of evas
j-on
by gatekeeperB
or
every abnegation of responsibility
by media manageoentsr
The
electronic media channels do not function in some kind of cognitive
vacuurn but are part of a comprehensive
media system
whichiideallyt
should operate at diverse levels in order to meet its responsibill
Ities.The foregoing brief outline of the
problems of broadcasting
in New Zealand has emphasised the caution that the N.ZiB.C.
has
displayed towards the critical analysis and discussion
of public
affairs. Under such eircumstances, the need for the
press to
perform
its control functions becomes the more apparent. However, before
returning to the c e n+-ral line s of analysis of this study
r
some
general propositions about the functions of the news media can be
stated,
6 , THE FUNCTI-ONS OF A- NE|ll,S MEDIA SYS T-Bi
The task of an adequate news media system in a democratic
society
is not only to exercise the service function by providing essential
factual inf ormation as a common camier, but also to reproduce,
and.
sometimessbimulate, the conflict of ideas and opinions
about salient
public issues. For, it is only out of the clash and diversity
of
opinion and viewpoint that individuality
can be asserted
and some
d.egree of competent opinion reached about clvic affairs-The
best
way for a capable news media system to exert its control
function is
for it to reprod.uce the polarities of debate as energetically
as
possibte . V,i here necessary i t should seek to
Senerate
and intensify
conflict, not diminish or repress itrparticularly
on new issuest
6o that the individ.ua] citizenf s capacity for developing informed
opinions might be stimulated and society itself
protected from
malfunction. But the netvs media gatekeepers of the New Zealand
mass
communications system appear to be faced. with a situation
in which
there are inherent monopolistic tendencies
of organisation,resulting
in a d.amping down of the eontrol function in certain areas of
performance. This has already been demonstrated
in
52.
tho cosc of tho N .Z.B,C.; f\rrthcr support for tho gonoral assortLon
cones
fron a Frood,on of Inf omation Ccntrc roport5g wrrich ftnds in o survcy of
thc trorldt s pross that thc Ncw Zcalancl pross
ratod. as only
t
frce r.'ith
nodorato contro ls
t
a1or6 with countric s like lustri.a,
thc Unitecl Kir6d.on,
Japan
,
[lalaysi c, Franc o, Italy and
';;/c
s t Gornany. This is nainly bo caus e
of thc nogative scores theso countrios receivccl for thcir libe1 1aws,
organisod. sclf
-ro6Ulotion, concentrated. ovrncrship andr govcrnnontal contro i
of forc5-gn oxchange. Now Zcoland. in particul,3,r receivod poor scoros
on llbotr laws, ed on 1oc,:1, rogional and. netional criticisn.
This dralrs attention to the lnstltuti.onal and. 1c6e1 rt straints under
ilhich tho nolrs nodia of Nc',r Zealand are obIi.rc,d.'i;o oBorato. To sone
cxtcnt, the values of the nolrs ncd.ia crr. d.i-ctat.rd. by the politlcll
culturc they sorvc. Thc tend.cncy to nod,oratcr conflict in the prasc,nt-
ation of nel;s cnd. in i:hc C..isanssi.cn cf public c.ffairs nay bc'a roflection
of the docoruns of public lifo ancL thc';iry in irhich public d.crbeto is
stage-nanagcd. and. sono of thc l:arshncss rcncrvqd. fron d.ecision-r:raki.n6
procosscs by politicel actors thcr.rsclvcs. Ncvortheloss, a nunbcr of
possibilitie's for tho inprovencnt of
lrorfcr:anco
erc avcj-Iablo to tho
nol?s ncdia. *ouId. a connunicati.ons council i;ith statutory powcrs to
enfor co stand"arcis on both thc prcss and on 'chc cIo ctronic croi.ia holp to
nalco thc ind.ivid.ual conponcnts of tho tlcris nod.:ia systcr: norc elrare of
thair conplcnentarity of oporation and givo the
';hoLo
inrlustry sonc rruch
noed.eiL guid.anc
IZTO Shou1d vorking
journalists
seck nore reprosentation
otl thg board.s of djre ctors of nowspapcrs encl on the Broaclcasting
Corporation?
Should. ned,ia ncncgenont bo urgodr to inforn itself with
nore sophis ti cet icn cnd. depth ebout tho thcoroti-cal- aspo cts of nodia
syston problc:s ancl responsibilitios, anrl bo reninded. about the nood to
poy
6reater
attention to thc contiol functj.on in its concept of cor:nunity
sorvi ce?
7o
The Freodon of fnf ornation Centre Report No, 181, tiogfd_Preeg_Froedon,
Schoo1ofJourna1isn,Un5-versityof}rIissouri,Co1uW-
Accord:irg to & statcnont by tho Prcsiclent
rtf
the N.Z.J./.,
t
sono in-
flucntial ncn in thc Lrbcur Party plan tc put forwerd legislation
ostablishing a Prcss Council
if their pc"t:ty bocones the governoent in
1969t
. Roportod. i-n The
Aren_iItrlost,
Septenb er 2l 1969, 22. The
li.Z.J.ri.docic]'erj.atffiencetofcrosta1tthisbyoX-
ploring_the
possibility of sotting up a press council on lines si-ntler
to the British Rress Council. Iho annual rnoeting of the New Zeabnd
Novrspaper Proprietorsf .f,ssocj,otirn agroec. tc support this ilovcr
Roportocl in
Lhe
EvSn:Lne Post, l{erch 14 1969
t
L5.
69
5r.
It rmst bc' enphcsised that th*.. Ne''i Ze::I::nd. press, throu6h the nod.iun
of
39
d.aily nei?speliers ancl c varioty cf r;ookIy
i:ubliccrtians
is already
provicling c C,cteiloit c.nd. rddoly conprcironsivc nelrs sorvico for tlro Nour
zoaland. nass aud.icncc. Tho N.z.B.C. nay i;e11 bc ablc to augnont this
in sore specinliscd. no,Is-6cthcrin5 croas, but perhaps it should. bo
rocognisoi thrt its nc,j or pctentiality lics olsen-horc. .{,part fron
ontortaining
trn
op1c, broad.casting
t
s vit.r,I teslc is to stinulato tho
rli
s-
cussicn phaso of opinion fornation by noans of intorproti:tj.vo connontarlr
critical anclysis, and. tho vi6orous survoillarrco of public affairs vith
the aia of tclks, panols, intervicws and. rl.ocunonterSr invcstigations.
Tho norliun is ednircbly suitod. to tho clronatic prosentation of corr-
flictir6 opi.nlons anc.]. pcrscnolitj.cs. Not cnly should. a sharponing
cf controvorsy and. cn incroasod. f rocclon of &is cussi.on bo pomittorl in
pro
6rc,nnos r
norc cncourc6cncnt to r:ake tndiviC.rrcJ- conrcnts snd. to follow
thon up i''i.th criticcl appraisals shou}l bc givon to
jcr:rnalists
and
prrxlucors
s o thet tt control f\rnctions
.f
thc ontirc no.lTs ncC.ia systcn
can ba aorc adcquatoly
carrfuC. out. This should. opply partiarlarly to
d'iscussion of arty subjccts of
.oublic
i-nportcncu. to which tho
lress
is
insuf ficicntly attc'ntive. .l spc cial rcsponsibility dev
olvcs
on tho
N.Z
. B. C.
,cs
a public
corporction in e ;nc.,ncpoly situat5-on, tc sub
jo
ct such
r.pttcrs to crttical scrutiny.
Cc;ns c,qucntly, in its org;nisation of
rlc'ris covcra$o, nolrs conncnteris s cnd, public aff sirs progrs:L"e s
,
the
N.Z.B.C. should bo conccrned not so r:uch l,i'th thc rcprodr.rction of a nholo
oncyclopod.ia
of irf ornation end clis cussion as irith tho naintcnenco cf a
flolr of mctcrial thc,t oxploits lorc. fu1Iy thc advante6cs it has for tho
vivtd. and.
rnpid. oral cnd. visual prosentetion cf
conflictin6 idoss.
Partiar1arly, it should. eocopt with nore enthusiasn tho proposition ttrat
d.ranetisod. cis cussion is its strn cialised. businoss. Also
,
to ro&rce tho
ll-kolihood. of lrfornation
ovorLoad
j.i:
its noiis chennols, it should ain
at conplorrcntin6,
rothor than cluplicating or initetirg, tho troatnont
givon prblic
affairs
by tho
ncilLa, lrith nor.'s roports and progreffros
intonrlod. to provoko a, spirtt of inqurry and. involvonont anonj its
e,uclloncog.
%,
Tho stinulus of thc, conirol {tnction nocd. not :'lcpcnd. on tlrs
Snportation cf foreiE;n conpctitors. Tlrc oxistencc
.;f
r. tinicl-11;ovcmnent-
c).on:lnated, nonopcl-is-bic ircac''.cesting scrvico could.
'bc
offset by a noro
nllltantly scrlf-conscious
ilross.On
tho othcr hat:d., a slugglsh press couk'.
bo ggeetly stjlul-atcd}y ccaipctiticn.lrith
c broailcastlnr; sorvico that i;:-s
prcparcd. to rccognise thu, .rd.vantq;es nf
Greator
spccialls;tion
in n'e',;s
reportege anc.!. tho peculjar fr"cility the electronic
r-rerLia }tave for the
discuss ion and dranct iseti on of c cntenporary so cial issues .
HolTover
,
if
both i.rajor ccmponcnts of thc,systea irre fi^ffl-icted idth ilie s:'cte torport
thcn perhaps (
"u
r.pny
j
ournalists ar'fire) t"nto only solution
}ies in tiro
jntcrrrention
of operators lrho will cmpete' with ecch other more onerget-
icalIy. A so cond. televj-sion
"h**1
71
priva.tely ov,neC., or r:un by sone
;Ltcrnative type of organisation, or perhaps prinetcly ovrnsd radlo statiotis
sugg;est sme likely sourc()s of cari:etition.
Adnittc'C'.1y ttre I'r
,2,li.C.
has
sllo-,rn sone rerarrinoss to broar'.ca,st pro6riltnos that o,re crLticel
of tlre
j-rrcss, ancl thq prerss i-tl trrn h,as not hcsitctec] to
i;5-ve
cnple space to tht'r
criticisns of the N.Z.B.C. that irore ned.a durin5 the Blck
affair, ths
L1r-Lj-.r
l{aureki
d.isputc
,
and. the pasiic,g o of tho Broad.ci;sti::5
Authority Bill-
"
But not
pntil
both thrr
tr
ress and. tho N. Z. B.C . rcguJ,:rly,
anC' es a Dcttcr
of course,
5ivo i:ronilcrrue
to criticion of thensclves cn their ovm netlii:
chcucnels, wiIL it Lo apparant
'tl:,ct
tircir nonagenents havo anived-
at' the
clogroo cf
j.ntcrllcchral
:-raturity neod.erl tc sustcl:ir
the contitl flnction
with integrity ;nrL i:n'J.crstand:in6,
71
In October 1969 the i,{lnictcr of
Broad.oasti.ng
(L.R.Arlaf,rs-Schneid.er)
statod. that it w::s certain that a cor,peti.tive socond telev:lsion
channel would. be ostab1:ishecl
rbefore
very longf and. that he had
as}:ed. tho Broad,,ar.stin6 /ruthority to
j.:nvesti6ate
the L,est vay to
achievo thj-s. Piepof,becl in Th_e- Il-rrwring
F-o:!,
Ostober 1 1969
r25,
1.
CHAPTNR. III
THE SNRUCTINX CF T}IE ITU; reAT.AI{D
Brdg
TllE D/JLY NE"lSPfilElS
The New Zealand. press has enjo3red-
a rnnarkoble stabi}iff of
organisation anl s'i;:rrctiri'o since' the conrmnicatj-ons revolution thc"t
folloired. tlre. introcluction of telograph, rai}ray and. zubr"rine oable
facilitles in tlre 1BJOts" }lany of the deilJ ne!?spapers thitt were
forrnrled in the years befone
IBBC are still- extc.nt, thorr6h sone of thetr
capacity for zunrival has beea gnined. a'u
'd:e
exponse of nany snall 1ocal
artcl nrral publicetions which &isappoar.ed. rrixlcrr conpe,titton
(ne.ite
increasingly effee',;ive through bet;er t:ra;rs;:''rrL) frcn lorger units
situntod. in tfre growing tor*u.1 The
trns*
ilo:cld \lar 1 boon in the notor
furdustry hnr'L the effect of closing d.cnin a nunber of sncl1
provinci,eL
p:lpors rvhich could. no longer ccnpete with town rirrals rdro were abla to
clraulate with increasing eff iciency ix sur.rorrnding oreas. For sj-ailar
reresorr.s the nunber of weeklies and ilLustraied nagczjnes deoLtned &ring
th:is
i'nriod.,
pa;.'tly r:ndor
llressure
fron the cLci1y press, partly beceuse of
the i.1ore speesr and. reguJ.cr d.ellvery of o'/erseas peioiltcalg. Yet
the
tronsport probler: r,hieh lies at th heert of alnost any J.arge-soals New
Zea}"nd. entorprise hcs rlso o.c-bed. ,rs e restrt.int on ind.ividual Lurits of
the press. No one dnily hr-s been abln to grow b5g enorgh to aohievo
nstional oirculatj.on; a se-ries of nejor pcpers
jn
the f our noi:r oentasest
styled. f or convenience tho r:c'cr"opolitanr d.ail:ies, clon:i-nate the entLrs
countrlr, but to sone exber:r'i thoy continuc
-bo
conpete vitlr each other
and. with a largor nunbor of provi.rec:Lel dai1:ieso .Lltogether, there tre
JO
eyen:ing and rxine nonring dniJy noi:rspaperrs in Nev ZealancL These
39
dal-Lles hnver an estjxtated. totl:l ci.rc'C-ltion of
1
See e.IL Scholtfield, irTovsBei:.els.
.+, lf."y. .Z-egr,Jg-e$,
Yfellington
19fr, for
an aocorrnt ctr th:is
pro
ce sri o
56"
epproxirle.te1y L.O|5,OOO,2 The metropolitans
approxinately
729
1000,
d.istributed accorc'5-ng
Irave a to tal circulation
to the follow:ing table:
of
TABTE 1
luiTiiOtsOtIT/-N DAILY NEr,rEPf'pm. CIRCUI/{I IONS
*.;;J,;;
,rucJ<land. Star
Evening Po s'b
Doninion
Pres s
Christchurch Star
O'lago Daily Times
rrr,r-:1.
i
l'1,.i Staf
2tE
r0o0
u8,o0o
llpe0O0
71r
0OO
70r0OO
67
,5OO
41r@O
JOTOOO
729
r@A
505,ooo
The remainS.ng
3I
daily
papers published. in the smaller centres ancl rural
d.istricts have total es',imated. circulatlons of approxi-mately
JO6TOOO.
Thls figure is d.erived. fron aud.ited. circulatior:s
and. from estinates
irl
the case of paper s irhich d.o not d.is close their cir culatioru,
The
following then are the estimated total circulations of thp New Zealand-
claily pross.
Itletropolitans
Provinci-als
Tote.l 1l9J5,o9o
Thus it can br: Feen'clicrt the mettopolitan press commancLs
approxinately
7O
per cent
"
of
'cne
-'i;';';al
d.aj-ly circulation,
the provincials tbe
remain5ng
30
p?:: c?nt.
These a.nC the folloving circul rtion figures are caJculated
on the
basis of,
j:rformati
on drarn from
43gl-{"-
jyg*-tir-"-
t{gq Zeq}p3-&-*qt,
issued in triiarch 1958 by the Newspaper Froprietorsr Assooiation.
They are on11' ap:roxiniate because some firns have not d.isclosed
their auillted- circulatj,ons, and these have had. to be estinatecl.
An
Aud.:it Puree''.1 of C:rculation
was fornecl in 1965 in order to verifyt
by mee.ns of a stund.ar'd formula, the cirorlations of newsllapeFsr
mlgazile; and. other publications produceA
j.n
New Zea1ancL.
lvienbership
comprises representatives of newspaper
proprie',;ors, advertisi-ng
agencies ancl. e.Cuvertiserso Accoriting
'i;o
the I\.i'.A. gl!!1 'r;hree
of the
pape:rs li-stec'. as d.ailies publish only five clays a week insteacl of
sjrc"
fh".
T*h,qttqs-.'oS]-+.+g"4.Jgt1;1s!-$!Lt$ggg
does not publish on
Saturd.ays;
IJ9-9-eir-tfqlJgryE
Lflsj.
in Ja5-pukarau
does not
publish on SJtari-Ceys; ana gbg"Jggo$.J"tqt- does not publish on
Frid.ays
"
57.
0f tbe entlre d,aily press,
k-]Ley_F_qalgp$ge_Tgg
(Z1S'OOO)
i-s t&s
largest singl-e publlcation, Uut
Se*Aqg[}glgjgg,
ptrbDshed. by New Zealcnd.
Newspapers Ltd..
,
is part of a New Zeal.and, vride chain with ciroulatj.ons as
follows:
.qapts_e
NF-rpJI$,n*-N.-I_,;s_P.g-rypJ,LDr_*q!Bc.gl4F-l0Jg
.0uckland.
Star
Taranaki DaiJy Nevs
Taranaki Herald.
Chri-stchurch Star.
158,OOO
19
rlw
12
r5OO
67
r5w
Total (apprcxinctely)
Znr4@
New Zealarrd
Nevspapers Ltd" a3-so owns a group of Aucklarrd. subrrban
rleTlspepers with
circu.lations total.llng approxinately B5r00O, It publ
t
shes
3!e_1t 4..
rory_l
e E.e^eH*
(zmrooo),
E_te_
(Zfrooo),
ffid Ttrq_&_4.^HI
(Z5;OOO).
These are, of cou:rse, not daf-Iy circulotions, but the5r in&lcete
what a forrrirlablc' rarge of publicc.tions tl:-is group controls. To then coulC.
o.lso be acld.ed. a
f\r'bl:.er
5OTOCO
(appror::nate\r)
represontSng tlre conbLned.
clrcul,e'bions of
-bhe
Sat'rrday sporbn
irepers
wl::ieh tlre nenber dslLies of
the goup also p'.::.1'l : ,h,
Ehg-llqg=*Z-*lg3-l-*q|3i1f1}.
group (publishecl.
by Wlr.son and, Horton Ltd.. itl
AllclclaaA) i.s another of tl:e nost pow:rftrl publlshing urults in tbe coun-i;ry.
As rrel.l as its darJy no,!-ripaper it publjshes T!,e_i7oglg$L-llgE
(tt5rOOO)
ana
-tLW-Qgf
( a wonanrs nagctri.::e rdth a cj.rgul:iion of approxinctely
TOTOOO).
N.l.-Erruth (approxir-r-'Jcg
?26'000) i" a lerge f,rass cl-rculation
t*rffiil
sirculates thr:oughout Neir zealanrl, rts
trropri.etors
also
publish
M,
a Sund.ay
iraper,
in bo'bh islancls. Its cl-rcu]e.tion
l-s irr tire vioinity of 12O'OOO"
J
Th" only otlrcr Sunday pa,per is
3!g--!*qgrine-on
$qft$l*gg;
publ:irhecL by the lTelJ.ingto-: I\'Stiching Conparlyr
lr,oprietors
of;
34g-?Sgl*Lgg,
It hns a
clrcule,tion of appnrx5nate\r 117,W.
*The
publishers
of
L4"__TI_.Lth
also clisr..ribu';o by neans of a notlrcrk d book-
Se:rgg-&g:,,
Juno
{bia.
3
J+
13 19,59
,
23.
58.
etaLls and milkbars a considerable amount of imported. pulp
reading material.
The New Zealand Listenet, a weekly
journal
devoted largely to
the listing of broadcasting and television programme echedules
(with
some space devoted to commentaries on programmes and on
publie affairs in general) is published by the N.Z.B.C. It has a
circulation of approximately 127
t000.
Altogether, four Saturday sports editions are published by
metropolitan daily newspapers in New Zealand, They have a total
estimated circuLation of about ?9CtO4O.Three others are
published
by provincial pspers in New Plyrnouth,Nelson and Invercargill.
Tlre Dominion passed
through a series of changes after the
Thomson takeover negotiations of 1965,5 At that tinre a number of
New Zealand newspaper firms made takeover offers which were
wlthdrawn when the governnent announced its intention of legis-
lating to prevent overseaa flrms obtaining control of any New
Zealand news media. But it emerged that an Australian newspaper
magnate, K.R. Murdoch, the managing director of News Ltd.
r
of
Adelaide, had bought on the stock market a large
quantity of
Wellington Publishing Company shares, thus acquiring a substantial-
interest in the operations of The Dominion. l"lurdoch becane a
director of the firm on cond,ition that News ttde
ptained
a 14 per
e
cent. shareholding in the company.It was also agreed that News Ltd.
should ultimately dispose of the balance of its shareholdings in
excesa of 14 per cent. to New Zealand domiciled shareholders,since
then The Dominion has adopted a tabloid format and the Welllngton
Publishing Company has begun the publicat,ion of a Sunday weeklyt
and has attempted to itiversify its operations by buying up a firn
of stationers and taking over a number of racing
Journals.
In 1970
lt acquired The Upper
.Ilutt
Leader, a smal-l independent suburban
weeklyr
and after a auccessful takeover bld, it aseumed control of
Truth(N.2.
)Ltd.
and its subsidiaries.This merger greatly strengthened
the economie organisation of the daily pre6s in New Zealand by
elimina,;ing an aggressive potential rival and the only
otber large
t
independent newspaper-publishing organisation in the country,
5
see ch.r, section 6,
rThe
Thomson Takeover Attemptf.
58".
Henceforward, N.Z.Truth will be editorially controlLed by a
board und,er the chairmanehlp of J. H. Dunn, the f ormer chairman of
directors of Truth
(N.
Z.
;
I,td..
,
and the f irmf s legaL advLser.Dunn
and two other Truth appointees will have seate on the board of the
'
Wellington
Pubtishing Company.
New Zealand Newepapers Ltd.
,
Wilson and Horton Ltd.
,
and the
Welllngton
PubLishing Conpany are maJor unlts in the New Zealancl
publishing
world. New Zealand Newspapers and tflilson and Horton
?re
Auckland-based
companiee; the Wellington Publishing Company is
centred on ltellington, though Truth
(N.
Z,
)lta.
machines its
Sunday paper
in Auekland and has been expanding its
plant
there.
AlI three are interested in their different ways in exploiting
the entire New Zealand
,9.
narket, but none luvc ye t founc. lb prac bicable io ;'btcnpi blrt' public*tio;:'
of a r*-..iional- d.ai]J,
.,tpcr.
Ex.,r.rose,
and- ge'o6;ra1:h:i-c obstacles
to spc'ody
a"-re econorjricel d.is';ributi,.n
c*efc,,;t
.?ny
gucll
urbi';io.r on 1;hc
"'art
of thc'
first ttrof -irUl;h
i'I";. I.ii., lr-,t ncVCr cn,it;' i. 5l c'r'1i1. $e'r'-5iJ'){}af
produc,cion thouglr its directors
hav! sevcrs,'l
ti;res co;rsiocretl
'bht
possibiliti,
Evgn i1orc Ln.oo:'t;:r'i, 'f,o
ncrisilrrper circurl;ti-on
-i;h'in
6;coglaph;'
is thc
dis-i;ribution
of
;ropul.r'rion.
Thc. bulic of i{t'ir Zoahn'-l s nc'."slaper
;ubIisli"
ing e,ntero.fiscs
cJs si'luiitcc. in thc i'fortii Island. bccause
tlrs'b is
'-']ruzn
t.
ncarl;r
/11-
1:er
cent. of a total
l.opula'i;ion
of 2
,675 ,9Jl9
pcoplc a're 1ivin5
'
"
Purthermore, the conbjnod cirqrlations
of
:&s-33.r.c]ilr,q-d'-.ffi
anf
f[aJ{=cg
kg1.Lj1";-o_lp,
rcprcsont a subst-rn-;ie1
por-bion of
'bho
5rand-
Itlew Zealanc.
d.aily neilrspaper cj-rcu1a'si-on of
jus'b
ov.--r
one rrilll.on,
because to any
nediun d f,rle.ss cornmr:nicetion,
tht .liucklcnd rc'g,ion
i.s potentia-I1;r
the nost
pzonisin6 fo r exploitati
on, The urban
erea of cc'nt::aI -A-ucklancl-
contaj-ns
a population of
'ol3 rOOO,
ifti1e ri.ore
-:;hr.n
ono nillion out of the to-bel
Nell Zt,glanC, popuh'cion }lve ',;ithin
|he aircuhti"'o
;rea of The-
IISIa]{'
?he pat'i;ern of daily newspc"Per c1istr'ibution
b."hweei:
the' trro islands
rcflccts sos thi-rg of tb population
*s cendi rcl' of
-bhc'
north.
;1. total
of ZI+ iailic,s arc publishei, in th:, Ncrtl:
IsJand- conr];rcd.
witb 15 in the
Souti: Island.
Accord.in;
to the 1968 Ngw
4:alep-d-.,1p-f-fi.ciat
l-q-q"!.o.ohr
thc total Nevr
Zealcrrd. circulai;ions
of 7tr7 period.icals
enoun.brcL to 2to26rooo.
Li'bt1e
icli.rbl-c
i-:rfornati-oa is avai-labl:,
.,.bou'b tho ex',-rosuri'
of c,.ifferent
&6r-
grou:s to ness naoia
jn
I'le ri aealani-, but;lssun:-l':
tlrat all
-i:hoscr
abovc*
thei ee of 1,5 are a pctential reacl.et'shilt
of so:,:('kj-nd
for the generel
contcnt
of thc, duil
il:.,ess,
i'u c..i1 be calcul;ub;
c:.
'fliat
i'1, total
;'ud'i'ence
of appror:.filatcly ITB5OTOOO has o to'i;.11 ci:.'cuJa,ion
oi' nor( then t'r;o-;nd'-.:-
half rrillion issues o:'n,l.-spirljc.i.'r:
;nc.
-,c';'iod.icils
o- onc sort
or a'no-l;ho:.'
at its C.i.sposalr',iihou;
consid.ei'i::;:
-i;hc
large amcun'L of pulp fic'bion,
conics,
a::ri. irlpor'cod. oversei;s naterial
'tha't
is a1.so ob'fainable.
'ihon
the
-botaL
;>opulatlon
is us,--c'. e,$ c, basis for calcuLa.tion
rT
Nuno Zealand
lns
6
7
Accorcin6;'i;o'birc
Scnsus
!g5f*qi-og1!*..19-4tt
-'
cl-ljn*tol-
1965,,
Fror.r. 1'he- Irlqir Ze-a-I-cn-{ O-f
gffA{r:S}lf,"Li'r
'l;e Uin,;-i;on
1958
--_____60;
399
copies of dal1y newspapers per thousand inhabitants cornpared lrittt
Sweden
5O5,
the United. Kingd.orn
479,
Noruay
384,
AustralLa
371,
Dennark
Jl,i
the United States
JIO,
the UrS,3.R. 264, ancl France 2l+5, New Zeal-and.,
which ranks third on this 1ist, seems well supplied with newspapers. It
ranlced f ourth
(
after the United State s, Cernad.a anG Swed.en) in a list of
109 countrie s whi clr nere analysed. f or rB d.ia usa.ge as a f actor of national
developro"rrt.
B
2. THE SUBURB4T\L ERESji
The publica'bion of snall-circulat ion weekly, f o rtnightly, tri-vreekl1''
and. monthly newspa-srs with a high content of loca1 and conmurrity newe
has b oome d. in tho llew Zealand of the sixtie s .
These are in dire ct
competiti on mith sorne of the large dailie s ir1 the scramble f or ad.vertisin6
revenue, though not necessarily for circulation,
es a teohnique of giviit5
then away in precisely calculated areas enables their
irublishers
to peg
circulations at opti-num Ievels. This then becoms a secure basis for
obtaining ad.vertls ing quotas, not only f rona
'bhe
tlad.espeople of the d;i s'b-
rict, but also f rom ad.vertising agencie s . Iilos'b suburban
publishers of
any competence are careful to provid.e cletailed coverage of local af,fai,rs
at grass roots level because this is what
5ives
their procluct the kjJld.
of reader in'r;erest which other nass med,ia canno'b easily rival. they
thrive on ihe d.etailed. coverage of material that the daily press cannot
alvlays f incL space for
,
and. to sorrre exten'c they can be seen as canying
out an inportant part of the service f\rnctions of ttre press--the d.etailed.
surveillance of the environrmnt at tho 1o cal comrn-rnity level.
There are more than
70
giveaway newspapers being publlshed ln New
Zealand..9 Twenty-one of these are Aucklancr. suburbans, and 14, TTeU.ington.
The acquisition of a large number of theso Auckland suburbans by New
Zealand. Newspapers Ltd., has alread,y been rnentioned.. This firm hes also
been ac'bive
jJr
the comnunity newspapor f iel-d. in Chris tchurch, In the
1[e115rrgtonarea,B1und.e11Bros.,proprietorsof@'inL96lr
R.V. Farace,
tA
Stud.y of lrlass Comsunica-Lion
ancl National Developoent!,
{-q
sp.9. L1-Jt2, Summer 1966t
305-313.
ltrewsoa q
[e_ws
,
iviarch 20 196l+
,
'i-9
.
61 .
bought
fitgll**!-_N_?tu-, a irell--establlshsd. subrrrban weekly rri.th a oirouleti:..:-r
of 2010@. rn 1967
they bought pj_,e- P-e-!ogp-!_tr-o_l*o-]pIcirctrlation aprDrox-
'fn
5nc.te\r
5rooo)
I
closed. it d.own snd nergecl it with
T_ho
Hutt News
1969
they bought a
[O
per
cent. shorehol&tng in
T]g-{pglgg1r_Iew,,
o
werekJy wLth a
circulation of about 10r00O ln the westem ooastal &istricts
of TielUngtonrancl thoy also obtai-ned. an interegt in Sentinel Newstrnpors
Itd.
r
a publishing
f lrn in Mlranarrwhich has a
ohaln of subr.rrbaas and. is
tlre Sargerst lfell5ngton or6anisation in ttris flel.cl.
5.
SiF. NIg- M-4S.F-S.TAqI9N,
The tond.ency of tJro Now Zoaland.
trress
is r-rot on$ tovrard.s concentption
of the nunber d urrits in fe'rrer tiand.s, lt is also towarcls o oonvenlnnt
collectLvisn. A signlficant part of the news
Brinted.
by tlre netropolltan
dolly papers
flows through ttre olr,rnneLs d ttre New ZeaLand. hegg Assocla.tion
(I[.Z.P.A.).
f]u[s i a
collsctivo organisation s9t up by ttre nerrstrsper
prop:rietors
to hanrllo both orlersoas and. d.mestio natorlal. It tends to g5.ve
tho 5.nclustqy r:.
ao--operatl,ve basis for its scti.vitl.os and also fuqnrts a
oorbain anour:,t of bonogenoity to its prcchrct. tr\rrthernore, tJre starrotue
of tbs industry Lras produced. a high rlcgroo of stabllltSr fron r*r:loh sone of
tlre oonservative olrara,ctorlstiics of the New Zealnnd, press noy be clerived,
Each of the four nain clties contains lrrc dofly newspapers, ono otr whloh ls
on overdngr the other a nonr:i:rg. Shough they are publishea
by r"Lvral.
Irar]"o6enentsr they aro
enga6od ln only noni:ra1 ompetLtion lrr oer.ball
neYts
-gattrer5ng
atreas. Unrler sof,lo oircunststroes they ane prepersd. to
onter into a hih d,ogree of collaboration for purposes of group and.
nuhral survirpl, Thcso nertropolttarr pafus of newspspers are at present Ln
an econonic equSJlibr{rrn which, to a large extent, is fornally JnstLtutioncJ--
Lsod,
fu
tJrcir nonbo::ship
-of
tho II.Z.P.A.
The nelatj.vefy high rrolrrrre cf pro&rction, along with tho stabtlif
ani
prosperLtSr of the New Zealc.rrd. daily press ln
j-ts
prosent stnroture orre
mrch to a technlque of oo-operative
partlotpation J.n
iotnt
news ser'lrLes
whloh it i.ntroduced. in 1879 a.fber the l-5dOng of Austral-la ancl New Zealand.
by undernea cable.
'i{owspaper
nonagenents esteblished. the N.Z.P.A. to
oolJeot and.'l{ssqinate nerrs for the nutua.l benafLt of nenbero,
8&rl thls
Js tho basic netm,ork of connrrnicatlou a:pund. rhtob tho
62,
d.aily press con'cinues
'to
organise itself .
.ricidress5rrg the l.:964 arurual
nneetirrg of the i\"2.1r.4,, its then chairnan
t
J,.),-. Can-b
(ecti'tor of
]!g-Ia"plr)
sai6 that ITew Zealancl had. a rld.iculously' snall populatj-on to support its
(ttren)
41
d.aily poi)err$. The Srrdus'ur;' coulir ri:ain'cain'chen onJ.,y by
tquite
extraorci5-nary and
inrhaps
unconven'cional rrrs asure s of co-operatior:
t
.
t-
(Tnu
'botal
cor4;:ares, for instance, rith Australiats
!1
d.ailies for a
population of over 10 ffLllion), Cant rebuked cri-bics of the DT.Z.P.A.
system by
ltointing
out that it was a cornplex a:cl. expensive one which no
single paperr oil even group
of papers, couli. be ee{re:r to unde::talce
inC.epeadently,
fot the neTvsprper i.ndustry as a whole rras balanced. precar-
iously on the knife edge between profitabili'qy and. unprofitability,
In saying this Can'c was appl.i'ing; an
jlt
eie s'b
:lrf,r.D
strata,gen t o the
si"cuation. He lras exhorting Traverers to greator unity by reurinding then
of the possibili'ry that any withdrawal fr"om tlre fi.Z.P.A. by sone of its
major constituenis'rould. clisrupt its internal coroxr;r. liany smaI1 pspers
n'orld. fixd. i'b inpossible to pay increased. operating charges and woulcl
either have to suspend- activity or drastically rnoclify the s cope of their
content.
' He ex.olained that the systen vrorkeci well because of its co-
operative nature. Everry newspaper con-bributec
'bo
i'b accorcling to its news
resources ancl its opportunitie s
,
large or snall, and. it benef ited. acoording
to its reaiiership. i{e clained. that the service su;lirIied. its mmbers iri'b h
reports of
I
ever;' si.rnif icarrt happen:irg elsetrheie in llew Zealand. in the
previars 2[ ho:-r s
,
to;ether wit h a suppl;r of overseas news as conplete
,
uo--to-d.ate and au'iirorl';ative as tha'c prini:ec by the worldf s newsps,pers
t
and tJris
'.I&s
no scrarll achievr''nentr
.
He rtarned. tlra'b if this systen broke
d.on'm, the;oublic in snall towns woulrr lose the
rcon.;lete
up-'bo-d.ate news
servj-ce'bhejr 1oca1
ira.rters
novJ provid.e ani'bhe;r voul-C. lose tbair local
papers ther:rselves
I
.
,.hat are the rrcchanics of the I{.Z.P.A. system? Traditional-l;r it is
a co-opera;ive, non-pi,ofit rnaking aency foundei- sq
that
nembers could
exchange news ttems from one part of the coun'cry to another and couLd.
also obtain a worlqL nevs servtce using
'bhe
cest coru,unications availabl-e.
Today it gets this fron Reuters, the Associated. Pi'ess of A-merica, Uni'Led
10
i$!}
Apr"il
3
1964,
63.
press
Intei'nationel and. tle f-ustralian -:,seocid,tecr.
Fr'ose d.8encies as laell
as fron
!!g..+*g*E
of London ana
Se-g-ey'-.^Lcr-4l1r^ryg.
Each
of these naior
agencies
,
fron the to-bal rrorda6:e of m ssages leachiry:
its editorial
offices i.:r Lond.on, llevr Tork, Si.r:;aPorer &&. o'i;her cleariJr8
houses,
sub-ed.i-ts and. d.is'i;ribu-'i;es re,-orts
i,o neHbers u-id. clients.
In turn
the ed.iteci reports of the nain agencies a:e conpared
and ttre best fron
each is used to
;.;ive
'bhe
filal irlew Zeialandr irress.ti.ssociatio:r
repori'
1'his
4orocess
is carried. out r:railly
jx
the Syfu:ey rie\isroon of tlro Australjan
A*ssociatod. Press.
Conversel;r the i,l.Z. i- ,Ar has the function of suplrlyin6; New Zea1and.
news io }teuier s and. the aus tralian As s o cia-i ocl Pre s s ,
Since l9l+7, bot]r the
N.Z.I--.A. e"nd. the Arrstralian Associated Press have been partners ix
Reuters, wj-th sone s42
j-rl
its manageoent.
Sach clay the cen'bral llellington bureau of the Itr.Z.P.A.
transn:its
as nmch a.s it can of tbe content of rrhat it re ceives
'bo
the off ices of
its nembers before't,belr d.eacl-1ines. Operations
are d.iviclecl
into
rnorning paper and, eve:ring paper shjfts so thi'b b'r using the teleprirters
installed. ln r.nst of their office s, nerib ers can conveni-e'ntly
rnalo
avaj-lable an account
of
any event
,.rf inportance
in their circul-ation
aroas to other publications rvith similar deaclines,
S;:ecif ic memberg
of the sub-editorial staffs in the various offices &re clesigneted Press
Assoclation agents and are responsible
f or actilS on
'bhis
agree@nt.
rhey use an economical method. ftaporters
are obli6ed
to nake carbon
copies of any significant or Snportant storS'tirey
,rrite 8o that the
agent caJr trans nit it
(
or a cond.ensed. version of it
)
on one of the
netropolitan r1e..rsi?aper tcleprlnter clrcui-ts,
or ean use the llew Zealand
posi
Office telegrarh systen if his office is one of the very fevr not so
connected.. Thus, i'b is clai-med., the i\-.Z.F.:!. is servocl by hundreds of
d.elegates throughou'b the cor,rntry, oven if i;hei-r servicos are sometire s
rather unwilling and solnti-rres of uneven
quallQl.
Recent
Jears
itrve seen big changes in
j'T
.2. i.A. methocls of operation.
Before 195Or Dessages were hanc,.led. thrargh the conventional chsnnels
of
tlre, llew Zealanci Post and Telegraph service, ani- :eny a caclet reporter
di+
his prelim5.:eary trainilg as a.n arr:ciliary fitessongorr betwoen the local
6L"
telegra$r oflflicc and. the uo6''-sAttorts desk. Thsn oxo'lt'slvo otrannels
wetre
leased frcn the Post Off ice, with telep,rinters in rrtrtually alL the daily
nenspaper ofTiccso in
19fut leased circuits
wero aLso applied. to the
dollvery of overseas neT?s
jnto
Nen Zoa3.and. bgr raclLo
teleprtnter bean fbon
Australia, but the big break-through cgxle ln Deoerrber
1963t rrLtlr the
oharrge.oven to tiro Conoonwealth PacifLo CabLe Seruice. This broWbt not
otrly nore reliabS-15.!r into overseas traf,fio, but noro speed and. flerJbtlXty.
The WeQington no',rsrroor, calx nolr bo receivi.ng copy
frcl, Lsnalon or Nert York
at abou'b the sane tjne as i't i: coning off tho toloprtntmo
tn fiLeet ltaeot
witlr the result thot newspaper servicos
gainecl a useflrJ. inieotion of
;irmsa{a6y
just
at ttre tine r'il:on th,oy noro comtng rrnd.er inc'reasecl
ompetitio:r fbcn tho oxpanili:rg radlo and. telsrrlsion newsoaets of tlrs
N.Z.B.C
o
One of ths oonsequen ces of such axtre eff ioLency is thst daily
nevspapers oa.n rooeive their copy earlier and tn inoreasing quantif. [hLs
ls beginntn6'bo pro0uce problens. At
trnesent
the N.Z.P.tr.ts d.ally relay
of about
TBTOOO
vord...r (abort
half of lt latorrrattmal rnws, the rest
rratlona,l) fr far noro than anJr on nerrspaper can repro&rce rrithout being
forced. irrto A:astic curta5Jreent of local nsws coverE e. In
praotLoe
r
pepers
nolce seLootions rziristr anount tn som oases
t onJy abort ong-thbtl of t&e
total avalJa?,'J-o i'IoZ;P..L" conterrb. The problen of nald-ttg the nogt
usefuJ- ancl noantrfu-. selectlons ln fire tine avallab]e faLLs heavqy on
the zub.ed.Ltorial staff of tho prttorlar newspaper
.-
Lt night pertBps
be onl;r one nan
j.n
ths caso of a snal1 pnovincLaL
trntrnr.
Thi.s ts a
classio problen of aLL nod.ern Erass oonnunioation systeno:
bowr anrl on
vhat
grotrnd.s,
'.,o
nako the seloci;Jons flon th total avajJ.&le netrs fLow
wlrlah tsclnuical innovation is oonstantJy incroasing .
Under thrt *erns cf the N.Z,P"A. agreenent, alL loca]- news storLes
oonsLd.ered suff icjently ne?srrorttSr have to bo subnttted. to ttre netnorlc
for goreraJ-
use, with the result ttla,t
j.ndividrrol
rnwEpaper rnnegpneuts
have been knorrn to shoir reluctance to onbark on mbitious Dws
gatberfug
ventues boeanse thcy nSghi have harL io sha.re tho result Tvlth rtlrals on
thl.r clrculation bonlo::s. At ono stago, in&Lr:ldupl Dswspspors oou]d not
Fctrrd
corrspond.ents overseas without the spooJfic oonsent of the
65.
association, This was criticised on the ground that it tended to keep
the processes of news reporting geared to a aomewhat unimaginative and
humdrum lut"1,11 though it is doubtful if, as a consequencer any undue
interference with the flow of conimunication concerning major news
events has resulted, at least inside New Zealand. Sone restriction
may heve seemed necessary, but increased liberality in interpreting
it
by the a6sociationr s directors has removed many of its objections.
All N, Z.P.A. members are now completely free to
-send
staf f corresponde.
I
ents ,lbroad either on special assignments or on permanent station.
They rney receive f rom those correspon')ents
r
or f rom spccial correspond-
ents who are not staff inenr ,ls much material as is desired for the
exclusive use of the paper which employs them.Thust by special arrange-
ment, The
-ota&9._!gi1U
Ti-mgg,
}bg
i{g,I[g--Ij1'Sl:9,-Lgg!1 arld The
[e]"
Zealand ilerald mai.ntain a correspondrnt-business agent in London.One
of his tasks is to send extra back6round matt-'rial on the European scene
to New ZeaLand f or the exclusive use of these ne1'r.spapers. Some of the
Iarger me t ropolitans, TlS.
.!tlS:L-?S.@, !'Le_Ltlc_[}3*g.j_!g
I
anc
The Eveging.
Sgs_!
,
h;ive bcen able to send their own correspondents
abroad to covdr of f ici.al events, and. they h:.ve been able to publish
their cabled rcports :rs exclusive stories. This, and the general
content of the c:ble and feature page6 of the eontemporary daily New
ZeaIandpress,suggesttha.titisincreesing1ysenSitiveto
international affairs, This may owe something, to a general sharpening
in nei,,s prescntation that has followed the introduction of television
and the development of N.Z.B.C. news servicsr It may also be connected
with the actual expansion of overseas news services whlch the I'l.Z.P.A;
has introduced. In the past th.:re h'.s been criticism of this overseas.
content mainly on tlre
6r':unds
that it tended to become unduly uniforn
in viervpoint and monopolistic in origin. A poll of members of the
Consumer Institute in 1965, for instance,,
produced some strong opJ.niune
on this subject. A majority thought that overscas news was
radequately
selectedr, but a minority thought there should be more of it and it
should be bettt--r presented. A strong majority agreed that
11 Elizabeth'i:/arburton,
rA
Study of the Pressrr
lgtlg&lf,
8:J,
Scptember 1954
t
167-202,
66.
nore Nov Zeelmd.ers
should. be postoil to key centtres ovorsees so thet
ti'treu
Zecl-nnti llelisp.:pers
clid. not heve to rely on foreign press correspolli'ot,'r
'l
In response to such conplcints ( justjf
lecl or other:wtse
)
the N.ZrP.A. has
taken stops to increo"se its ovorsecs representctton, A spe
ciol
corresponC.-
ent vr.x d:ispatched. to cover the cctivLties of New Zeclancl
forges servinSr
iJr Vietllerr e Singcporo buroau hns been otrnned with a
bfghry e:qnri.encecl
New Zealarrd.
journalist
in charger md nore inpontant, a f\rll-tine
correspond.c'nt is to bo stationoct ln
yfashingtoD.
In l,iarch 1967,
Gcorge Btrrns, then the chairnnn of the N,?,.P.A. and.
e&ltor of The^.C.tpfp-tq]rt-qc.b,_Ejgg, anslrered cr.iticlsn of the N.Z,P.A. ln
these torns.
12
Through our cssocic,tion with tho Australian Associated Pross arrd our
pcr.rtnerslrip i.:: Reutorsr.rlre have the rigbts to news flon no ferler thnn
6O agoncios, both nctionaL cnd internatiomlr govornnent ancl ooroperat-
Lve. Ileuters itself hos o staff of
4@
journallsts at posts throughout
the
yrorld.
Sone ctr thoso
qre
New Zeel-and.ors and it is not ungtrtnon to
find. throc or four of the Asian posts &irectect by
journnlists
fror-r
this couut4y vho heve tract thoir training here ancL heve subsequentJy
joined
Reutors. In addition,
Reutofs has turioe as nar{y pcrt-tine
cogosriotrd.ents.That
figure
j-s
supploncntecl by tho
ZOTOOO nho work f,or
6O a{;encies
ui-th vrhi-ch there are Lgrcenonts for the iupply of nerrsf
In tlre llrst thrco yeers,
Reuters hss itself otrnnecl up norr posts att
Alid;ienr Ad-cli.s Ababa, Caraoas, Havana, Morico City, Sao
paulo
anct
Lir-ra and. has revitalised tho whole of
-lts
South AnerLoarr scrvice.
Idore thrur thatr acld,itional
coruospondonts havo been
trnstod,
to Athons,
l,tos cou, Saigon, Singapore, Bnrssols, the United. States, Now DeJ}!,
Blrenos Aj:res; Rio dc Janioro, Madrid c&d. NigerC.a.Thoi:r rork fron aI-
thosc-. countries cones to usr
Burrrs also pointed.
out that in every corrntry where Rzutsrs nalntained e
buroou it incl- the rights to the vrork of tho local rplrs af;Bnclo He conclurle0
that the I{.Z.P.A., far fron being e nonopolistlc bo{yr wos supplying a
vre11-round.cd. scrrrice to the nouspopors and. through then to tho pople of
Nerr Zeal*rnd..
Critioisn of the N.Z.P.A.
I
s handting of intenrational news hos also
been r:ret b-r tho assosiationrs olqn ne.nagenent ivith the assertlon that the
service lrirs i.:r fact grown so f\rLL and cliverse that it is po ssible for
12
$r.*.
nv_e.nin4
.P,q:-!,,
}larch 2 1967
,
21.
67'
-bwo
newspapers ilrairinl u;on tho sLf,F telepri.:r-i;er service to
1:rod.uce
widely different neils seLec'bions and pre sentations. This question will
be taken up at lcngth l-ater in
'tliis
sfuq]-.
Llc'an'i;i:re,
it can also be
noted. that'che service extends on occasion to illustrations mterial.
Nearly alL tlre New Zealand n6tro*uolitan oailie s ;;.e oquippe d nlth the
means to roceive
. I-c'hri.c-,s
by l,-ire, and sone ar also able to send. then.
fhe I(.Z.P,A. croes not yet sirpply a ro6ular pho'bographic service by wire,
but on speclal occasions lt can provid.c it.
The N.Z.P.;!. op,erates its central
'..'eiJ-ington
bureau rilth quite motlost
resources. In June L959 it had a s',;aff of 22, consisting of e raanagilg
ed.itor, a news ed.itor, tlro doputy news e&i';ors and 1B
jor.rrnalists,
incluci-
ing one cadet. two staff
journalists
arLr najntainecl in the Parliane[tar;'
Press Gallery throughout the year with a third., ancl sonetlnes a fourth,
ad.ded to the teain c)-uring the Parlianentary session. They report political
news. The as sociation kee'ps two fuIl-tilne corresponclents
in London, one
5-n Syclney, one in Silgaporer md it rril-1 shortly have ono in t'ashilgton,
It has part-time
coxrespond.ents in Canada ancl various parts of the
Pacific,
and. it can conmis sion special reports frorn o'bher sour ces
if it thinks
this ne cessery.
Criticisn of 'che it. Z. P.i. hes sonetim s been ilile,cted
torards the
long-s'uanit5ng problen oi irirprovin6S thc nelrs
6a'i;hering
stand.ard.s of the
associationt
s internal stnrcture. Thei,e has, in the past, been sone
evidence of a neecl for nore good.lriJ-I ancl undrers'canc',ing
of nationalras
d.istinct f ron 1o cal,
jntere
sts
jJr
tho operatj-on of ths norrs service
agreement. This applie s particularly' to indivicual
j
ournalj.stg.
Tno ttr"in5s have Iatel;r drasn attentlon to'chis. Proc*uction schedulos in
tho associatiorrls systen have becone ti6hter and. noi'e oxacti.ng, and this
der.rand.s the earlier frling of nessages if a good service is to be
rnaj.ntaine cL. The
j-ncroasing
frequency of radio ar:cl. tolevision newscasts
neans that read.ers r{'i'bh alternative sources of infornation at their
d.isposal may be expc c-bed. to be come in creaslngly sopiristicatetl
ancl
selo ctive in tlreir t:reatcrnt of ne'irspstrFr content. Stories that &re
not exclusive mayr ix futrrc, need to be xrittcrn not only nor speecliJy
but nore sharply anc'.
lrenetratively,
if they are goir to be read by
anybo$r.
4.
68.
tlris subj ect, the &sso ciationr s managing ed.itor, H. L. Verrxl, state arIS
Journalists working for
i)&.Dsxs
vhich are N,Z,P.i-. nenbers may be
askedr &s part of ttreir notxnaL duties, to assist their papers to
meet thej-r obligations to give an efficient servioe of news to
the N. Z. P./-. . . . thi.s need.s a read.Sr spirit of co-operation by both
sub-eciitors and. reporters in each office in meetilg the re cson*bIo
requirernents of the s ervice. l'. more positive outlook on the
relati onship betwe en individual newsllo;:ers anc-. the N .Z.P .A. is now
to be found. in nost offices.
W
experie:1ce, especially cluring
visits to a nunib er of newspagers has been tha't the nore perceptive
journalists
are ;aking increasing prid.e ia the contribution
their
own offj-ce carr raako to the quality anci speed. of the Press Associatioi:
service. I fird reporters and sllb',ciJ.tcrs takirg liveIy interest
in the innpact rrhich their own news s'borj.es crake in other parts of
the country, Tirey recognise that the
;lrosperity
of their own
paper, ild the wel-fare of its star'f
,
have a direct rolationship
to tlre efficiency of the N.Z.P.A. news service. It is also a
new tre::d., and. ln rny view e" sound.]3r based. one, to recognise
thatt
if nevlspapers are to rnaintairr their value to roaders, and to
nain'uain their news stand,ard.s in conpeti'bion with other necliat
expecially rad.io and televisi-on, they must act together through
the Pres s As soci-ation.
THE FRSSS GALruN.Y
Tho Parliauen'bary hess GaILery is an lmportant part of the news
gatherilg network. It consists of a corps of newspapernen seoonded to
the i{ouse for duty by tlre najor newspapers. There they come uncler the
jurisdiction
of the Spoaker and. rrust abid.e by the nrles Laid clcmn by hin.
The
6a11ery
representatj-ves go ttrrough a form of accreditation to the
Speaker before each session of Parlianent begins. They possess a
corporate institutional id.entity of their onn as part of the working
apparatus of Parliamnt itseJf
,
ind.eed they are one of its major channels
of connunication. They occupy a suite of offices adjacant to the gallery
of the Hous e and
'blrey
take part in it s inf orroal so cial 1if e as well as
reporting its d.ebates for their various newspaJers and carrying out tho
C,.uties of oomespond.en'bs. They are an irq:orbant linlc between the press
and tbe governn errt
,il' For exarnple
,
tb
prime
i:iin:i.s'cer
(
tc..r. Ho\roake
)
makes an avorage of trro public statements a d.ay and. is available at
I3 Aclclressing a Commonwealth Press Union course for young
journalistst
on September 2, 1964, at Tle1lin6ton. Frorn a cyclostyled report.
14
rThe
function cf 'dre Press Gal1ery as a }5rrk between ParLiamnt
and
people is obvlorsly stiLl vital to Parliarnentrs healthf . Colin
Seynor:r-IJre,
$r_-&teS_sr_-B#A*,g,3gr3
jbg_Blb.l.*, London 1958
,
W,
69.
T5
least twice a day if the press requires it," The d.ailies represented'
in the Press Gallery can also draw upon rellorts conpiled by the N.Z.P, A-
as wel-'l- as on extra roaterie,l rnitten by their own men.Gellery
corre spond.ents frequently r.rrite und.er byline s,
and so
are less inhibi ber^
by the conventions of objectivity and anonynity wtr-lch sometixes
frustrate
the ordinar.v working
Journali
st wi th sone thing to say
and. no source to
which he cail attribute it.
Because
l,lel ling ton i s the large st and mo st inportant news source in
the country, its two daily newsp&persr as t'ell E s the l[. Z.P.A.
and' the
Pre s s Gallery, are major ne$s
-originating
organl satlons
of crucial
imnortance in the New Zealand news nedia
rysten,
They nalntain day-t6-
day coverage of government affaj-rs in the fields of connerceri:rdusttf.,
finence and. public adninistration,
and they transit a goo d deal of
e ssential routine information to ree d.ers al] over the corrntry.This
serv.ice is augnented. by the actirritie.s of the
Sou.th
Pacific l$ews
Ageney, a snall, ind.ependent organisation
',rhich
is also aceredited to
the. Press Gallery end.'rrhich specialises
in supplying special
articles
and conrmentaries about Parlianentary and
govcrnmental affeirs to tho
5nal ler dailie s r,ftro caruro t af fo rd to naintaln a full-tine represontatirrc
in thc gallcrTr.
5. 'I-Et
.I!l:iSAPlj:,:
-P-RpPRI]|I.0BS.'-
+,$rsqcJSij0l'I. i.!tD.Jg?gc--Bqt"{rJ-0.q$
fhe daily ncr.'spapers of llew Zealand
are Lrembers of the New Zealand.
Newspaper Proprietorsr Association
(i,tr.P.A.
).
This was formed in 1895
and wes r;gistcred in I9I5 as an industrial associa.tios of ei0ploycrs
undcr the f :rdustrial Conciliation and. Arbitre.tion Act. Since I92T, it
has actocl as rcpr.i scntatiuc. and spokc sman
for the ildusttyr using a
systen of scctional commi.ttees to clcal lrith
advcrti sing eJId industrial
que stions as 1411 as pe.pcr
supply
and o thcr problems. I t has & pertancnt
seerctariat in Wellington
and holds confercnecs at nhich officers
are
elected, policies aird. interest g;roup
strata.genrs endorsed and
15 Reported
28 1969,
in The l{er.r
46.
"?.e-{.*d.
P-e$j.anrgn
t-a.rXr.
.D.e-b-qte-q,
Vo 1,
T6A rJune
70.
occa,sionai publie
s'i;atononts nade. Until recently thts bo{y has rnafu
llttler attenpt
to use it,s oinr ne&lun for public relations purposes,
but
faoed. illth i.:rcreasing
competition fron racl:io and. telev:ision, as welJ- as
pttbtio
ili-scussion and m:iticj-sn of ttre d.aiJy press fur the oourse of ths
Thonson takeover nego'biations,
it lan:nched. a norJ.est ponotionaL
csnpar-i6n
in the advertising
col.r:rrns of the netropolitan dailies. Here, in a serjos
of house ad.vert-Lsenents,
read.ers were occasiccralJy renjld.ed. of the
utiJity of the p:-'c$s as an air.vwiisSng
nodiun, cnd. of its theoretioel
value as a fonrn of publ5-c
opi"rron ancL a
ohanrel of news djssenjxstd-orr.
The
6eneral
i-ncatrncitSr
of both
jouna'lists
and. thelr nauagenents fu
New Zealar:.d. to oqround. theix fi:nctions at ar5rbh:ing Eu3ro than ttre nost
sinFl ].eve].s is a coilnorrpl-,roo shortccdng of an i:rd.u.st6f rhloh tends to
produce people
lrho a&'o task-.borund. and. pre..occupied. mith t5e neoban:ical
pressures
of their wek rather tlu.n n'ith its social neaning and.
olrltullol
ilotentialities"
A conperable situation exists in both the Austru,llan ancl
the Unitod. Sto.tes press, accor.ciing
to
yT.S.
HoLd.en
16
ttu oonsLders that
nc-.Ispctper ncnageneni
should. d.o nore to. telL its read.ers
lwhnt
thqy
concoive to be thejr nission 1n lifet, and. nore abort eAltori-al problens,
and. the train5:rg ancl experience required. to nalce a depenCable repoz'ter oX
a capabls e,3.itor. Ttris is no nlnor
trrobLen.
As nelJ. aa faaing oonpetitiop
for advertising
lrevonue fron all the eleotron:ic ned.Le., the Nevl ZeaLand,
prc+ss has bcen enccu:r'lering regul-er critical scmt5ny in televLsed. ngws
ana\rsis pr^g$,nneg vrri'i;ten by ex*daily
journalists.
fhese have omtalned.
mroh rl.es'.;nrctive
oritjcisrn of the doily pross whictr has not a}vays been
JustifiabJ-o,
but
'the
ind.ustry hos d.one littl-e to oourter the
rnFressl,m
of
inconin"enoer and. incd.oq'rrac; being sp:read. enobg a, la,rge parb ctr its
readersh:ip"
Ihe stru.ggJe to persuad.e
oonponents of tho N; .Z.P,i. systen to
tpJay
tJre
Gam
!
ancl give fuIL, enttnrsiastio co-oplation to rnaking the qyston
nork at rloxinun ctlf i ciency carr be socn as an astrnot of thls
i:ublio
reJ*rtlons problon.
Thc in'cerna*l publlc
relations of the i1xdustqf have 11ot
al-ways been good. i.n Nen ZeaLrnd.r ffid norr rrore thsn ever, rnith the
16
SupEqL*r
-to_egjp_.BtgFg,
Miotfgan 196't, Z1g-illo.
71
.
faot of conpetition fron eleotronic roeclia services, and.
.,rith
tlro N.Z.B.C.
recntiting nany of its best
journaliste
e.nd. nost prorulsSng trailroes
jnto
Lts service, tJre industrXr
is feel.ing the need. for a nore nj.lttant assertion
of its corporate ph{Losop}1y.
0n occasLons, vtren the Neri Zealand. press
rzishes to clraw attention to lts trad.itlonal libertarLo.n Ld.eals lt has
oa-lLecl on tho New Zealand. section of the Comnonwoal-th hess Union, to whl-olr
nany of its ecl.l-tors belorrg. RepresentatLves of this body holcl professLono.l
oonsultationer attenr3. overseo.s oonferencos,
trnesent
evLfunce to
Parliarnentary
seJpot oorur:ltteos, and, when legislation toucbSng thetr
jnterests
is oontonplatod., they o oos,sionally nalce prrblic speeohes ancl
rrLte edltorLals, The views of irorking
jor,rnall-stsrwb
are not part of thts
nanagert"ol
hierarclgr, are not often expressecl on prblio lssues, but
sonetines statonents enanate fron tJre executive of ttre Now Zealancl
Jcurnalistsf Assoclation (
U.Z.J.A.), a body which has a pa5.tl seoretar';r
and. an execnrtive that neets Ln Velli-ngton. In the past tt bas been oblJgecl
to extrnnd. nost of l-ts energt es organlsirrg wage cLair':,o and. negotLattng
inclustrlal awarcls on behalf of nonbers, ofte,n in the faco of bl,f,ter
opposltion fron sognents of ther enployers. It prrbltshes a nnoclest trade
nni?spaper
of its own r*:ich is one of the few sources of any dLsoussion of
tlre funotions
md. activiti.es of Nerr Zeal-e"nd.
journallstg.
Wnggrgl-{Sggt
an AustrFalian
fortn5ghtlyr ccrtains ooverage of New Zealancl af,faLrs bqt
ttrl-s is perlpheraL and concernacl mostly vl.ith the teohruicalitLes of
ad.vertls5ng
a.nd prfntiag plsceeseso
a
C}IAFTtrR.
ISLTHOD.oT,OGJ
1.StrIJ:ISE!r-S-IIBJ};,c-ryp.q{.1:Si_r"crrr}so3tJ[i_.r-\F
NryflP_W
algg,rsrs-
Those engagad. in qr:rntj-tetirc analysis of tJ:e eilitsrial oontc:rt of ll:c
dally press have sone'binos found Ajlifictrlty in cod.ing their naterials irr
zuoh a way that subject content catogo:ios are nutuaL]y exolusivo and. clear
f,rstinctlons
are nsintaired. betweon subjoct content and. otlrer &lnenslons
of nossae d.ata. For instance, tha contont classification schone clesc.ribed.
irr
SlrF-lf.qy,qlg-qqglggi-op.
on-th.o*.oss
-:\2W:12L9
1
"or,flrsecl
nsws sources witlr
news oontont. It enplo3rscl a subject content cLass
jficetlon
soheno in etgb'';
najor divisions consisl;ing of Hor:s Newsl Exi;enral News, Other News, Featu:ros,
Other Spaoer Other Ed.i'borial Spaco, ParJ-ianeniary Nenns, anA Nows Featu-,:es
of Sex Interest. A frrrtllrer }lst of subject oortent oategorios was repoated.
throughout theso dvisj.ons to i.nd:iccte how nuch of thjs mi;eriaL was
oonoorned. w:ith Politi.cs, I'dth Socia.l affairer ox wlth Eoonon:lo actLvLt-,
Consoquent\rr anyorro lranting to lcro'lr i.n
6eneral
how mrctr nevs abotrt Poli.tics,
Sooial affal^rsr
or Econorulc activ5.ftr was acfrlally prbltshed ln tho press
(
o" in portions
of it drl'ing the per5-od. o.f the particnrLar seinple r.urcLer
investigation)
wou1d. be forced. to nr.kc sone lengtiqr calcuLo,tions usirrg tho
Valrres fbon ttre sub-ca'L,ogories i.:e oach of the eigbt najor cl*rssi;fioatorXr
&lvisions' Nor was the connissionts atte.npt to dftlferentirrte betwe,en nows
ond. feotures of sex
jnte::osi;,
and. nor'rs fron
e
ae7t tJre polJoe
courtsr oF
fron pronilent pe:;so:r,r'I"ties
,
a varX/ sati-sfactoxy approaoh to the prcbLep
of cl"ssification becauso lt coruftrsed. subJect oontent rclth the nod.e of
trresentation
of pe:rtj.cuier Ltei:s and r,rlth ttrej-r sources.
Ilizabeth 1''Iarb':r'-!on i:: her shrqy of tho Ner,r ZealanrJ. netrcpolltan
2
popers
-attenpted.
to t:ro e fo'l:rti-'-'ision class:fiection whLch &iv:td.ed.
content into New Zealand. ne$so Orrel:soas nevs, Features and. Other Ed:itorlal
I
Her lvlaJestJrr s Stationery Off :lce,
2
Ii:Aizabeth
lTarburton,
rA
Stald}' of
1g:,J4? 167- 2O2"
Lond.on
191+9.
the Pressr,
Lqgg{gJ} ,
Bt7, Septenber
rV
73.
Itens, lach of these cli-visions contained- slrb-sections oonsistin ll the
case of l{eirs items, of Political, Social, rlconon:ic, ::'i;.rorts and Other
categorj-es.
--::
-l;he
ca.se of Fea'bure i'benrs ib consisted of Polltica1,
Social, Ecor,oni:, rrlomenlsr and. Literarj/ ar:i other criticigms. In the
case of O'cher ilditorial Iterns it consisted. of i,ead'Jn6 Ari;icles,
Corresponc"once, ffid Pictures. Und.er this sohefle ti:ere wes no wsy of
knowirg, f or instence, lrhat sub
jects
correspond.ents ac'tually rmote about
in letters to the eclj.'bor
r
oF what t'rpica were Crealt' w:tth in $lb-oLtogol'-
ies like
y,ionenrs
Fea'Lures, or Otlrer I'iew Zes.lanu News. Sinilar objeotions
a1rply to a3 analysis of tho conten'b of 14 Australlan cailios mad.e by
Heni;' iiayer,
/
iloweve:.'. e nu-nber of Aneriean shr&les co.:'bai:r subjec'i; category
cle.ssifica'i;ions rhich are noro conprahensive and loss anbiguous. A
L959 Scripps.-I{ouarci resea,rch projuct4
used. a s5-np}e lJ-catogory frame
which containe Cr only on(r diff icul-t-to-d.eflns classification entitlerL
I
R-rblic lioral Problens
I
. A morc elabora-i;e s]rstem had. been d.evised. by
c,
the Associa'boi.
-:ress
Managirg Ed.itorst Ccnbent S'buC.;'Comnlttee ln I95L.'
This containe?t 62 nerrs-cls.sslfica'bion catogorles and. allowecl for a
consid.erable nunber of low frequency itens to be cod.ed. The
55
categor-
ios for th) presen-i;1:roject were adapted. fron this by trial and. error
i.n accord.ance wj.th the followirlg coditig schene.
( *
),Lgbj-qc_[
-C-o--1t_e-n-t-
This is tha'iol'ic to r;hich, in the opii:ion of th.. coders,
the message
vas precrornina:t3y d.e-rrc teC.. Cod.ers hact to e,nsi;er the question: wLtb
'.iha'b
is the itin, s:rbstantially concerned?
Ihis requirei & close readirg of the
raessage tex'i; anri a d.eternjnecl atternpt to uni.erstand- anC- weigh its corte4'b'
pe3
Erxennple, a n(:srage rrbout the policy oi' activities of the Souttr :;ast
Asia Tre.aty Organis ltj-on
',roulc'l
not necessarily lrave been codeo as Tiar
ani. the Armeil Services unless-bhe bulk of i'!s oontent
llers actual\r con-
cerno d. vith luilitar}' or services aff airs. r'i; is
quite conceivabLe
-i;hat
t
+
.T'$
-P-lqp;?-
-ig.;!u-stg-1i3,
l{e Ib ourne L96l+.
See G.H; ,j.Ueapel Tf-;tContent Pattcrns of Snall and Metropolitan
uailiest, Jou.rna-1i-sti
Q., 3921,
;iintor L962, 89-91.
Reporteci. ln S.}i"--Cu111p,
rContent
and.
-'Iow
of /iP lilews f rorn ?runk
TTS to .-oad-ertn
lg4g$$.,
3lzh,r FlI
J:9%t
434-446.
74,
such an iten could. have been coded. as Poli'bics if it i-nvolved
trlo1ic5r
r,raking ojs cus si ons or s*l* culatj-ons about d.e cision-making
strateg
j-es
.
The
i
npoybant conc ern
-,ra.s 'that
the sFre s oqig of eJI i';e a shou 1c-' have no
auiomatic bea::irg on its sub
j
e.ct codirg. A.6i6Ut
td,as in the sub
je
ct codrine
*Drocess
were resolvld b;r arbitration ariong cod,ers,
,:nii
notes Tiere kept
of all decisic.n-ma1cin6 prr.ce c.ents foi' ease and consis'benc3
i.tr subseguen'l;
classi-f ica'tion, Each iten vas s'banped. vrith a unique nunb er and coded iil
oonpliancc' rii-Lh a'L',ro-1ev.e1 schene.
A d.ecision lras fjrst nacLe to
at'i;ribute
'bhe
i-ie.n to on: of
'bhe
fo11oi;-:rg najol' subji'ct divisions:
1" lla.:.' a:rd-
'ifie
Arrned Services
2 o Poli'bi.:s
3.
llunan In'berest and Social dfairs
ll-. Cri-ne
,
ti-sas'i;or, Rrbl-ic Health a:rl lafety
5.
Econonic ac';ivity
5 o Spor l;
7
"
Sci'--t:ce
B. Cultr"rro andr Xnter-rainrnent
9 o
lris cellane'ous
The f irst di6i'b of thc' sub
je
ct code irrcrlcatea the subJoct divis ion
i..i:'co lftich'tho iten vyas being classifiod, arcl in subsequont d.ata processi:r;
it provide,i. a convenient r:f erence to a set of araj or subject Civisions f o:'
tho cons'l;:uc'; ion of cle,s criptlve tabLes . Hotlover
r
8u cb general classif ic-
ations ere not e,l',rays sufficiontly inf orna'r;j-ve about sub
je
ct content
to be
rinre than bi.orcly usefulr. ilor instance, it r:li6hi be of sorne significance
'bo
say thai 22
iler
cent. of r nelispa:lerrs ecLitorial space
is devoted. to
ne',;rs aboutr sa,Jr sconomie ac'bivity, but i'b ooulc,. be lore useful to be able
to sta';c hou rnrch of this l:ras about agricuf i;urre, hon .nrch about i-ndustry,
and. hoir r:uch about o'uhe,r areas of the general ocononic
field.. AccorcLingl;'
a second. d-igrt subject cocling
r.ias
provir).ed witllin eaoh rnajor d.ivision to
j:id.iceter
rdtJr nore refinenent rhat each ito,: '..'as coacerlled.
riith,
ThLs
arrandc.'cnt could- bc ex'Lend.ed. a
6ood.
deal furtherbo suit the regutrenents
of a
1ra:.ticul:
r conben'i; ana3.ysis. t cctailca prcbo could. bc nad.e, for
i:rstanco, by aC.d.5ng a
'bhird
di6i'i; and. sub
-
c atgorising
thc oate6ories;
Iet
a'b the serf,o tine,
'botaI
content coulG s''ciIl be consistently
desoribcd.
75.
in terns of broad- sub
je
ct c-rivisions,
Table
l- shors the fulL two-Lcvel
list of subJect d.i.visions anc]. sr:b
ject
categories ueod 5.rn this stu$r.
TABI.E 1
NEiFPgPi.L_cgggqw
I. IIIAP. .ND THIj .Ai:],i,D ,SERI[I';ES
11 iiar, nrili'bary, naval, air force, civil d.ef ence activities
II. I:OIJT.ICS
2l Royalty, viee-rcgal affairs
22 United Nations, othor internatjonal
political agcncies
23 Forcign nlations, foreign aid" schem+s, &tplonacy
2l+ Cornnomoal-i;lr af,fairs
25 Parlia:rontar;' ancl legislatj-vc af,fajrs
26 Po1lties, political
irarties
and lcacers
27 L,oca1 govcrnrncnt
28 i'ubl ic ad.nr:i.:eis trati on
III. }ItIlTATi TTIETE,ST AiYD SOCIAT ATIIAIR.,S
]f
Social prcblorns and servicos
32
Social notes
,
f ashion ncirs, beauty con'bests
,
nod.d;i-ngs, cnJ&gerrcnts, ba1ls
33
Iers onals
,
ob ituarie s
,
hunan inte::e s t s'torio s
3l+
Lo'c'beric s, gambling
35
Clubs, associatione, recroation
36
Charitable, philanthropic, hunanitarian and
;oatrio'bi
c
pro
je
cts a^nd. as soctations
;
education; reli
Fon
37
Ad.vice to read.ers, phllosophy and sen'bentiae, hurootrr
38
Gard.ening, cook5-ng
,
donesti,c notos
39
Travel h-ints, talks and experiences
IV. ClLIlE, DISTSTtrII, :riiD PIJBIIC SAIEIY
41
Crime, prisons,
judicial
procoe,clings
lC Disasters, accidents, fires, f1ood.s, efit'f,9rrlcies,
d.isturbances, plegues, illless, Crisease
l+3 Polico ne$s, qystericnrs d.eaths, m'issing
propertl', aninals
anC. people, search and rescucr opera-bionsi tra.ffic proble'ns;
public health and. sa.foty
44
ldoxious seed and. arrimaL control; aninal vlelfaro
76.
v. llccNoMlc ActnrorY
51
Gonetpl
econon:is
activifur,
govi'i'nnen'b expernC"iture
52Agr5.culture,food.productionand'export
53
Industry, labour sirvices,
porrer
1u-r51y,
idgstrial
dosign
n+
transpoli,
tourism,
popula-Uion
ane' enpl-oyunnt
statistias
55
Torn
|tanning,
archilecture
,
civi'c
:rroitr
cts
56
1,[ai1, to]epnone
and, other comrrunications
garvices, netrio
andothersystens,weightsarrctfxeesures
VI. SPORT
1'111. scut{cE
Au#y Union
Football
Association
foo'i;belI
and- olher cod-es
Cricket
Horso rac5.:rg
Athlei;ics
O'cher sports
lTeattror rcPorts,
meteorologY
Iiied.:ica1
S;race
travel, astronoaly,
conl:utor
scionoe
fifeconurnrnicatims,
nass oonournicatj'on
Biologr, exploration,
hydrolory,
geolog3', zoology,
natrual
his'corXl, f orestty,
soil .onseruation,
agricultrrral
research
Semanti,:s,
linguistics,
PsYcholog'
Surveyingr
archaeologyr
musauns
Nueloa.r enargy,
physics
,
chenistry
General science
YIIIo CULflII'X
rit{D ;Im;f.l/LTi'XIExitI
History
Graphic
arts
Literature
Seriors
rnrsic,
dranablc
arbs
Filns
Radio
and. tel-evision
Pop mtrsic and. artists
Bras s
,
piBe antl othor band,s
r
coltrpet
j.'f
ions f ostlvals ,
nusioal
oon'bests,
concert
PartS-es
plastic
arts, embriid.ery
ancr. reavin6,
Maori culture
Hrz z1e s; child.renr
s f eatr:re
s
;
as'brology ;
conpotitions
6r
6z
6,
64
65
66
7t
72
7t
7l+
75
fi
77
78
79
BO
81
8z
B5
8l',
B5
85
B7
8B
B9
IX. MISCTTI,AI{'OUS
9L
Content
i-ndices,
newspaper
titles,
nenspapor
inprints
92
Editorial
r.onarks,
comrpntarie
s, re'1:lios
to correspond'ents
T7-
Each itom uas nlso codocl for the following attri.butes:
(t)
!le.vr.s.
Genc.ratjlg,_$_ot+g,"g
This i;a,s an attonpt
to answer:he question, vdro generates nens?
This is not nc,cessarily apparont from the subject cocling of an iten.
For instence, a nossae' to:ct oould. be concerrr6fl v,iith cliscussiops about
tlre
lrlces
for agrlcultrrral
eornnoc!-ities, the regulation of 1abanr, or tlre
orgcurisation
of tm^nsport, and. uoul.d, conseguently bo cod.ed as nens of
Economic activity
of some kind." Yct it could. travs ori-ginated. fbon pJ-ltica-l-,
scleurtific,
or a rrari-ety
of other posslble
sources, [hi-s approach to tho
stntcturo of the news enablod. itens to bo cod.ed r.xith more reflnernent than
hacl boen forrnd. possible
under the usual or.o-dirnensional aplroach and. it
ultieately '
y5.old,od.
usef\rl i-nforrnation about ttre
trnttern
d rrcTrs sources
jn
tbe edltorial subjeot content of the samplo" ft was partJ.cularlSr usef\rr
iJr
rcsolv5-ng coclin6 anbS.guitios.
For oxampler o5E of tl:e
commonest prob3eos
T?as whethor
or not an iten of news ought to be cLassifioit ln tJro Eonomic or
Political subjcct
content d,ivisi-ons. Thus, a statemont about a governnent
dectsion to begin worlc on tho nexb
trfrase
of a hydro-eleotrlc schne by the
Minister of
.Elcctricity
izc.s a typical exanple of ths zubject natte:
of much political
dcci-sion+ck5::g
in Nol; Zealancl, It could legitinately
have been classified as Polltical nevrsr
Xet
the gogFeg! of tlre partioular
itern vas rlotsr' concorne d. wlth the s
j.ze
of the
trno
jo
ct, tlro
trnoposod.
capacity
of its gencrators,
the rJ.ate
of completion of the work, lts costs, and. similar.
clcteils of a financlal and. technical nature. Therefore it was cocted as an
item of Econonic activity,
but attributecl to a government news genorat5-ng
source so that its po Litical signifi cance rles not ignore cl.
Tabl"e 2 shovrs the s cho a!.rIer of nov s generating sour@ s. f$if,,
{ sI]
y ttris
contained. sorno
-
40
cat*'gorlesr but meny of them wetre for:nd. to be of zudr
low frequency
-bhat
tlrey 17e:re coJJ-apsed.
j-nto
the 11 major categmi.es shown
here.
78.
?ABI'E 2
i--rq,'F*sgii&{]sc-
SqIilCES
01 iiiro service.s ard nor;spapers
02 Jourrrulis ts us ing b]tIine s
Oi Anon;nous sources conceale,l by forrnrlae
OL Governnont sources
05 Poliiical
;az'bie
s
05 Econorn"io orgallisa-l;ions
07 Poli.cc,
judicial
tribunals
OB Sport5ng and. recreational sourcos
09 Cu1tura1, ech.rcatlonal
and. othnr associational sources
10 Private cj-tiaens
11 ].iedicaI a.nd scientific clrcles
(
c) fhe hled.iun of Transnission
r 7
-r-r#a--&l-4
:,.,horever
possiblo, .ln atterppt rras nade
'i;o
e'btributo a mediun of
trq,lsmission io a cressagr, text. Accordinell;'oaoir
i-bes res
scnrti:rlsed'
for irf'ormation aboui
'r;he
actual ner?s channof
rihc'reby it night have
reached. ej-thor thc vi-re agenoy or tho nov.'spaperr
Thus, tho rr9ssage abou;
hyd.ro..eLc.ctric power supply plans ras r:.ttributed. to ttre N.Z.P.h, sorvice
fron Parlianent becauss it was includecl in
'i;he
materLaL iJl ttrer i{.Z.p.,i.
input fl1e that l;&s gathered. fbon Parliarn:.3'tarl-
sourcos by the N'Z.P.A.
nen on duty at tho ti-ne. In that p&rt of the stuQ-
that is concerned.
sith the analJrsis of li.Z.P.A. contont, 'chis
inf omeit ion
..,as
readily
obtainable b3r reference
'bo
the original soutcc documnts,
but lihon coclers
rrere workin6 soIely fron the texts of other iterns publishetl in tlre
newspepers it was found to be norc olusLver
os not every
?aper
Ln the
sample tt&s scrupulous in attributing sources to irhat it roproclucodr
and
thls information cou1d. not aluays be ascer';ainod
by elucidation.
The
categories used. in this part of tJ].. arrel;r5ig are shoTm ln Trrble
3,
79.
TliSIj
3
@@
}f,Dilru OF T'?3}IS}[SSIO'I
E-dE-{ra4,
01
w.
03
04
o5
07
Inl".nd. lI.Z.P.A.
-.E3g-.-+4i
Sorvioe
Ar,rckfantl
iielLing;ton
Chris t chur ch
Dune d.in
North Island-
provincial
lspers
South Island.
provi-i:cial peperg
ll.Z. P.1..
gervicc'
frorn
Parlienont
o*,g
Qhelurelll
11 Overseas N.Z .P.A.
service
)2 Ovsrseas foature
serviee
l3
-ieprinted-
na'berial
(
ot
"i"a:-"e
u,-r15
,!7 ,18
belov:)
14 Observer
"'orei6n
lieus Service
ancl other Brii:ish nelrsPaPerg
15 Bi'itish
lnfornaiion
Service
15 Aus tralian neR'spapers
(
rc'print
)
17
.,*lerican ner;s?apTs
(
reprint
)
18
Othe r neiisi)apor;
(
rePrint)
L9 tLe.u'cerg
I
Fea'brre
$rrrvice
lieutcrsl lilea'i,ul"r. Servicc, is a
lnrt
of i;he li.Z.p.r"
service
b;'''rhich
bacl<grouns feature,s
anri sssnerrbaries
ori8irui'bing
in djfferent
parts of th.-
Reuter organisation
are re6urar\t
reiooivoc.
by airoaiL in Nori
zearanri-
anc
distributed.
to 1{.2. i.ri' nemboxs r
Tho ori6in of these iteos is not alirays
acknowled4;oi. by the individusl
neTrsPaPor
publislr'ln;
then, but '';hoy
sone-
tirms appoar uni.er a rieutor crcdj-t
lino'
( e) Mod.e
A conprehonsivo
content
analSnsis should.
f
jJId-
sosle wsy of dts crini:a';-
ing, oven thou6h on3-;r broadly
,
betr'lc en the cLjfferen'i;
style s
l-n rg'h'i'ch
o&itorj-aL
c ont en-b is rritten ani. the varie''i;J"
of
'.'.LJts
in ribich it is
presontc d
jx
the ne:ispapQf s r
'fwelve
jsc}re
s of space devotetl
to an iten
about town plenn5-ng givos no
jnformati-on
a..bout lts context, allcl
fails
to
tist5'guish
whe ther i'b lyas the sub
je
ct of a leading
ar-bicle
,
a letter
to
thc oditor,
.t31 illustretion,
or ::n article
1:ubllshed
on a mnrnercial
pagg, a foatu$" paser of one of tlre,neils.Deges'
In ordeir to an"il;'Se
the modal structure"
in rifuich e ditoria]-
contenb
is organi wd
iJI thc'
press'a.bwo-lt-vclclassificationseherne-'Iasc..evisc.d'.lheftrstc^igit,
of e1 two-d.lgit cod.e
Javo
the broai, noc/.al d-ivision
in'bo iihich
ttrc'ite::
i'es
classif
j.crdr
irnd the sc. cond. digl'o
allocate'ir
i-i.; to e ac'i;egory
'iiithin fip
d'ivision.
(See Tabln
L)'
go.
The iten about bydro-leafutclff presentod. no dfflffuulty bere: lt was
classjfied. as a factrr,al report riritten in the objectLve nocle because it
vas a verbatin account of a
statenent nad.e by ttre lifinistet of
ELootrl.oity and,
c1ear15r attributed.
to hin in the text. For such an iten tc
ha,rre been coded in tlre inteapretative nod.o lt vouLd. have hae to hevs been
rrritten in a nore spoculative or conjectura-l style without a eubstantlve
source attribution,
anC. it rrou}l ha;rro had. to oontain the rrr'5.terl e oTrn
corrronts and evaluations of the proposal.
o
Little d:ifficuLty ile*s for.md.
j-n
classiflring cer*ain Ltms a"e featrres.
EhCI e&itorlal
content of every nevspeper i.n tJre sanpJ.e was clearly
stnrctrred. aror:ncl a
osntral core of N.Z.P'A. and. looaL nevrs which
rrtts :retrnated. dai1y, Itens appearSng
jn
subsidlary areas of the palrer and.
giwn
ertra &isplay were corlod. as features pr^oviding they were not nelrs
re,irorts and.
cotr}1 not be classified. in any of the other nod.al oategori.es"
Ilegular featunes included. articles on cooking,
gardeningr ancl clonestic
aotivitles, lulstorica]. aff aj-rs, o cc&siooal short stories, re15-gious
conrentctrlns, biogr"aptrical artJ.c1es and. astrological pedictiong.
Advertising pronoti.ons and. trad.e supplenents whicft scletlnes aptrnared Ln
tJre feature se ct
jons
of nswspapers in the guiso of nerrs tteng wero
cl,asslfied. in a special sub-categorlr, The id.entif!furg ev:ldence in those
@.ses invcriably consis'LerJ of an &cconpargling arrr,y of dlspJ.ry aclvertisenents
ctoa15r6 with the genoral thenes of the featr:re articles. hrcvlslon was
also nacle fol the classifie^etion of nuljnative and. genere.lised treatrente
of
qrmesrt
events by cofunn:ists, ossayLsts and. opeoialLsed. writens unaer
the f,lb-cetegoxy of
contcrnpora&Tr c onnentatrly r
A corsi-derable part of ttr| ccntent of a nerrspaper consLsts of sorvico
i.nfornation in the for.n of lists of nanes, r^esults of sporting
and. ottrer
ocntests, price
schedrrles, sluipping tinetables, vreather reports
r
ffifl other
statisticol-
jrfor"nati.on.
It, wa*s decj-d.erd. to cod,e this natenlal in tho
ilocunentaay
r:tocle. Engqgenont and. vodding notices were inclutlecl here,
not'snlthstand.ing
tlpt in nargr
trBpers,
tlteir lnsertlon l.s pafi for
and. thry
arr therofore a part of the ad.vertisi:rg
content, rn
6 See Ref .
31
def,initions
in
of
Ch" II, The New Zealand Broad.castiqg Smrrlco, for
objective and. interlretatlve reporting.
81.
practlce however, it
;:rovecl
difficult to make an\y distinctlon
betreen
paid ard. r:npaid notices. /r.s those itesls rfere invai'iably
pubftshecl
along rith other eai'uorial content it sras crecid.ed. to avoid. inconeistency
by treatir then as such. Occaslonal articlos of a factual naturo
(for
exanple, cletailett troatment of the perfornance of motor oars, and articles
aDout sporte commsree, agriculture, politics and popular entertainmnt anci
reoreation, which wcre sonetines
generously illustrated and given extra
heading strpce) wore olassifierl
as factual articles which hacl been given
a feature treatment.
I,ists of editorial- content, newspaper titles, ioprint notices and
nisceLlaneous disple.y heacling s not d-irectl3r r.ol.atedr to arl accottrIEqyjng
text were inclutled. in the irrformational mocle.
T4gIE*b
UpWWi*g'9i{i-!
c_cnmJEqr
1, NE'!{S CCNmNi
IL Factual neports wri'cten objectivoly
J2 Interpretative repor-i;s.
2. FIIATUP,XS
20 C ook5ng
,
gard.ening
,
clone stic
2L Factual articles given featr:re ctLsplay
22 Eis'borical article s gl-ven f eatr.re d.is1rIay
23 Fi-ction
24 ContoporarT/ comnentary
25 Li'cerary, sclrolarly subjects
26
Religious cornrnontaries
27 Biography
28 Astrology
29 Atlvertising prronotions ancl tracle supplenents presentotl as
nevrs itens
3.
EDITORIj,L COi,E,mtrT
3l
First leader
32
Seconcl lead.er
33
Third. le ader
34
Othm ed.i-borial comment
4.
CORRESPOi{DMICE
41
Letters to ihe eclitor
82,
5.
RE:;TEWS
5l
levie',rs of books, f ilms, musical
irerfo;'narcesr
art d;lsplays
and. oiher cultural
activities.
5. DOCUI.'ENTAI;: I}II.OFJ.iATICN
5l Lists of infor"mation
62 Conten'b i.:rdrices, nelvsroaper titlos, iin;trints, miscellaneous
d:isplay heading s
53 Engagements and weclding noticos
7.
ILLUSUIiiTIOI{S
7I
Coni-c strips
12
Cartoons
73
Line d-::awirgs
7+
Pirotographic reprod.u ctions
75
Rrzzles
(
")
9g!e,-"j-*-i-os-. .Q-o"!sp!
An at'berapt rras nade to d-eterrnino the ki-nA of readership
or auclience
to which newspaper edi-borial content seened direo'bed..
This could. only be
d.one by a someivha-b arbitrary assessnent of each item in order to reaoh
a
d.ecision as to lrhat area of read.ership it was tbought likel-y to
j-nterest.
Each story was as sessed. as having
,
in the opinion of the c od.ers
,
eittrer a
1ocaI, ne.iional or international orienta'bion,
For instance,
an item
about tire Wellington Young ,iomen
I
s Chris tian .dr.ssoeiation bazaar, though
it s'bressed. i:rternati.onal themes like the conventions
of Xmas celebration
in the United States, rTas nevertheLess coded.
as 1o cal in orienta-bion
because the story was preilominantly concerrnd
with
';he
aotivities of,
lTel11ngton members of
'the
association and;ros'b of its reader
interest
would be 1ike1y io ::e sicle in ttre reaLm of local personal relationships
insid.e the newspaperl s circulatlon clistric'b
irhere the women
taklng
part
lrere rvell known, and. tlreir social activ:-tj.es
riou}l be the subject
oif close
attention. This
judgnent
rr&s mad.e no'brij--birstandi:rg
the fact that the
storl, also nontioned. the vife of the A.merican
a.rirbassad.or to l{ew Zeale.ni-
ano her paybicipation
jn
'r;he bazaat, for i'b could. irardly be maintailecl
that the se' mi-nor activitie s were of rnr.rch consequence
or intere st to
read.ers outsid.o the
'JelJ.ington
socia3. scene, Sirnilarly,
a re;oort of a
Victoria League func'cion in
'Tellington
at uhich the authoress of a
French
'cookbook
gave ii talk on the irnportance of good. cooki-ng
in rnaffiage
83,
w*s coded
as rocal; but
e stateme''c
abou'c the vietnam
T{ar that had been
issued.
by a christchurch
protest
group ryas codet!.
as i-:rternational
because
it vas thought'b[e
event oou]rJ
trnrhaps
be of sone significance
to an
aud.:lence outsid.e
Iocal ancL national
boundaries'
Table 5
shows
the
orientation
categori.o
s .
In this particular
gnalysis
r
tro N
'
Z' P'A'
illland.ne.!?giternswc}recod.ed.as]-ocalinorien-ba.bionbyvirtuooftheir
being serccted f or transmission
on
'che
New zealand.-witle
network
of
the
I\T.Z.P.A.
TASTE 5
AIEE{^Cg-q
3-.'-+-a:-3-ffms-
The Far Eas'b and. South East Asia
Other Regions
(includ-ing Africa,
the i\[iclfl.le East,
IncLia
ancl
'th
Pacif ic) .
6. Australia
Initiaily,
an a'i;tempt was made to cocle
ind.ividua]
countriesn
but
this
j.nirod*ced
so many low froguency
categories
into
the
ana\rsis
that
it had to be aband.oned.
in favour
of a few very convenient
aggregations
of
countries .
Th,rs a regional
clas
s
jf
ication
ras aclopted
by a proc ss
of
aclaptation
to the pa',,-bern of the noils
in the senple
rat'her
than
by
conformit-r'
to any external
.oolitj-cal
or geogra.ohic
principle
of organis-
ation.
The difficulty
of arriving
at' a completely
suitable
sSnstem
of
regional definitiol
rlers not seriously
faced'
In
an analysis
paying
1. Loca1
2. i{ational
3,
fnternational
( r)
&"e-o-+gt
I
q-Yg
""e,
All items were coded
in accorclance
with tbelr
origin
in the following
regional
distribution.
O. irleir Zealand
1. Europe
2, The United-
Kjlgd.on
3,
A.nerica
( incruaing
the unitod.
sta'bes,
canad.a,
and. South
A.merica).
the ltest Ind.ies
84.
special attention to irrternational nei,ts in quu.ntitative terms, it might
be ad,visable to introduce B. tr.ro-1eve1 cotling scheme inith the first d'igit
of the co de retrg.e senting a o-9 regional
ai'rallgement,
and tlre se c oxcl dtgit
represent5ng
a breakdorrn by country
r
lrithin regions .
2. c0p${9.
BgSIPg&g
Each of the total- of 2r2OO messages on the en'bire
N.Z.P.A.
fiLe of
sotl:rce documents for the ireek June l,lr- to June Lg, L965r was analyseir
and
stanped wi1h a uniquedj-ve d.:igit nu;aber.
Tbo first d:i6it of this sur:ber
indicated. the d.ay of the neek; the secondr. cigit lnd.icated
the shjft in
which the ne s s age wa.s transrnitte d., in ao cordan ce wi th
'bbe
f ollor'ring
c].as sification :
1. liorn5-ng shift overseas news
2. Evoning shift overseas ne',Is
3.
l:iorn5.:r6 shif t inland news
4-.
Evening shjJt inlancl nerrs
Overseas messagss are relayed to the N.Z.F.r'. offioe
in
"ellington
from the Reuter organisation in
'chich
the N.Z.P.A.
i.s a partner. Inland
rpssages are received. over the New Zealand.-viid,-e
ll.Z.P.A. circuit
which
links the ctaily nevtspapers in one network.
The content analysis data f or the i\i.z.lr.A. reSister
was pwtchecl
into a de ck of IBM
"r"d."
.
7
This was pro ce ssed. rrith the aid of an
IBM
421
accounti-rg machine to yiold. the initial clescriptlve
infornation
abcmt the I\T.Z.P.i. 5nput for the week und.er stutty.
The following
newspapers eppearixg in 'uhis
week -\'rere selec'bed
for
-i;he
ana$sis
of
the ilay in vrhich th:ls material wg.s subsequently
publishecl'
f
l.iultiple Layout Card Fornl
and subsequent operatiotrs.
7
See Ch.
d.etails
IX, Appendix, Section 5,
of card. layou ts for th:ls
for
85.
11
12
1t
r4
71
32
t1
14
Morning Metropolitans
The New Zealand Herald
The Dominion
The Press
The Ojago Daily Times
Morning Provincials
Wanganui Chronicle
The Daily News
The Timaru Herald
The Southland Times
Evening lletropolitans
The Auckland
Ftar
The Evenins Post
The Christchurch
Star
24 The E.vening Star
Evening
Provincials
41 The Waikato Times
42
It
--
g3q
43 Thg Daily Post
44 The Nelson
_
Ev.ejrine
Mail
21
22
2'
The N.Z.P.A. content of each newapaper waa then analysed. To
facilitate this
,
the N. Z. P. A. input deck was sorted into subject
category order within days and a printed list was
produced on an
IBM 421 .This list included a brief subject descrJ-ption of each itent
which had been punched into a 4O-column field in each card in the
N. Z.P.A. input register. The newspapers
utere sorted into their days
of issue and the sample u,as analysed consecutively
from Monday to
Saturday with the assistance of hired coders. As each N.Z.P.A. item
was located in a particular nevrspaper it u,as checked against the
printed tist and its number was recorded, both on the coderrs data
sheet and on the netvspaper story i tself
(
using a bal-1
pen
)
. In the
coding of the newspaper usage of the N. Z. P..A,. input messages
t
the
aource documents on the N.Z.P.A. message files were consulted
whenever difficult
problems of identity occurred. As each message was
coded, the following observations were recorded on coding sheets
for
subsequent
punching into cards.
(1
) The N, z"P.A. item number
(Z)
The newspaper code number
(5)
The date of issue
(
4
)
The par-e number on which the item appeared
(5)
The total inchage of the item
(space
measured in column
inches )
(5)
The head. inchage
(space
occupied by the heading in column
inches )
85.
(Z) f'he illusire'bi-ons ilch;.ge
(space in colunn inches occupied.
by
"ny
illustration acconpanyi:rg
an iten) .
(S)
The nusber of word.s ix
'bhe
i-i;em.
(g)
The total prominence of the iten.
(See
Section
J,
lA
Nows P;'orninence Ind-exr.
)
All space aeesu^rernents rior rnad.e to 'che neares'c
'benth
of aI)
jnch
with an ordirianly l2-i-:rch rule.
Lhe nerrspapers sanirlecl. irr th:is study enployedr
a bi'oadsbeet fornat
which, uith one excep'clon, had. a standardj-ser.
lo-on eo}:.mn
wiclttr, enabl5.ng
advertisin,g blo cks to be read.ily inter-changed and slreet size to be
approx5-rnate\r
'i;he
sane.
(There rrere some sliglrt variations in the
dj-mensions of the actual print area of the d.:i:fferent
papers.
Iba&g
Zealand Heralg, for e:cample, favoured & raine-colun:r page which r'las
sonewhat smaller than most of ihe others.) lhe exception wes
[lg-g+gg;gl
Herald. which used. an eight-colurnn page vith a co}.rnn ridth of 1.1.5 ems.
In its case, colurnn inclrage measurements ftere convertecl into the standard.
measure at the cata processing stage by out-sortins all cards bearilg
rie',TSp&per cod.e
33,
and. rrultiplying the space values of each iten by a
correction factor and. punclr:i-ng the resulti.ng calcr-tl-a"ion into a duplicate
de ck of card.s .
The newspapers ennploy various body types, but it ras possible to
calculate a ryorcis-per-Iine factor for eaclr paper, lTord., counts of
lengthy stories i'rere r,rac^e by rrultiplyi::g the number of lines in the body
tex't by
'bhis
factor and ad.cLirg ex'bra coun-i;s for in'brociuctions and eny
other
trnrts
of stories that hac been set i-n a different lceasure or typo'
Th i.nd.ividual word"s were counted. in all stories wh:ich anounted to less
ttran 20 lines.
3.
A IiII.iS t)n0MlMli0rt I}IDIIX
-
r-:-G-;-E-*t@
A number of s-i,uciies have used inilices iryhicir measure the relative
promjlence or
I
displayt vrith vyhich i-tems of contenJc have bean treaiecl in
87.
their presentation iJr the nelrspap"t.B Such inoices are useful in
d:iscussing the \,rays in which gatekeepers exercise their editorial frrDctiqrs'
Martin Ifuiesberg used. a.n
t
attention analysisr to d.etornine how rnrch
attentionwasd.evoted.toSovietne1rsinasanp1eoftheW.
Ricbard.
-,i.
Bud.ct analysed the treatnent of Unlted States news in four
Australian and. four Ncw Zealanci nolvspapers and. used both spece arul item
frequency measllres. He found. them inadequatc for determinjJlg
'what
d.ifferences there trere in tho \{ay the var.,-ous ne,Tsila:)ers of his sanple
treated. content. Two papers, f or i.nstance, could.
publish the saIIIe
nurnber of items in approxim.ztely the sano amounts of space
r
yot onc
paper m:ght havc di^splaye'cl its itoms much nore proruinently than the
other. Fiori can the C.j-fference be measured? Bud.d i.evelopod
an attention
j.ndex
nhich took
j.nto
account the size of ';he
hcadline, the position
of the iten on the pago, the leri6th of the iton, and. its placement in oner
of three sign5Jicant areas of the newspaper
-F
the front pagor the
eclitorj.al pager or ttre sports page. Points rrere allocatecl on & scale
ranging from zero'bo five to each item accord.:ing'rio tLre way it scored.
nhen exanlned by these criteria. Illustrations published without an
accompanying artlcle lyere scoreci in the sg.rrrr1 manner, but when they
aocompanied. an article they rrere consid.ererd as part of it and v;ere
See Martin lfuiesberg,
f
soviet i{evrs in the }iew York Times
t
,
Pub,
.. . .
Opiri_oA_Q..
r
1O:4, Vinter I946-aJ,
56o-56+.
R.Uy'. Budd,
tU.S.
News in
the Press Dovon Und.err
,
EgH; --Qlen-i-o-4--Q.,
21zl-, Spring 1951+,
39-56;
tAttontionScore:ADevicefor]ceasuringNersP}ay|,@.,
l+I22, Summer 1954.
,
259-262. Lewis Don"rhow,
tNewspaper
Gatekeepers
and Forces in the News Channelt
$]1,
-OlggpJ.,
J1:1,
Sprirg lg67
r
61-58, usecl on attention seore to neasure ilie way sub-editors
handletl
nelrs i'cerns about med.icare in Ken-Luclty newspapers. Chilton R. Bush in
t
Content and
'rl{ise
en /al-eur" : littentlon as Effe ct
t
, ,TgE4}a1i.-sg^9.
,
37
zJ, Suruner L96O,
435-437
,
reports a stud;z by Jacques Kayser who
used a rrc thod. of assignS-ng vreights ix ll're cooing of newspapor content
according
-bo
the size of head.line,
position in the paper and' on the
pager &s well as othor clements of format and typography. Sce also
Richard- ,i. Bud.d, Lobert K. Thorp and Lens Donohue,
&Sei!-4*LU&Ls--oJ
Co4rmrnicatio.Sgr Nelr York 1967, ll.ichard H. Thornpson in
rMaori
Aff airs
-"--
ffiland Press
f
,
I!g_.{""gg}-pl
ttrg--pg1-{rosian Socielv,
64zl+, Decenb er 1953,
365-38J,
used. I{riesbergr s attention score to
determine the signif ic&nce vrith rrhi-ch various it ems of news about
Idaoris ilcrc trsated. in a samplo of noylspapsrs r
BB.
includ.erl lrhen calculatins its
'l"otal
length. Usin; 'r;hese
neasures
t
Budd ri,rs able to sl:.ori
'bhr:,t
there tras a hi3h couela.ti-on betlreen tbe
j-ten
f'requency, co}.rrnn inchage, and. attention score of
'bhe
subjoct
natter undrer analysis
,
ano he rras als o able to bring more sensitivity
to bear on
-the
discussion of such rnatters &e
r
for Snstence, hotr
ind.ividual nevspapers lil<e
T,!rg-lr
esj.-!gg!gl+.qF-
ana
@
ltgg
conpared. in their treatmen'b of the ne',Ts.
In the present s'budy i'L rra.s d.ecid,eo to ex'bend. tho scoring ranga of
those neasures so thab the trea'r;raent of inil:lvidual i'bens coulcl be studiod'
vnith oven nore riiscrinjnation. Instead o't measur:ii'g
tlre total spce of
the iten and. af 1o ca-i;furE points ac co; c1ing
'Lo
r:he ther it o ccupied
three-
guarters of a colurnn or nor, the actual space of
-blte
headll-nes was taken
into account. 3y sanpling ancl testing items fror.,r ihe l-5 newsPapers unoer
analysis it Tras found. th,rt there rias a high d.ogree of comelation
between
hoadLine size and. length of s'bo4r. Consequently
it llas cleoicled to use
the 5nchage occupiod by the head.line of each iteno as
'bhe
basj-c neasure
of relatlve pron:inence and to ad.d.,roints to the value so obtainecl
accor6.ing
'bo
the i'cem
I
s
position on the pa6e
,
i;hetlrer or not it etmployed.
any special typographic clevlces, and. lrhether or not it
',ras
accompanietL
by i]lus'bra'Lions. The heaaline inchage iras converted
into a heacLing
factor by nultiplying the nunber of words i:r
-the
heaoline by its sp&ce
noasured. in colunn inches. Tbis space neasui'ement
";as
msde fron the
top of the fjrst ljne of the item to the rulo at the bottom of
-Hre
preceed:Lng itern, or i;o the top of the prin't area of the page iJr the case
of an item a'b 'chc' hea,L of a colunn.
Thu.s a verxr- ninor iten withr sa}r
onlytwo nori.s ix a head:ing ruh-ich occupiod. hatf an inch of space
received. a heading factor scoro of 1, wlr:i1o i-tens spread. over several
col-unns iirith two and. three column head.i-ngs in boldr type scored up to ,+O
or
!O
po5-r:'bs, and in a few cases as aruch as IOO or nore points. In
the case of nuI'cip1e d.eck head.ings, horrever,
-i;o
prevent an un&re
irrflation of tlre factorcalculition,
only thc bold. pr.rt of the hea&ing
sas i.:ncluded- iJl tho itorcr count' Noxt a pronincfl'co factor was
calculate. Cr. as foll orts :
89.
(
i) Paee liatin6
Tc,n points llere allocated to any items appe.aring on pdge 1.(
g
on
the back pc' of
3t*_9g**g._P".g,!
rrhich
r,rhen
this sample ltas drawn hecl
not begun to displaS: if,evrs on its f ront
pager or on the nain news pago of
other nelrspapc,rs which carried. advertisenents on the front page. The
main news page in oacir of these casos r{as d.eterrnined by inspection)
'
(if)
Paee Positign
Fivc po
jnts
lrer() aIlo cattad to any s torX' appearing above the f olcl
r
or
above thc measured. ce.ntre of any page. (To bo above'the fold, the entiro
hc ad.in6 hact to appear in that arera) .
( iii
)
T.vogef4llb&
_p-eJa
c e
".
Fivo points rvore auard.cd. for each of the following typographio
clevicss:
Variecl sizc or stylo of bocly type
Ind.entation
Extra spacing in the text
The use of drop or ornanontal letters
Sub-headings
C ross-he a&ing s
Artvuork in ho aCr-ings or in the bod.y text
Overljne s in he ad.irrg s or illustrat ions
Boxirrg
,
gu.nels and. borilers
Stars, blobs, heevy ruLes
Use of spot co lour
Stop press
(
iv) Illustrations
Fivo poin'i;s 17ere allocatod for every illustration appearing with
or vi,thqrt an accompanying item.
(")
Prominence Seorei
The fj-naI prominence score was calculated as f oJ.lows:
Hoacling factor + Promj.nonce factor
=
Promincilce score
4.
9O.
D.trTA PROCISSI}G .AND MIT]NG ROUTINES
Th laborj-cxrs pi'ocess of locating a flle of lI.Z. P.A. ttens as they
appeared throughou'b the pages of 15 newspapers had. the ad.vantage that the
description of these items was sub
je
ct to constant checklng a rd re-checkSni;.
As a re sult of th i*s very d.etaile d. working-over of bo th the sour ce
clocunents and the original I{.Z.P.A, input card. filer @nX of the lnttial
cocting and. punching eruqrs were discovered and renedl-ecl in what constitutecl
an ad.J1g eriiting step. Next the nesrspaper II.Z.P.A. message usESe clata
was punched, into a deck of IBi/i cards. A progran was written for tho
TB\I
360/20
to obtain a sirnple listing of all the infonration contaLned
jln
this deek
(
ref erred. to a,s the neilsilaper .'1. 2.P..':.. d.etail deck), This
llst was tben ed.ited visualIy. Al] onl-ssions, in consistencles
8rd
obvious\r incouect val-ues
r,rere
lnvestlgai;ed. md renetliecl.
A program
was
wrltten to obtain B. preli-oi.:nary guantitative deaortpt-
Lon of ttre hardlin6 of N.Z.P.A. items b;,' subject contentr but because
the N.Z.P.A. detail cleck contained approx:imately 1O,0OO oazd.s it was
tLrought d.esirable to obtain some $conoqy of rnachine ti-ne by usilg the
I,BVL
360/20
to prepar & d,eck of sunmary cards wluioh coulS tfien be used
in the furtlrer analysis of the treatrnont of the I{.Z.P.A. neterial. A
prograJn was written to make the necessary cal-culations fron the clata
pr"rnchecl irrto the N.Z. P.A. d.etail cleck, and. tlre essential
quantitative
irfornation and. mean vaLues scored by each I{.2.P.4. item in its various
newspsper usages r--1-'Lr
'then
puncheci into 2061 surnnarj' cardg
(
correspondin$
to tb e nurnber of iter:s in the lI .Z.P . A. input fil
)
. The su6@r1r deck was
then passed. through the ne,chine in a series of subsequent operatJ.ons
to conpute IIFans and'. eummary totals for the variables uncler ana\rsls, and
the d'ata fuorn thj.s was usecl to d.escribe the performance of the newspaper
system in hand.ljng ii
.Z ,P. A. nu*,
.
9
,;hile tlris lrork rvas in progress, the non-N,.Z.P.i,. cotent of tJre
sample was cod.ed., punched.
into card s
,
and. e,Iited..
1O
This d.eck l-s r-gf orrect
9
See Ch. IX, ippend.ix, Secti on 6
,
I
Multiple Ie.;out Card. Iornt for
details of the suilnary ceril layout.
10 see ch, rx, ;r,ppend.ix,
section 6,
ttr{ultiple
ra.yout card Fornr for
cletail-s of the carcl leyout for this operation.
91.
to as the non-l{ , Z .'P . i,. detail d.e ck .
It lras run s eparately
through the
cornputer to yield quantitative inf ormation anc. it was then nerged mith the
it.Z.P.A. detail deck to provicle inf omation abcut tho total conten'l of
the ooe-week sarnple und.er investigati on. Bef ore this deck was sub
jectedr
to data processjxg, however, a final check-scar nas nad.e by the cocling
supervisor of every i'cern in each nei{spaper to make sure ffrat there were
no oversights.
(r)
&e*I!%isr-[asp1s-
A subject con'bent analysls of a randorn sample of newstrEpers
(drawn
fron a yeart s issues of the same 15 papors, and. referrecl to in Section
5,
tsanpliag
Proceduret
)
was slso carried out by a tean of eixth fotm
prrpils
at a seccnd.ary school, This work was d.one in class und.er supervision so
that a high degree of cod,er reIiablllty couki be obtaj.necl. A short
course of instmction on the New Zealand. nevrs neaia system was first
glven, the n cod.ers were instnr cted. ln the pro cedures io be followad.. As
diff iculties arose
-bhey
wer' solved. on the spot by the supervisor who was
also able to
6ive
fr:rther class instnrction as reguired, Eaoh night the
su1:ervisor checkeci the codin6 sheets egains'b
'bheir
correspond.:ittg
nelrspapers and. preparei.. lists of errors be5nE5 rnade by ind.iviclual coclers,
as well as notes about emcocled. items and. d.iscrepancies in coclil5 d.ecisions"
The se
yrere
d,is cussed. i-i: cla ss next day ano. coders wero given individual
tuition to correct iheir ralstakes. By thls crethocl the codS-n6 emor rate
was greatly
reduced.. During tho subsequont pro6ress of the work, f\.rrthcr
checks werg nade by sarnpling the iterns on each coderr s sheets on a
ranrlom b asis and. comln.ri.ng the pupil
t
s coding against tlro supervisor.r I o
In this way
';he variation betlveen the supervisorr s cod.ing and the class
coclSng was kept below a leve1 of .05
per cenJ6,
The d.ata f:rcn this rnajor sarnple cod.ing exercise .luiirc rcobrdod on
cyclostyled. cod.ing sheots and
...e:
not at
-Lhat
stage punched.
jnto
cards.
Tluirty i-bems rlere recorded per sheet and. a fifth fornn clas,* of secondary
school pupils
rias used. to ta1ly the subjoct content clivisions by glancing
d.own the col-umns on each sheet and enteri.r:g the scores for each subject
d.ivision at the bottorn of each page" These scores',?ere checked by the
sinplo expod.ient of no-i;ing whethe:: or not each page taIlled. to L total
92.
of
30
observie'sions. All irregularities were
jnvesttgated
artd comecteaL
in a final eri.iting siep^ The sub-totals at th6 bottom of each colunn on
each page rrere then ad.d.ed,
sheet by sheet, md news{Daper by newspaper,
using a desk calcula'bor. These activities were slread over a period. of
about three nonths.
5.
g@g_roe!&g
An arbitrarlr approach to the problem of sanplir nswspsper content
by selecting
one weekrs newspapers for stud.y nay be convenlsnt for the
exa.nination of a particular sequene".',lf rrnssa6es and. the performnce of a
specif5-c series of nefispaper issuesr" but the subject content desoriptions
d.erived from this may have insufficient representational vali&ity. To
provicle a rnore authoritative des cription of the i;otal editorial cont ent
of tho 15 d.ally newspapers und.er analysis, a rand.on sanple was selected
fron the issues published.
botween i{ay 1 f96 and. April
,0
L966. There has
been a consid.erable arnor:nt of work on the problens of sarnplSng
j.n
news-
piper
con'bont analysis, and. lt has been establlshed'i;hat increasing ttre
sample si.zo beyond. 12 issues out of a universe of one yeart s lssues of a
d.aily nei?spaper d.oes not prod.uce marked &ifferernces in results.P
Accord.:lrg1y, J2
j.ssues
were selectecl for each notropolitan newspaper w"ith
tbe aid. of a table of rand.om numbers, but this selection was camied. out
on tie
constntcted. week principlu.U
An artifieial week consisting of
t3
T
wo largo-
sc8.1o attempts
i.n this fieId. ate reported in The
_F_l_ow
of
{9S.,
a stud.y by the Interrnational Pross rnstituto,
zuriffilT?ri'a
Jacques
Kayser,
.O-gq fSS=l.t_-r. llp:qr.,
Unesco, 1952. The former was carrled.
out in co-oPex&tion $rit[
-{tre
-baitors,
nol?s agency
executives and
foreign
cof,res[iond.ents
of ten coun'orie s i-n ord.er to stucly the f].ow
of nelrs into threa regions--the
Unitocl States
,
"lestern
Europe, ancl
Ind-ia. It contains read.ership survey d.ata as well as quantitative
neasures (
itt colunn inche s
)
oi the arnoun'b of f oroign news in the
newspapers
und er d is cus s ion
.
eqe [g_qiql_s l{eris
is a comparative
stu{y of the ray 17 major dailiffi
of cor:ntries treated.
the nelrs. I't contails sorrp basic s-ba'bistical i.rforme.tion about
space and ad.vertising
,
but its dis cussion of the news agd. its
presentation
is largely
jlt:
.,o ssionistic.
See Guic.o Steurpel III,
rsample
size for Classif;'in6 .subject l,latter
in Dailiesr,
J_oufnelagrn
$.
,
Zgz3, ,3uruner lrgl1,
j\jljj\,
See Robert io;ffiAe-Tff
Oaxterrr
f
somo Proced.ures for Estimating News
Hole i,n Contont Analysist
, &b.bp.lr_+pfr_
9..
,
Zjt3, Sunmer l]g|ig
,
3gg-LOl.,
95.
six days, l'fionday
'through
to Saturctay
,
was createcl by drawS.ng ca].encLar
clates random-1y fron
'bhe
sar..rple universe. To obtain a twelve-issue
selection,
two such weeks rrere constnrc'ted., one from eacb six nonths
of the year. Ta,ble 6 shows the pattern of distribution of subject
content iJr the ]t92 issues so selectrd. and. elso
-the
iten freguency
di stributlon of sub
je
ct content obtai.necl in
'Lhe
one-week sanple.
TABIII 6
EiI:1".*9[-49{Wp[Fp-Il-BI*Lgq{:gU'--gg'
A tuilDol : ;*inrtsiI_{lAIIF_
rji;
:PIE_ or
l.6-.P:tlr- ltsiiEsSryF-t
IFg*-1qei.qeggy.
One
tteek Sample
"/"
Subje ct
Ranilon Sanple
%
u6r
5.2
5770
9.6
7098
18.1
5125
1f.l
g956
22.8
B25O zL.O
,rgL5
4,9
2J26
5.4
751+
1.9
1.
2.
3.
lr.
5.
6.
7.
0.
9.
750
1987
5504
248o
+378
4O2l+
982
1115
39r
].3
10.1
l-7.9
72.7
22.3
20.5
5.O
5.7
2'O
To'bal L9612 100.0 39255
1OO.O
[UHgg!"-C-g4j{5.:
1, r?ar and the nsrecl Services;
2, Politics;
3';m""*
hiffiest and. Soclal af,fairs,
\,
Cri-ne, Disaster
and.
Rlblic Se.f ei;y;
5,
Eoonomic
ac'tiv:.ty
i
6, Sport
i 7
,
Scienoe;
8, Culture and trntertainnrent; 9,
i.{isce}laneous.
The sj-utilerities ln the iten frequencies, expressed
as percentages,
betl;ocn ihc orre-Troel{ sample and. the rand.on saeple, can bo notecl.
The
null hypothesis tha'b the tl."o observed frequency
d.istributions
Y,'ere derivei'-
from the sane ps,rent population, or fron ic'.entisaI
i:opulations,
YI&s ex&lllr
inerl by neans of u xZ
'best.
(See Table 7).
94.
TA3IN:
7
@
TXST FCD SLG]{II.'ICAI,iCE
-
a i c.<-,-a-4 l^.t a .qf'_rilFi4ss-slfg#_clgqgglg
jlEq[liigg*DJpg$;Ipg_ciqEEll_s_-UL
j4!Q.-F*j{l*fr__g[Jg_
D.LITY NE.,SPAFURS
One-week
,Sanple
Rand.on
Saople
Total
2011
57 56
].:0602
76o5
13334
U27+
2897
32tp
1147
(-gJ:)t
E(-g{-)2
E
14.4
3.-6
Orj
1"8
1"r+
1.5
0,4
1.9
o.5
Subject
1.
2,
3.
4..
5,
6.
7.
B.
9.
750
198V
3504
24BO
4378
4O2t+
gB2
1116
39'1
67a
19rg
3532
253tr
Lilc
lFoSg
955
1080
frz
u4-1)
fr38)
7o7o)
5o7r)
ssez
)
8191)
r%2)
2L62)
765)
(
)
)
)
J26t
3770
7098
5125
Egse
8250
tgLS
2726
7 5t+
9.6
2.4
o.2
l12
o.9
1.0
o.3
1,2
o.t
4.8
1.2
o.1
o.6
0.5
o.5
0.1
0.5
o.2
Total t95I2
39255 53858
25,7
Subie_qt_ Qodrgg:
1, i'lar and the Arnec-. Servicesl 2, Polltics;
3,
Hunan Interest and Socia1 affsl.rs
t 4,
Crire, Disaster anct
Rrbllc Safety
t 5,
Economic activity; 6, Sport
t 7,
Science;
8, Culture anci ;lntertainroent;
9,
l,iiscellaneous.
From the above lt can be seen that
a12
.,\
=
25.7 with df
=
B, Fron a
tabLe of chi square value s
,
chi squrre with df
=
B a'i the 1 per cant.
level of significance
=
z}.og, As the obsorved. value of X2 ls greator
than this, therefore the nul.l hypothesis tha'c there is no significant
d.:i:fference between
'bhe
proportions in whi ch
i.n each sanple nust be rejocted."
shows trrat
'i;he
a6gre6eted. velue s
rel-a'cive1;r 1et except in category
a value of lJp.l',. was obtainecl.
This was drre to a substantial negative deviation in caloulating
O-E for the rand.on sample value and. a comespond.irg positive cleviation
i-n the case of the one-rveek
sanpie value. I'U can be explained on the
basis that there was a bias favouring this subJect clivlsion tn the
ortginal
oh-wek sample, Inspection of the data confirms this. fhere
was a political
crisis and. a flare-up in fighting in the Vietnam war
Horveverr^
nr
(_0.=p_-)'
v-E
1 (War
and.
subje c'b content is cllstributed
inspectS.on of Tablo 2
in each category are
the .rtrnecl Services) where
95.
during the
',:eek,
md
-i;here
'.les also an ou'bbreak of fightiJtg in the
Doninic*.n i-epublic , In New Zeal*nd there was a C'ls orssion
abotri the
dispatch of an art111ei5r batterl'to Soutlr Vietnar,
a nilitary review
at hblouru, anL, a Jie'burneC. Servicesl s.ssocia'floa conference
which
genera'bed- a series of ,nessa{ies about },ltw Zeala;ncLls Gefence
problems.
If allovr;nce
j-s
crad.e for this bias, tb differcnce between the
observed. ano-
'i;he
expec'bed. frequencies
jrl
tlre cc.lls of oivision I can be
red.uced. and. a nuch lower .ru:rru fo"
(--ktr)Z
ob'r,aired.. A consequent
2
J;l
value of li- whioh is le s s than 20
"O9
neans
'bha-b
the nu1l hypothe sls can
be accep'i;ecl- lllti: non conii.dencs, It the freclucnoy distribution of the
rand.on ser.eple can be assuored. to be t5'pical, after allowing for sone
bias in d.iv:sion I
-Lho
distrib'-r1,icn of subject content itern freguency
in the one-weelc sanple can e.lso be consid.ered to approximate the t1'pica1
as calculated- ovor a
treri
od. of one yea::. ,lor this reason it was decided
to use the d.a'ba fron
'i;he
analSrsis of
',;he
one-'rveek sa:p1e as the basis f or
the calcula'Li ons of tiris stud.y wi';h reas onab Ie conf id.ence that ttre
description of published. eclitorlal content
6iven
in it can be assuflF tl to
follow a
trnt'bern
of tj'pica1 d.istribution as long as sone reservations
are mad.e abou'L the nucber of nessages cieali.::gq with iar and the ArmecL
Services.
At firs'b ihought it maJ' s 3 ?rn rerrrarkabLe
'!hat
the subject content of
one weekf s no-spa{D:r.s shc,ul-d..r;prox'lnate so closely in its.oroportions I'c
that of a saul:le cr;1-in -fron
ci
',;hoLe
year, bu'b there may be several
reasons for tiris, some of
'then
characteristic of the otrnrations of all
news ne&ia systernr, other: perhal-'s peculiar to l'Iew ZeaLa.nd.. In the
first place, nerirs is a hi6lrly ;.epe'i;i-tive comod.i--by
written to conforn
very closely to the siylistic requirenents of neirsllallors and.
'Ure
6;eneral
expec'bations of bo'i;l:i sta^ff e.nci read.ers" The sheer volume and frequenc;i
of neffspape:r
.llod.uc-bion
5-mposes a'i;5-gi:'i; dj-sc{-,:lile on what is written
and. how it is presen'ced., In'bhis sease, i;lraiever'r,heir feelin5s
about
freedora, rest)onsibili-by, and. objoc'tivit;r nigh'b be,
jounralists are
process rrorirel.s geared. to ',he
d.e:ra.::i.s of elaborate nectranioal structures
wh:ich exist
*tr5-nar.i1;
to publish aclvc-'.,i-li.-rg.
I-'t cou1d. be argued that
news is
;r.
cornnoii'if irhich is useci 'co
f ill
-l;lre
blank spaces in a newspaper
96'
after ihe d.ispositlon of
'bhe
aivertj-semen-bs lu,s oeen d.eclded. there n,?"y
be no grea-b C-j-fferences i:r
'bhe
s-byle and presenia'bion of nerls betreen one
d.ai-Iy neuspaper and- another in ltrel; ZeeJancl., iind- l-ittle variation in the
structllre of th subjec'L conten-b of -uheir nous because of basis sioilar-
itie s in the circu.mstances of production.
It is convenlent for rnost d.ailies in Ner,' Zealand. to use a stand.ard.
paper size surc f oimat be cause tliis irrvoLves le ss difficuliy in the
supi)ly of ner.-sprin'b and. 'r,he exchango of s'Lereo blocks f or advertisingi
though the establishment of
lbe_!_o-q4,g ES"f:
-lSgrt
*u e tabloicl and'
the conversion of
fbe
Do-qin:o4 to the sane I'o;i:n';r cs r,.e11 as the
e::pei:i-nents in ners content and. crisplay vrhich'Lirese publications have
been rnakiq; naJ/ possibl3' 66 givS-ng thern a more d.isti.nctive id.entity,
But a nurnber of otiier consid.r+rations are relevant, it consld,erable part
of the ed,:l'i;oria1 con'tont of' each par-ticular nelispa:ler cny not vary
'.'er5r
grc.a'c$r
j-n
its subject content proportions over a perioa of ti-ore because
it is cha,rac',eristica1ly or6;anisc.o. around. a central core of approxirnaterl;'
tlrree;and.;;e;half page.s of neTis which d.oes no'b have to be
justif
ie d. by
adverti"irg,4 The total number of pages per issue, and- consequently
the
.to'cel
orpunt of news pr intedr, l;i1l vary sonerrha'i: accordl 16
'bo
the
volume of advertirjngrl5
but'r;he spitce irevo'bed to tire eenbral neris core
terld.s to remain constar.rt, In general, it can be seldl
-l;lrat
the neyis
contaj.neci in a c,.4i13. I'iew Zealand. nerispeper tend.s to be s'bructurod. around
':
repeti'l;ive core of netional enci in'bei,na;iono1 itens aerived. fron
'i;he
N. Z. F.
-l-. service
;
alorg wi-bh liha'cever lo c;l Iy
5aiirerecl
naterLal ls
consid.erod. nevsriorthy enou;h to
-ire
displeg'ec-, iJl mnof
-the
basic
Inevrs
corer ragesi To thls is appenci.ed. ti:e spo-'ts, connercial, vonenr s anc
ctrilcrents pages, ud fi-na1Ly the miscellaneous na-berial of comparatively
nrinor ne$sr:orthiness used to fill arl.ir remaj_ring sllace. This can easil;'
be expaniec. i-n
'the
event of i-ncreased ad're..'t;-sin; requiring extra pages
-a*
r. G-.:-.a.-- g-.
r4
&g--kjggg1ieJ*-tlgt,plg+I$-1i+,&:i4glqgdr,
a report by the Con'bract
ilesear-cE--urrit
-of
tUiNevi ZJarana--rns11'lu'ue of
-':conon:ic
Research
(mc.
)
rnimeogralrh, rTe11ir6ton, 1968.
15
T]t$
Be-i;1.'een 1960 r:nd 1967 the avera6e number of patos in Nevi
Zealand nctropoU-'ban neuspapers rangcrrl fron 24-.7 to 2E.1. The
average f or
"htr
entirer pori ocL rias 26 .2 .
97''
to be machineo ane consequently nore ed.itol'ia1 mat'terbo be carried.r
but
the existence of the
I
core
t
paes is liJcely to ir.ipose a regular
pattern
of actlvity on edi'corial ste^f,fs
y{ho
alne able to approacir their task of
neT{s-gathering and, selection with a relatlvellr coni;i-nuous and stand.ardised
set of working conven'i;ions. Reporters have regular assignrnents and
lbeatsr
to ooverr md nuch of their work
j-s
carriedr out in the expectation
that there vsill be a certa;in anount of space 'co
be fil-ld., and. therefore
a certa;in anount of co.ry to be rrritten. Thus e, veqf consLstent
I
f i11l
or
I
mixf of sub
je
c'b content nay be emergir6 in each
particular neitspaper
fron week to r.reek anf. even from nonth to nonth in accorclance wittt a
well-tried. viorklng forrcula.
f,\:rtherxrore,
-bhe
organisation of the indtrstry na;' tend. to prooote
a substan'bial ]evel of agreement ebout the structure
of 8n irnportant
part
of daily nerrs:oatrFr content. *Il the New Ze.rland cl-ailles be1on6 to the
lI.?,.F.A.rard. nost of those s'i;ud.ied. in this san.ole derived. lrO-50 per cent.
of thei-r i'bens of editorial content f ron its service,
No tndividual
laper
takes any otber wire agency servicer ild exoep-b in sports reporta6et
tlre use of special comespondsnts is not extensive,
Conric stnips and
foa'bures are also borgh'b from a Licutted nunrber cf sJ,'ndicated. eotlf,ceer
't'hese ri'e sone of ttre obvicus factors i:rfluencjng tlre nelrs selecticrr
process and. partially accounting for the fact tha'c at least dur5-ng tJle
perioc. \ialr l9ro5
'bo
ApniL 1966, the e&itoria,1
s'ca.ffs of 16 Aaily newsPatrFrs
in New Zeal,anci rlppear to have shorn sone consis'tency
in organit-itg
the
stt:ucture of, news arouncl a, core of repetitive
sub
ject
*ttet.l5 Henoe
it is tentatively assertecl- ttrat the charac',;ei'istics
of the nens
Erblishe
i'
tn L6 dai13' newspapers &rring the week covereCr
by this study
plovide a
d.enonstration of the typical worki:rgs of the New Zea1rlrtd dailJ
pressr as
well as & characteristic d.escription of its
gSeneral zubject content.
See labh 6 in Ch. WI, Sect5.on 2,
r1he
Perfornence of the Nenspapersr
for fr.rrther d.etails of the ratio of ,1..2.P.h. tototal ed.itorial- sonten'b,
CII.APTM, V.
THE NE!{ Z&l,IrlND miISS ASS0CIT:.-IIOIII
->---+
SER\rICE
%-4-
L.
UU
SU.iIECI
:JOi{rStrT
0F A ;rE.e.KtS ligvls
Any as se s sment of the S.rnportance of the d.aily press in tho New
Zealand news media system mrst start udth a consid.eration of the New
Zeal-arrd. Press Associaiion as its principal su;cplier of infornation. As
no descriptive work of any consequence had
irreviously
been clone i.n this
are& it was found ne cessary to rrnd.ertake a content ana\rsis of a saople
of assocj-a.tion irire copy. If only a sinple quantita'bive
descripti-on
of wire me ssa6e content had. been required.,
-bhe
norrnal procedur-e of
selectin6 a raniiom sa.nple
couJ.d hava been fo11owed., but the project
callecl for e stucly of, newspaper perf ormance as lrell as a quantitative
cont ent d-es cription.
It required. that sorire me asurement of usa.go of
nassage l-tens
should. be incorporated in the reseerch design. Thls
introduced. probLens
with message 1ag which coul-cl not be readily over-
cone by the conventional rand.on saople cpp::oaoh. The ageney transmits
nesseges six clays a week for 18 hqtrs a clay, from
7.jO
am to 1,JO am
the following norning when lt shuts ilown. r-'ich day is divicled lnto two
shifter ona for the mornilg pepers, the other for t he evenJngs. Newspa.oers
receiving this rnater{-al are faced vrith & consid.erable techniosl problem
of utiU-sation in the rapid.ly shr5-:eki.r:51 amount of space 'rhat
ls available
to them before clead.lines intervene. The result is that sone nessageg
which d.o not rate hkhly enough to achieve publication on the ttay of
seniling nay still be used. on a subsequent cLay. Thus there is a tend.ency
for certai-n kind.s of neiqs matter to Iag behind rnaterial rshich is given
greater priority.
It would. not have been iopossible to select rand.om
d.ays f rom a peri od. of
,
s&yr 72 nonths
r
so as
'bo
constrtrct a bypotheticalJy
typical week of'agency message flovr,
-i-hi.s couIcl then have been the
object of a search ix the fiLes of the acconpanying newspapers of the
period.,
but attenpt5-ry; to locate anit identify sone of these nessages irr
the newsps.pers f or an unspecif iod poriod follovi'itg the clays of transmission
99'-
of a t'andon sa{rple of r;ire copy woul-d. have presented- overwhe}nilg
Clifficulties.
Consequently it rras d-ecid.ed to stuqy message fLovl over
a continuous
;eriod..
Thj-s meant the ::isic of sacrj-fi-cing sorne
rel?resentativeness
in- the sampled. content for
.{roater
pr"ecision ard.
depth
jn
the stu$r of lrr3ssage use ancl. sys'tem grerf ormanoe by arbi'brarily
sele ctirg a com";.:lete vteekt s agency neus f rom a perlod. when, as far as
could be as certaine d., no abnorrrally sensa'i;i onal even'i;s were violently
d:istorting the baLance of con tent.
1
To begin wi''uh, 'r;lte subject content of the lreekts r.Essagos vrs,s ind.execL
so that a regl-ster of the agencyt s substantive nessage texts could be
comp5.1ed,
. Ea ch text rras sub
j
e ct- code o in a c cord.an ce wi'l;h the content
analysis frame sholon in Table I and. this ancl. o'ther irrformation was
record.ed. on a register of punched. card.s, It ha,l been decided to
neasure not only the frequency of itero usage ln the pei)ers, but also
ttie anount of irrf ormation attrition in the
j.:rcivic.ual
newspapers as well
as in the various con-ionents of the sysieri, uliis iias d.one by nakin6 a
woi'd- count of each subs'i;.,ntive N.Z.F.A. nessag,3 tex-b and. compari-rng it
in the subsecluent data conputirg stage rith
'lhc
wor.d.age of the publishe ci
versions. However, it ,-ras d.ecid.ed.
'bo
excLud.e all documentary
j.tems
fron thjs
i&t'Licular
calculation.
'ihese
vere
%onry
aessages concerned.
vcj'th narket repor'cs, stoclc exctrange
'bransac-bions,
commercj-aI acbivity of
a statis i;ical and. repei;itive kind., vueather reporbs, str:ipping U-sts and
spor-bs sores. ;J-1 this is an irnportant, tlrough unspectacularr
Fart
of
the associ.eti on
t
s d-aily service
r
pro viding a hard. core of useful f actual
servj-ce irrf or:ma'r;j-on which formecl sone 13
Fr
cent. of the sa.mple weekf s
agency nsl{sr
A further p:rcblen involvilg message la5 al-so presonted itself .
',i'hen
codi-ng ttre N. Z. P.A. content of the nevrspaper sanrole
,
532
items were
located whlch cc.ul-d not be refated to anything in tho I{.Z.P.A. roaster
file of input nessa6es for the week. This tias because they wene a
mis cellany of ne s sages whj-ch had either 1.r6;ged fron the previous
Ho';'rever
,
s ome of the ob
je
cti on s to this me-bhod of sanpllng rrere over-
cone by
,:1so
<lrarvi-ng a ranrlon r.epresenta'bive saln;oIe of daily ne'i,'s-
papers fron a unj-verse of one yearf s issues and subj ecting it to
content analysis
. For details of ttr:ls pro cedure and its signif i cancsr
see Ch. IV, ivietiroc-lologyr Sec'i;ion
5t
t'ra::pllr
Prooeclurot.
100.
weekt s opeia'bj,ons or rppeared. to have been cistribuieo. b; nea.ns of the
Reuterl s air nail f ea'cure service. IIo source texis were obta5"nable for
e.ny of these itens and it proved diff icult
'bo
establish their precise
source arul ne&iun of transnission anri irnpossj.ble to c,etornine with arry
ac curacy the word.age of their or5-gi-na1 substa;rtive texbs
,
consequently
they were exclud.ed" frorn nost of tlre calculetions which separate\r lnvolved
either the i{,Z.P,i'. or the non-irl.Z.P.A. d.ata. In the few cases where
they have been includ.ed., this has boen nad.e plein in the text. AIL
calculatiors concernii:g the total content of the newspaper salnp3.e
demandeA that the
532
lag messages should be accounted. for. For this
reason the nunber of items in the N.Z..P.;I. content of the sanpla is
gi-ven in the
"bables
as
9,040,
except for a f ow cases in which the lag
xoossag:es have been includeci to make a total of
9
,572.
The total number
of itens in the non-i{.2.P.A. content is invariably 101040. The iten
frequency of
'she'bota1
content of the sanple is calculated. by add.ing
to6c'ihor
9Ol+0
lT.Z.P.A. f,iessages,
512
lag nesrages and. 1010[0 non-N.Z.P.A.
messages to rmke a grand.
"botal
of 19
r6J2,
The analysis in leble 1 is based. on e sanple population of 2063
itens transmitted. our5-ng the week June 14-19
,
1965,
',,riih
a total worci.age
of
4l-3
,160
wori.s
(
excluc,-irg the do cu.ne nta4r ine s sa6es whose vlo rdage rvag
not tallied.). From th:is it can be ceJ.cuJ.a'bed.
'bhat
a mean
Slrlr
messs,ges
pr d-ay were transn:itted. by the netuork with a nean con'tent of 68'85O
worcls per d.ay. ,;hen thi-s nordage rate is
j-ncreased.
by the add.Ltional
L3.33 por cento of i;he d.ocu.nentary mode not includ.ed., tlre total neul
word.-inr-cay i'a'te rises to an approxirnate estinate of
TBTOOO
word*s,
The subject categories of the content anal;rsis frame
yrere
developed
in unusttel detail becc.use a more revealj,ng
;iici;u.re
of newspaper content
(and
in prticular of its low frequency items)
"*
be gained
jn'bhis
wayr and. because i'l; iras d.ecidecL to analyse
jl
f\rlI
'the
eclitorial content
of the .
1ll.:crs
u::inp: the weekt s rire copy i;i''ch a sim:llar descriptive
pLlrpose. No values ere recorclecL for a f en of
"Cre
sub-categories of
sub
je
ct content
jn
Table 1o These includ.eci sub
je
c'bs }lke ad.vice to
reaclers, gard.enia6 ani. rLomestic notes, travel taLks, information ebout
lreights and. measuros and nail serruices
,
puzzles, conpetitions, ohilclrent s
f ea'bures and. astrological pred.ictions. Such areas of sub
j
ect oontent
only become significant in the analysis of the non-Press Association
101.
portion of the ne':rspaper
t
s content. A rnis celJ.aneous category h-as ad.ded
to the co[ten"r; franre in order to account for tlte s;]xce
6;iven
io newsJaptr
-i;itIes,
content inaices, imnrints and occasional ed.itorial statenents
which could not be classifjed. elseirhere. Tlris is noi; shornr in Table lt
but airpears subsequeni;ly in the sub
j
ect coni;e:rt tables acconpanyi-ng the
treatment of
'bhe
ne!;'spaper systernf s
trnrf
ol:rance.
T;BLE 1
SUirTuCt CON'i'Elm rJ,Lr,lYSIS OIr FB,IjSS
ASgogI.+i'_IgLr.'trssjiffi
(n
=
206;)
.$lFiss!,
',i"AR
.AJtlD 1'FE /Jllt-;D SUi.\ruCES
Mllitary, navaL, a5-r force, civJ-l
d.efense ac'Livities
POL]TICS
Royalty, vice-rega1 a^ffairs
United. l{ations, other international
political agencies
tr'oreign relations, f oreign aid. s chene s
,
cLiplonacy
C omsron"lealth af fairs
Parlia.nentary and^ legislative a.ffajrs
Poliiics, polltical rarties and leacLers
Local
6overrunent
Frblic atLmiristration
HiIIfulN INTEfiFS'i Ai'[D SOCLTI A-:'FAIR.S
Social
problems and services
Social notes, fe.shiorl fle',is, beauty contes'cs,
wed.o.ings, engagements and. ba1ls
Personals, obituaries, hunan interest stories
Lotteries, ganbling
Clubs, associations, recreation
Charitablo, philan-bhro;:ic, hunanitarian,
patri-otic projects andr associations;
oducotionl religion
Ad.vico to readers, philosophy, sententi.ae
,
huroour
Gard.eni-:rg
,
coo k'ing
,
douro s t ic not e s
Travel lr.:ints and. experienoes
Itenr Freq,
Iiordsee
rrt--2..lrrrrlrrrr:lrrtllrrrlrrtttE @s'
'ri
of total
%
of total
7.72
1.15
1.22
.31+
2.y
.fi
g. g8
.92
.L5
.63
.10
3.83
.
oA-
l,O2
1,gg
LL.47
,9I
1.78
.33
4.90
1. 04
\.17
,66
.18
.8lr
.05
2.50
-
.88
1,68
102.
CRIIrIE, DLSi;.STR, -,-ND
PUBTIC $iF],TY
Crime,
prisoirs,
judj-cial procoeC.irtgs
Disasters,
accidents, fires, floods,
emergencies, d.isturbances,
plagues,
illness, d.iseese
Police neffs
,
mysterious deaths
,
r'rissing
people,
property and. aninals; seerch and rescue
operations
;
tre^ffic
llroblems;
public health
ancl safcoty
Noxious weed and. anj-mal control; aninal trerlfare
il0Oi{0ldI0 r-ClItrTtY
Genoral econornic activity; government expenciture
Agriculture
,
f ood prod.uotion and export
Industry, labour services
I
pot;or supplyt
i.ndus'criaI iresign
Transport
,
tourisn; popuJ.ati on, and onploynent
statis'cics
Tovrn plaruring, archlte cture, civic
pro
je
cts
Mail, telephono and other conmunicatlons
services;
rnetric anc' other sJrgtoms; vleights and neasures
SPOR.T
trugby Unj.on Football
Association football and other codos
Crickst
Horse l).acing
Athleties
Other sporbs
scrmlcE
iiea'bher reports, neteorology
L[ed.ical affairs
Spa ce travel
,
astronomy
i
co nlnrter s ci-enoe
Telecomsunications, mass comtrnicetlons
tsio1o6y, exploration, hyd.rology, geology, earth
sciences, zoology, natural lr:lstorYr forestryt
soil conservetion,
a6::ianltural- research
Sornantics,
Iinguistics; psychology
Surveying, archaeology; tuuseutns
Nuclear c{norgy, physics, chernistry
General scienoe
7.61
5,77
8.lB
4.60
,:,
l,2.5-o
3.69
J.88
5.82
.X+
l+.3r
2.O9
2.76
2.gt
l-.16
6.11
L.16
l.2l
L.26
.97
,73
.10
.J4
.10
,80
7.90
2.76
3,1+O
2.64
.40
7 .l+9
1.63
3.98
1'l+4
1,20
4.96
.19
1. 05
L,L7
th23
.61+
,r06
.10
ar:
r05,
C.TIITIURT Al[D EMI]IRTATN}JI}NT
Eistory
Graphic ,-rts
L,iti:rehmo
Scrio,us r:usic, Crnnatic erts
Fib:s
Radio crnd, Tel cvi slon
Pqrp nusiG '.ncl pop ,*tLsts
Srassrpipc enC other hancLs; corpe titions festivds,
nusic contcstsl concort pr.rtic
s
PLastic arts
;
cnbrni dcrlr r-ncl wu Lving; Mao.ri cul ture
Puzzl,e s; childrenf
s feehrres;
nstrolog; conpetiti-ons
[otal
ly
,74
.49
,74
.05
,97
.r0
,w
.2r
.19
"72
.IB
,02
Trfi
.O4
.OJ
r00.00 r00.oo
A
glcnee
at Tlble I shows thr.t Llany itens of subject content flBre
,rt very low frequeney in the
lrcrticular
week und.er study.Culture and.
Enterta.innent, anC
Science
, General
ly
r
I ceirrcd least at tention fron
the egency. This i.s illustrate.d. with tf,ore econotry ia [ab],.e 2 whi-ch
reproduces the iten frequeney end wordage dlstributions of eight of
the najor
$rbject dirrl sions.
r.a3Js.
e
!.E-;1.C,fj!,f,iG;l..DI.S'{RI,B-tITI.0])I-S"
0.q
$-..A.P.-A,,_.IrieSSdG-ESr
gr-
-I,TIM JREQIII]ICT
.;il[p
-{O-Rp-acg
Subje'ct
Eeonon-ic actlvity
Sport
PoLitics
CriuerDi.saster and Public
Safety
Hunan fnterest and
Social affrirs
War and the Amred. SerrrLce s
Science
Cul ture and.
Entertainnent
Freguency
rtfr
26,2? r?.ro
19 , 14
20 .60
16.gg 2r.97
r+,59 r,,58
7,Ur 5.95
T,T2 TT"47
5.68 +.57
2.66 2,76
Itei: lfords
Total r00.. oo IOO.00
104,.
In terrns of i';en frequency, the IT.Z,ir"..'. service concerrred itsel-f
with Econonic activi{', Sport, Politics, Cri-ne, Disaster and. Rrblic Safe!3"
Hurnan Interest ancl- So cial a^ffairs,
lii&r
and the Arned- Services
,
S cience
t
anci Culture and. Ilntertainnent in that orcler. The ranking by wordaSe
r
however, puts Econornic activity ln thjJd.
position and. ::ar ard tbo
ArneC. Services in fjfth. 'Ihis is because nany of the nesss,ges about
trconomic aci;ivity were brief, ild limited'i;o
a cl,ocurnentary treatnent
of the
j-r
sub
je
ct matter whieh excluded then f ron wordage calculations
und.er the ind-e>li-ng pro cedure that rvas ad.opted., Human Interest
and'
Social affairs inoved into sixth position beoause personal itens,
obituari-e s ancl. other announcernent s ab out people in clud.ed. iJI this catego4r
tended to be briefer 'chan
messages about \i/ar and' Arned Services
activitie s ,
It vras no'b surprising to finA that Sporb ranked
haghry both
5n frequency ard. worit^gerZ though its precedonce over PoLitics
in iten
frequency may have oried. something to the fact tlrat tbe overseas
portion
of the a6ency rleyrs-fir&tter contailed
gonerous coverage of the 1965
Sprin6bok ru6b;l tou:: of australia, as well i:s accorrn"bs of Test cricket
rnatches
j-n 'the
Unitecl Kingctom. Nevertheless,
as Table
3
showsr Sport
al.so rates highly
jl
inl-and. agency tra.ffic
(nes sages generated iresicle
Ilew ZeaIanC.). In terms of item frequency it f oimed
7
per cent. of the
inland. mssss,ges, compclred rrith J2 per cent. of the oversea8 a[cl it
ranked. thjJd. and. second. respective\r in each C'istribution.
Measured
by
worclage it formecl 6 per oent. of the i-nl"nA totaI and. L5 per cent. of
the overseasrrankl.ng'chird. and. second. respectively.
L[ore w111 be saiA
later about the pa'utern of the ne\rs anc', the relative
5-mportance
of its
sub
je
of content; f or the mean'bine, the ed.ii;orial rnix of the N
,Z,P,A.
service irrd.icates a substantial concern with po11ticaI antl econonic
af,fairs. By nord.age
,
53
per cent .
of its content
v'Ias clevoted.
to their
coverage. By iten frequencT it anounted. to
50
-oer
cent.
Rugby
and. the Press
1966, 23-30, for a'
attention
paid to
See L, Cleveland.,
I
Folitical I'ootba11:
-he
Role of
in the lI.I. Polibical Culturef, Comnent
7:3,
June
d.is cussion of the signif icance ot.'-TfrF:substantial
sport
jJr
the l{er; Zealand. rnass medla.
105,
g4pJEl,
ruBSW4S-E-prsRlB$J-QI--on.N,4'-FA-gqilIE!tr
DE
^qr$qwA-03&,I[
Freguency
Inland. Overseas
%fo
.
87 5,26
3,58
13.28
Subjoct
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
5.
7.
B,
Tpta1.
3.78
B, 05
17,55
7.22
2'OB
'4
r
1+3.1+7
3.73
6.fu
B"
58
12'.12
3.59
2,43
-iTorcls
InLa.nd.
Y"
1.13
5.4
2.gg
7.26
10t56
5.66
1.58
-14
ffi
Overseag
%
12,76
16''7
2.96
6.51
6.75
14'9t
3.17
2.61
w
56,53
Lulleg!__C_qq$96!
1, Var and. t'lro
Interest and. Social affajrsi
4t
Econonrj.c acti.vit;r
i
6, Sl''ort;
7
t
2,
Ber_qq&p_
lwrs_grlLcEq.
Arue d. Serrrice si 2
,
Polltios;
3
t
Hulosa
Crine, Disaster ancl RrbHo Saf,etyi
5,
Scfunoo
i
Bt Culture and. ErtertaLnnent.
F5.rst\y, who:re ctid. the inte::nati.onal ne$rs oocle from? Soroe Lndl,cation
of the pattern of overseas netvs sources was gainecl by conpil*tg
an ladex
of regLons fron vrhich overseas messages were receivecL
(See
EabLe
4,)
lAElEI
4
RffiIOI{/II, DISTRTHIIIIOI CF' CIIERSEA.S
IIESS.|ISE SOIIRCES
Reglon
United Kingd.on
Austra]:ia
/\nerioa
E\rrope
Far East and. Sotrth East Asla
0ther
TotaL
Itens
"i"
19.1o
12.4O
10. oB
6.16
5.tp
5,57
=
55,55
-
iTord"s
r"
2.%
12',87
12.80
5,66
8.61
3.6
6ffi
106.
A total of
57
per
cent. of the t.gensy uessa6:e s cane fron o'versea.s
source s
(
calcul ate d- by iten fre quency) , llajor reg:ional sources were
the Uluited Kin6d.or:l
r Australi a, Aneri c&p Errroper and the Far East and
South Es.st Asia,
Ihceo
pattcms
of distributloa nay offcr sone
support to tbe orif,icisr of the Consr:ner Institute nenbers who
respondecl to a 1965
"*ooy]
r*rtth the conplaint that the New Zealend.
press had not realised. that politically and. geogrepkice.Ily
New
Zealan-d was situated in
South Ea.st Asi.a, and that e'rc.nts the.-- wcre of
vital intcrast. The press, it was ar6ued.r still roflectod tho old.er
viewpoint that
I
Great Britain we.s closcr to us than Indonesia or
i
Elctnenl , '
Tilha.tever the
justicc
of this conp}aint, thesc figrrrcs do d,enonstrate
the quan.titativu.
i.uportmec of intcrnational ncws in thc servic-. thet
thc associa.tion providc
s.Now Zoaland, daily ncwspapcrs aro suppXicd.
with a
tcncrous
volui:c of ovcrsce.s ncws, whatevcr its shoricorrings of
style
I
rarrfic a.nd. qua,lity
ney l:c
. Exclud.ing all thosc rcports eonc;rned
onfy with f,aetualr d,ocuncntarSr lists and detailsr a nearr
4rr5l4 ryords
per
iloy fro:: ovcrscas
sourcca was availablo to aJI the nc'rspapcrs in
thc systcn; out of that totel thc :':ornin5
illpc
rs wcre supplicd with
a ltr,earr ?21736 words pcr
slr:ift, whilc thc cveni.ngs r;ccivcd a rroan
22r97A. fn_ o.thr:r r*ordsr
cvcry cl;ily nc'q.,spLpcr in Ncvr Zealcgd wftLch tak-c
s
thc full N.Z,P.A. scrvicc had. avoilabl.c to it
45fiT4 words per day
fron sourccs outsidc Ncr,r Zo;.Ia[d, about
,6
pcr
ccnt. of th:Ls i.ro.terial
bci'ng d.cvotod to poritical
,
i-'cononic
and ni ritrry affd,rs.
A picturc thus dr.icrgos of c.n intcnaational daily itcr.,rs ecr\rics
whichp for thc
lrerticular
wcck undcr anaLysLsl and accordin6 to febL.c
3
(i" tu::;rs of rvord.agc), pf.id.
ettcntion to Po]Jtics,
Sport, War ancl thc
Arr:c d Scrvic;s1 Econonic r.ctivity,
Crinc
,
Disr.ctcrl cn'd Public S:fcty,
Seicnca, Hruien fntcrcst encl
Soeial effslrs, end Crrlturc tnd Eatcrtuin-
ncntr in thir.t ord.cr, Tcblc.
5 shows in norc d..;tcil how thc rslativc
proportions
of subjcct contont of this ncws
5-
n"por-t"a fi b;;J.*lt.f.e_',-liircrr r96G
,
|'-Zj.
1
.ii_id,.
t
Our Dsily Pressr
I
16,
ICfl.
werc ali shibutcd by itc:.r flc qucncy ri:ong thc najor rc5:ional nows
soulccs. As rri
ght irr:; crpcctcil, a nuch hi.5hcr
proportion of thc Ecws
fron thc F.r:r Eir.Bt and, South Ecst Asie. doalt wtth Hc.! rnd thc .erucd
S,ireiccs th,^.[ wc- s thc ccsc with cthcr rogions
(huch
of it bcin6
concelt1cd. lri th roports fron the Viatns front). fhere raa ajl so B
steady flow
qf
nessaBs about a ilitarlr crisis in th Doninicalt
Republic which is reflectetl in the relatirely hi6h ploirortioD' of
nelrs about
t{ar
and the Anled Services
in t}re Other Re6ions distribnrtiol.
A fairly hi5h proportiot of the oewe fron each reGion was coaoetned
uith Politicsr ercept in the cnoe of Austlalla wbich scoreal oary
9
per
cent.
(
approri::atety) . Ibr the Far Ea.st anal South East Asia
the score was approrjnately
59
per cent.Tlris was accounted for by
the fact that a politicaL
as vel} as e rdlitaqf cri sis nas iu proeire
ss
in Sai8pa dulein6 the
irarti
cu]. ar ueek being sat:pled. fhe
proportlons of
itens concerned with Culture
rseience,
Spcrtl Eu;ran Interest aid Social
affairs, rrd Econo!:ic octivit1r i.a the 3ar East
and
South Eest AEia
!rcus were t rXr low and ilt' sone instances insicaliflcnt,
t_4Jr-E-5
.rlB{ _rP,lQrrE{cr
p.r,sr.Er.3llrro.u-s p.q
"0-Y83,:I].{s_
Mnsir-{G.EF.,.B.L
.SE{S.c.r".Cp$!-ElUt
3nD- .R:r.c-ro_N-4rJ. .nJ.Flr-ir,B.r8.r.0.ry.'.Tg_
-soll
xEr-.{3l-t&
.P-Ro^?,0.&rJ.q{s.
0J'
.up.qs.Ag.E .J.rP-ur.
Region
70
Strbjeet Europe U. K. Ane rica Asia Other Australla
I.' 5.54 2,53 Il,Oj
48.55
2T,+6
5148
2, 27 .78 24,76 2',1 .4O
58 ,94 27
,r4 9.37
1, 7.T5 B.T7
7
'2O
O"B9 2.86 7.O1
4. 19.84
1.7O
15,96 6.20 27.12 14.84
5. 7.T5 77.26
7.58 7.51 4.28, 30.47
6, 19.04
3A"72 r2.0r 0.gg 14.29 26.94
7 .
I .93 7 .87 I0.5? 0.89 2,86 I.95
B.
7.I7 5.83 5.25
I
3.97
rbb:oo
'"1b'0.'oo
ibo:bo
-
ioo.oo
'
ibo,bo
--rbd"6
Stthj.e_g.t
-Co-di.ng:
-ylar
and. th.e Arried Services, I; Politicsl 2i Bur:an
Intere st
and
So ci a l- af fai rs
r J;
Crir.re
,
Disas ter and
Public Safetyr {;
Econoiric activity,
5, Sport, 5i ScLence, 7; Culhrre, B.
1oB.
Tlrc Australian nevs containod tho highest proportion of itens
concented,. ',rith Econonic octivity.Thls i-s accounted for by the fact that
d,ai\y s.rports of stock exchcn6;e end. other transactions forn o. consid,erabie
port of tho n;rterLal transnitbou fbon thero. The Urritocl lG.ngd.on neT?s
i
contajneril a substantial proportion of
j-ts:s
about Econcnic actirrlty, though
this r?as loss than tlle plrcportion concernecL with Sport(aptrroxinately Jl
lior
ccnt.). The proportion of itms about Sport in the Australlan ne-'?s wqs
a1so rehtively high at approxinately 2J per ntr
A substcntl,,rl proportion of thc Anerican netrs vra*e concerned.
with
Politics
(approxinately 27 por cent.), li'ith Crine, Disaster and RrbLic
Snfcty (approxinately 16 por ccnt,)
arrd rrith
l;{ar
and. the
^'l*led.
Services
(approxinately 1J per cent.). The no-uus fron Europe contairtecl
a fatrly
tt'lgh propo:rtion of itens ebout Polltics
(cpproxinately 28 per cent,)
o.nd
CrinorDJ.saster and Rrblic Scfety
(approxinately 20 per cont,
)
as weJ-1 cs
Sport
( approxinately 19
iicr
cout.
)
.
3.
n{r4Np_,WE
Thc'
gourccs
of
jJlLand'
rlo'ilS &re less ccrrp]ax'rn
t'hg rogLor:'a'l Sgngc
there are only six ncjor ner;s-gatheni.n6 sources
rfiittdn New Zeal,ahd''Thcse
ore tlre four nain ccntros,
',rith
their acconpar5r5ng nslTspeper orgerrlsatLons
consisting of tho netropoliten
trlapors,
and tho provincicl papers of each
is}.ond.. However, nal.rs fron [fo1-Lin;ton tenc]s tc be infbted.
by tho flovr of
nateria]- fron Parllanr-:nt,
trletlticul;,r\y
when it is in session.As this was
ttro case drrring the scnplo week, it was d.e cid.ed. to categorise
aIL nessaSos
origirretinefrontlreN.Z.P.A.correspond.cntsinthePar}lanentar{rPross
GaILorSr und.cr a seinratc cod-e. In Table 6 it can be seen ttrat an alnost
oqual nrrnbor cf ncrrswortlgr storLos originated. in iiuclclend md Tfelllngton'
Tho AuckLand. a6ents sont out ZJJ during the neek ond Tie3-lington orl6inated.
231i but
j-f
tho
gZ
nossagis fron the hess Gallery
aro ad.cled. to fle1.lJagtonls
total, this claarly glves lTel-llngton tJ:e ascenclenoy os tha oountryr s
nojor nerrs generating source in the partlcul,or week und-er sttr(y.
109.
ryIq
5
iI,.J.. &, * ,W-1w9'-!W3-
p;
lJIi
;
Uf
Pjg-c-{'
4Np_trOitg
Reeiot:
r-ff.---
r.ucklandr
iieLli-ngion
l'rorth Island' Provilcial
Press
Gallery
SoutJr Island. Provincial
Christ chur ch
DunecUrt
I*t-"g
li'reouenc.Y
.#tr iJt-
16
26.oo
25.78
l:6,o7
ro.27
8.82
8.37
l+.59
rJord.aee
f
Ya
2t+.85
23.78
L3,39
2r.63
6.49
6.29
3.57
That there is a close relationsl:ip
insid.e New Zealancl
between
population
and news events
j.s
demonstrated.
not only in the relatively
hih lmportance
of ilrellinSton
&nd. rruckland
as population
centres
fron
rvhich there
j-s
a ready output of nerrs of & national
signif
j-cance,
but also
irr the fact that the irlorth Island
provincial
papers sent out nore
messages
tban eltheybhe Christchurch
re;ion
or the South
Island'
provincials.
The Duned:i.n
&rea lilith its five
iler
cen-'c' of the
totrrl
(only
42
messages)
m,y be, as far es tne supPlJ'
of n'r'bionally
siSnificant
nevrs is concernecL,
a dying territozy.
$hen ttre &istribution
of messe8es
by" vord vo}'lne rather
than item
frequenoy is considered.,
the picture rernains
the sanp, except
thst
there
j-s
; substala'oial
rise in the inport;uroe
of tlre Pross
Ga11e4y
QZ
per cant, neasured by word.age conpared
with
1O pr cent'
by iten
frequenc;r).
Tluis is because some of ttre con'bent
of tlre other categories
jlclud.es
pcrt of the 13 per cent.
quantuat of d-ocunen'casy
l::f ornation
of
a mechanLcor
cncl repetitive
nature.
All such nessages
were excluded
front
the wori-age calculetioas, consequently
the '.rord.age
distributj'on
gives
an even nore signJ-ficen'b
account of the relativo
in;ortence
of inland
nesrs sources. As the Press Gallery
filossades
i;ere conoerned-
with hard
nens, elther of Farliarnentary
debates, or of allied
politLoal
and
e conomic rntters, it s s core of 22 per cent .
Sives
L more accurate
indication of its i-nportance ils a' nel,?s source.
110.
L. NE";;S SffJilCI iIFTHORITY
r-4!lg-tg3!'-_
It is inportant to analyse
'i;he
f lovl of ne,':s f :rcil regions,
countries
r-n6. even f roi:i
prticurlar geogr,e.ohic i;r.reas
jf
for no oi;her reason
than to
gain sone vj.ei; of ho; an &6ency service
attenpts
to make avai'hble
to
Its clic,nts
as conl:rehensive
ts possible cl report
on tho totel environ$ent
'
and. not
just
a fel'r fi;voured
p*rts of it. Tet such an analysis
tel1s
us
ve,ry l-ittle.rbout the actuel sources of nelfs items.
\Me rnay tliscoveil
'uhat the agoncy.bransraj-tted
a certain
volu.ne of inforr:ra'bion
about
Politics or Cultu1,e f rom
particulor countrie s o:" regions,
but this tells
us nothin; about the reliabilit;r,
cluality lurd source
c:'ecLibility
of thr"is
irrf orm-r,ti-on. To e. large extent
this riill rest on the
general reputatioir
of tbe agerlcj,' itself for o,ccuracy, promptness and. fsii'rle$so
:iei:Crors may
hi.ve to tdca oit
-b1,rst
nuch of vhat it
liuts
for-,,'a.rd..
Tho doctr-uentary
information rhich it transmits, and much of its factual reportage
about
public :-rffcirsr flcJ/ rerich e high le'leI of tlccuracy
bocauso
tho agoncy
strives to be ec impartial as
1:ossible
in lts trea',;ment of 'che
nerrs
r
even
though tlre impartie]:i'q' and. ob
jectivity of the
journalist may be sonething
of a convonient fi.ctio:r. Horvever, to assist i'cse}fl in these ai-nst
the N.Z.P.A. invokes the tlrle' lhj-ch is also general throughout
most of
the Netr- Zealand. d.aiIy press : controvorsial
statenents nust be accreditecl
to an authori-'bative nelts source.
Thcr result of'this
is that reai'ers
aret
i-n
'bheory,
supi:Ii-ed uith irnpartiall;, conpiled reports
about nel.'s events
and people
r
s coroments
on then, r;the,r
than frrith the unsubstanti'eted
o;rinions of reporters thenselves.
The cl.iffj-culties
of pursuing such
c"
policy anc the i-naoeque'ce :ssun1:'cions on i;hich i'b is besed, have be'en
d.iscussed elsei,'hcro
i.tx this study,
here it nnrst be observed
thct
jn
prec-uice these rules appeg to heve varieo
app15-c;tion.
Sone
overseas
,,.2.p.ii. msrterial conteins the tiroughts
anC specullrtions
of ind'ividrual
journalists
and. is i;ritten in c highly interpretativs
style.
This
requires that sourcc cttributions should,.
be m:c,e clear
if readers
are to
be able to assess the. relrrtive nerits of rrgsso.,Qsr
\;,2.P'i..-Reui;er
texts
6enora113,
con'bain this
jlformation,
but often it is orritted'
dur5ng; the sub-ed.:i'i;oria1 process itt thc ind:vioual
ne,;speper
officc'
If rsad.ers irc.nt some
j.ndication
of the souroe of an overseas neTrs itent
oft6 the rnost they cirrr hope for is that the neiispa,per
rrilI reprocluce
tlre
lIL.
source-line
li.Z.P.J:,.- Reuterr
ox soIIF v3,risnt
of it. Frequent$
even
ttris is not d.otu.5
(
a) fnternretative rleilorts
In
greory,
acknovleclgnents
as to the sourco
suthority
for eIL op5'rrions
and controversia-l steternents should
be con'r,aitted
in ttre ts*t of the StorXr
t
but it is o. cotu.cronplace
of the reporterts
task ttr;rt he oannot
always
find. a suitable source for what he wants to sssr If Lre Ls not offtolally
permittecl by luis egency to state what he knows on his own authoritye
or
j5'
tt is not expedient for hln to do so f or f eor of sonctions,
then he'
ca.n fall back on some of tkre tine-honoured.
jargon of the trade.
llnform-
ecl
quartersl
,
t
cuthoritative
governnent c5-rolesr
,
f
rellable
local
sourcesr
,
tnilitary
officialst
,
and other circw;rlocutlons
may bo invokad
to d.:isgulso whe,t is in effect an interpretative
report
wrltten by an
agency corre s.ooncler.*b . But in such oases
,
v,tr;r should the f iction of
anonynity be p6rsevered vrith at all?o \'fhy should
not facts be statecl
gs
facts,
and. opinions or speculations
&s such on the authority
of the
cogespond.ent or of tlre ogenoy itself
,
with the reader
Ift to exereise
his intelligence and
judgrent
on the
quality s,nrl veracity of the report
as best he might?
Arrother devlce is to quote other a6anc0r reports
r's the souroe
authority for the version that is being
trongfii-bted..
The Vietnan
r'ar
reports, constructed.
frorn various sourcc
roateriitls ix the Sydney office
of the 1lustralicg /rssociated Press
(whe,re tho N.Z.P..i'. overseas servi-oe
Ihe--Igry-jg1q}}
tto" the only
Paper
in the sanple
whioh consiston'b\r
anrl ;c"ur"6TtTJproarcecl
agency source
fuicjcations.
It sJso
attempted
-bo
indicate flre time and oate of roceipt
of
.
its overseag
messa6es, Sone other
PaPers
at least edrdt the oxistenoe
d this
problon by carryi.ng
ir, rianaing notice in boSJ' tyPe on the cable
Pege
to the effcct thet unloss otherwise stated.,
a].l cables
are supplied'
by N .Z.P1-.+.euter. Hoi',,ever, th"
Seneral
prectico of onittlng
dato-
lines on overseos ne1?s stories causos oonfusion
obout the tlelng of
eventsr
perticularly in the United States
vhich is throo-guarters
of
a aay totrind- Now Zealand. time, and in E\ropo
irhich is half a Aay
belr:i.nd..
Douglass Cator,
LheJourth-lg3ggL-g{- -F-oXPr?ng=nt,
Bosto n L959, suggests
th&,t it enables
given a story
so tho'l;
I
high govornroent circles, ilf orm ed circles
ond. the like becone
pert
of ttto
-technique
of the institutionalised.
leakr .
'112.
ts oonpl-Lsd.) ver loaded. Etth referenoes af thls kl$d, for r,"hat tihey
aae wortlr" ${nllnr$r, the reports fbon tbe Unitsd. Kl.rrgdon, ancl fbon tbo
N.Z.P.Ao corresponCents stationed thsre, rrsro ga.rnl.ebed. rrttb souroe
luferences to the BE{ti-sh press. Ttrls nakos for o}rnslloss aad. noy arJrJ.
J:lttle source areclib{lLtf to ttre Lten, For exanplo, tJre overmea Epgsagog
during tlre vreek of ths sanple nere roLL tnJeoted. rrith vartoue l,ond.on
noustr)apergf vLows on Conxoonwealth a,ffairs, scnrstines to ttre poLnt of
abu&tty. The assessnents of the Nov Zealand oonresBond,qrts on tlro spot,
and aclrrorl.ed6ed. as
such, nfght havo boen noro neantngful to l{ew Zealaud
read.ors
r
and perbops sould have d.one sonetlrlng to corrnter
tJre arlttoJsn
tlrat the servle d.oes not zufficiently select and. iate4rret evonts tihrough
the eyes of Nsw Zealand. obsenrers.
(
u
) .J*h-* U-st--qtgyHgse
The Connonwealth conference reportage
jn
tbe soropJ.e week under stu$r
reaotred. the hetgbt of ttre r{.&lctrIcus nhen it
,rolemly statoil at tbe end
of the week that
I
lrtforned' sources
I
ttrarght [1r Ho]yoalce
I
one of t'lre
strmgerst supportersr of c Brttd.sh pl.on for
a Vietnaoese
peas nlsgion.
Th[g daring assertlon
qra.s
oabled of,ter nar5r hundred.s of words on
trnerd.ous
d"qrs to the effect that llo\yooJco had been vJ.gorousJy advocatlng a poJJ-oy
of negotlation with ttre Vietoong and. was
an ardsnt supporter
of tbe
leect
nlssLur. plan wh,Loh was then aurent, lho propgr uso of byllnes mlht
reduoe the ancunt of such verbl.ago beoauso it could. ttren be dLrect{y
attr{butabLe to its scuroo, t}ro wrlter hlnself, It has to be adnLtteclr of
ooutrsop tJrat pac.t of the shortconings of ttre press irr thls tespect ey be
thre to ttre troatnent rilrtoh indJ.vtdrpl newspapeftr glve nessages rettar tban
to tho defects of ttre N.Z,p.tr
ger:lce.
7
r*cj.al reports flon & nrm fl,ovrn
to egland to oover Isst ard,cket natohes were repro&rced ln most neTrslnperg
of the sa,npJe und.er ttre orilinoany N.Z.P.Ar sourco acoreclltatlon ancl not unrlor
the mdtert s
\rl;fure
whlch pef lxecl ave5r one of hLs ness&gosr As fa,n as
rnost orclJnarXr
rsErdors rlere oonoerned. these
7
ILL. Verrlre nanatng editor d tho N.Z.P.A. ln an irrterrlsw on Jtur
1
1969
steted tfiat
I
tlre N,Z.P.A. cloeg ln faot onoourage ltg overseag
staff to use
\rJJles.
lhey put ttreLr nalnes to nost naJc stot'Les
and.
tlrese naues are cl.Lstrlbutecl. Use of the byl5.ne ls, of oourseroptl.onel
to each nowspaper. Sone droourage tJre uss of bylLnes by thatr stafP;
others do not. Ttey epply sirn{la3 polJ.cies to the use of byllaes by
N.&.R"e,. staflf correspond.ents.
I
111 .
stories were written by somebody in an anonymous capacity
in the
agency network.But they were hiShly interpretative
accounts
of
matters about which there u/as very wide
public interest.
Knowledge
as
to who wrote them could be significant
to a keen reader because
it
could
greatly affect his reception of their comments
and of their
interpretations of play. Similarly,
a political commentary
from the
N.Z.P.A. correspondent in Washington
was reprodu:ed
in one newspaper
without any indicatj-on whatever of source
or authoribip.Readers
should
be inf orrned as to the authorship of material of this kind, and a
good newspaper would see that they were,
particularly if the
press
I
in general, was under criticism for not supplying
more of this kind
of reportage.
That the press owes a duty to its readers to
give relevant
source
information can be argued very strongly
in the case of international
politics. For instance, an interpretqtive
account
of De Gaullers
1g6j visit to Bonn ending in
rconfusion
and discordr
quoted a number
of dummy sources
(e.g.,
rpolitical
observersr,
rdiplomatic
sourcesf )
and mentioned The New York Tim-es correspondent
and the French Prime
Minister.Neverthelessl
the resulting
story was vtrry much the opinion
and management of ideas of one man, the anonymou6 agency hand who
formulerted the text.It would have been to the advantage
of the
general
reader to have been informed more
precisely about the authorship
of
this m6s&go In The Dopinionf one of the few papers which happened
to reproduce this text, the only source authority
given was the
N.Z,p.A. More precise information
about authorship
would help an
observant read.er to build up a pic ture
of the relative
merite and
reliability of different news channels
in specific
areas on certain
topics. The conglomerate
approach, convenient though it may be for
the bulk processing of news-matter,
deprives him of this chance'
I,lore carefur sub-editing of new6 of this kind would also benefit
the
discriminating reader and might help
prevent the downgrading
of
news services by comparison
with radio and television,
a matter of
increasing importance
to the New Zealand
press.
In fact, under the
pressure of circumstance,
new6
agencies
are
obtiged to accept a good deal of interpretative
reporting
without
any attempt being made to disguise
it
'?'s
anything else
'
Thus
t
the
account of a boilermakerst dispute in Auckland
transmitted
by the
N. Z.P.A. net-
vtcTonfA uNrvEf,ltw
c;
WELLIHGTON UIIIr.
II4.
work d.uring the sample week was unasharoedly
interpretative
because
thi s was the only way the af f air eould be repo'rted.
meaningfirlly.
Sports
reportage is heavily subjective
and the question uight well
be
asked: if it is good enough to
irernit
experieneed
journalists
wtde
liberty to write interpretatively
and oritieall-y about sportr
whI
should they no t be granted eo;ua1 licenee on subjects
like
poJ-.lticsr
eeonorni,cs, art and e.ny other aspect of publie affairs that happens to
be
ne'wsworthy and about whi eh they are adequately
infcrne d' ?
llhile coding the content of the N.Z.P.A. sarnple
an attempt was
r,rad.e to classify the mod.es in which stories
had been rrritten.
I
Straightt
D1ys re:rorts attributed" to authoritative sourees
were classifiecl
in the
objective mode. All Iists and, prcgrannes trcre
elassified.
es d.oeumen';e.ry
i.tems. AII
messages r+hich co:rtained. statenents
not elearly
attributedt
or attributeble by clear inference, to an authoritative
source were
ca^refrlly eramined.
and if it appeared that the rvriter or writers
were
seelcing to prc
sent their oun opini-ons and explanatorly
commentsr they were
classified as interpretative reforts. It t{a.s found thrt 15
per cent. of
aII the 1ne ssage s
j.n
the sanple were wri t ten in the i-nterpretetive
mod'e
t
corrl)e.red with 72
per eent- in the objective fashion, and 11
ller
cent.
in the d,ocumentary, Table 7 shows the distribution
of interpretative
reports anong the vario'us subjeet
cate'gorie s.
The subject &ivisions o.f Sport and Politics
contained the
greates L
nunber of interpretative reports (*rrp"oxlmate\y 6 per cent. and'
7
per
eentr rspectively). They also sontained a high pro?ortion of the
iteos in ee.ch subJect di\ision
(
ap;rrori mate$
32
per cent.
and 18
per
cent. respectively)
r
although in proportionate terms it uas apparent
that War
and the Armed Se
rrri ces also scored
irighly
(
'..rittt
approrinately
2I per cent.
)
along with Cu1ture and Entertairrment
(
approrinately
17
per cent.
).
Subject
5,
2o
5.
I.
4.
7*
7"
8.
fotal
I teu.
ft
ot 2067
6.II
7 -oo
r
"55
r.5r
r.o7
.57
.34
-.
-?a+
14.45
II5.
DI.SI'RI.BrIl.ION.
Oir Ii'trTdRPRETA.TI.Vi.
RI-P0RTS
.I}{. .{...4.1.Ar.
.C!},{-TSJ(!
No"
r26
62
1z
3I
22
II
7
__J
4qs-
snb.i.e.gt .cp.di.ng:1,trar
B.nd. the Anrad" sel'll-icesr
I; Poli'biesr
2; Euran
Interest
encl. Socia-'l-
affairs
, 3;
Criue ylisa.ster
and' Public SafeW'4;
Econonic
e-ctlvity
,
5i Sporb',
6; Science
,
7, Cultr.rre
a.nd. Entrrta'innent,
g,
5,
j)l.E:lq GiNcRAI-,Itlg sP-mc!$
A sir,rilar
a'i;terept Tras Hade to answer
the ques'bion: who
nal<e s the
ne.ws? An ind.ex of ne-rs
generating sources
trentioned
authoritatively,
cr
authoritative.ly
iiiplicit, in nessage texts sr's
conpiJ-ed' by inspecting
each iteg
ancl ascertaiuing what
pet".cons or info:mration so'uxcss
were
actgally
quoted i-n the text Gr could be credlted as its originator.
Clearlyr &ccordi-ng to Table 8, wire services
and.
nei{sl}"pers
thenselves carried the authority
for statenents
and facts contained
ill
a conside:rable volure of news.luiuch of tlr:is was of
a docunentalf
aDd
factual nature
r
axd concerned
hundnrnr uilcolltroversieJ
na'hters
for
whj-:h tho agencyrs o1r1l authority would
be adequate and not li-kely to
be que
stioned," J.
total- of f 6.?
per cent. of the 2063 nessages
passed
dpring the weelc d.epend.ed. on the c.gencyf s authoriW
in tlr:is wa$o In
7
per cent, o f the se ri@ sS&go Sp
ho''rrcver, an
attenpt was nade to quoto
o thcr ncws ageneie s Ds the ncl.is gencrating sourcc
I
ard. sirullarlyt
i-n
anothcr 4
per ccnt, of tben, various
nei^rspo.pcrs were cited' as the
sourcc of the storXr. Phese rc,rortg were
inveriably
frofl overscas
and no stl.y
trbe
quenc'Y
/i'
of Total Itens
Per
Subject
DiYision
7r.fr
I7.BI
5.97
2T,T9
7.37
7.II
5.98
T2.77
116.
quoted. either
the Lo::c"on newspapers
or other news agenci'es
like unitecr
press
rnter.natlonal,
-the
Associetod
pross
cf Anerrica,'ithe
Australian
Associated
Pre16
/
Reu'cer
se-rvice..
and
(with greatly d'j-rninishd
frequency)
the Tass, China
i"ierrs,
Vietnam Pres s, I[yo{''e
News
'
r1'gence
Fra'ce
Presse, Ghana
I'iews. Antara News, YUgoslavia
lrTe',rs,
conrluniSt
l'iberati-on
Press
and. North Vietnam Nel,'s Agencies"
''r^nTYr
a
r--lP--.!l--Y
F-Xi0.tif'.'*1ctr
DfgTRI3ilTJ-CDf
,OF
i iJO:'-
I''!qlS
.r.:1iL_v:rr
ftezutinffipg-44.+_l
-
r s
gs
*@.j#r
Srrncs-Qg!s;!o$
.#--r----q-
G.overnnent
sour ces
E conosllc
or5;nis.rti
ons
Sportin6
a::d. recreational
sourcos
'ihe
I{.A.Frr-r
r
o'uher crible servj'ces
Gf I1F";ISTDAP9fS
Police
r
iuclicii:,J.
'bribun""ls
Cul'cur;-l
,
edlucational-:
3s so ciational
ci-rclos
Anon;'nous sources concealod
by formulae
Priva-te citizens
i'ieclical
and. scit,ntif
ic circlo s
Journalists
using bYlines
Political
pa::-i;5-e s
To'ba1
Iten
_t-egu.u.t-".Y-
7r
21.'4
l-7.5
17.o
T6.7
n ,-t
t) t1
5.1+
3.9
3.8
2.9
1,9
,..3
_
100. o
From the ebovr
-bable
i'c can be seen 'd:e'b
governrnent is the
largest single nevs
generatiry; source of isportance'
In the
jnland
part of the New Zealand F?ess Associ;tion
system
the signif
icance
of
Governnent
sources
in supplying
the Press Ga11ery
with a constant
strean
of me,.terial
has already
been emphasisetl'
Table 9
shows
hoW
the total of 21.[ per cent.
of the nevJs i'bei:s
attributed
to Governoent
sourceg
was made uP.
lU,
TABLE 9
rc
G'O'Vi:iItiSi'EI{T I,IE,iS GINEI-I,JING' :O-u :lC-4S-
-.@'!-*-ta!t-a-:--
1}:e Prine liiniste:-', Cabinet }iinisterst
;-lov
ertrmeni; Ie acl.er
g
The arnecl services
Government d-e'plrtrnents
Other adninis'cra'bive cugencies
Royali;y,the fuiploneitic corpst
vice-regal sources
Local goverruoen t
Unite I liations
,
o-i;hez' international
agencie s
Parlianentary opFosition sources
Government
priv,:te nembers of
Parlianent
ParLiamentarry off ic ials
rl_eg
agq.rus]t-.J
/o
9,79
2.66
2,1r3
L.
Jl
1,28
I,26
r.26
.68
.1Lr
.fu
Total
21.35
The imi,oybance of
Sovet
runen'; Iead.ers as ;-IFWS
gei:erating sources
encerges
vi1h par-bic,rIar clarity.
They ori;ina'bed.
approxinrtely
10 per
cent. of the weekt s nelis aSencj/ reports
'
e'rcl' nearly helf the amount
f lowing fron general government sourcss r
}.luch of
'Lhis
neterial consistec''
of reports of Parliamentary d.ebates ln wh:ich, not Lrnexpectecllyr
Cabinet
lrtinisters were
i::torriiJrorit.
But there
-,.'ere
a number of statements
about
loca1 body problens from governroent cr.ei:ari;Hen'i;s
which vere issued und-er
l{inisterial author.ity, Thus
'i;lre
}iinis tc'r of ;, orks releasecl'
three
statements
*t, the openi-ng of e $lerv Zeelancl- Corrnties
lrssoci&tion
conferencet
the
jriinis-ber
cf Health gave his blessing to r,. delarbrnental
eye sa^fety
canpaign,
anci'che l,.inister of fransport posed for
-:ress
photographers
in front of a new raihray bus' The catego4r
of Par]:iementarSr
officials
inclu;.es ttre Ombud.snan, the Aud.itor-Genera1,
and. ihe Speaker
of the
House of Representat:i-ves.
There nore
,
in
'blie
sanple,
a number of
rnessages
about the rrud.itor-General
t
s :nnu;uL repor-b,
aml also about;
plans to build' a new t;ing on Parliament
build.i::gs.
These accor:nted
for
nost of, the ltens in this category.
The lou p,orcentage of messa8es
rr8.
elrsnating fron Opilo.sition
and private ncnbcr sources
cannot bc
explai.nc d- here . Po ssiblc
rc;sons cou1d. bc at tri-butcd to a le.clc of
ncr,rs-gencrating opportr:rrities in conparison irith those enioyed by
gpvcrru,rcnt lcad.crsr orr orr the othcr hand, it eould bc due to e
pre-occupation nith its scrvicc f\rnction at the cxpcnsc of othcr
Tesponsi.bilitic s on ths pr'.rt o f thc cntirc trcwspa1*t r systcm.
It could
also bc e.
pecu$-artty of this particuxar sanplo;
whaterrer the re&ss11t
tho subject call s for further co ntent analysi s
e.nd de tailed i.nve stig-
ation. fhe fact
'bha.t
Pol:itica.l partie s ranlcecl i.n one of the lovrest
cate gorie
s
I
anr1. th at Oppo sition
nenbers in Parlia.urent scored
on\y
approrin,ately I
per cent. ia the analysi s d.oe s not ne cessari\y
nean
that the New Zeelaird
d.aily press di scri-ilinate s
against such
ne ws
sorrrcsr It rright be nearer the truth to enphesise agai-n that ceutral
governnent has s.n enornous
jlporta.nce
as a nel'is
generating sounce and
that the presgr Es an instrui-rent for the transliission
of usefir1
info,rr:a.tion about d.ecision-lraking and. the
processes of
goverllrlentp is
obliged to accept the f;.ct that a. great de aI of its nelts nust coEre f ror:
authoritatirre
goverrxrent o fficials ancl circl*".8 Opilosition
speeche s in
Parli agent,
and Oppo sif,ion stp;benent s about aspects
of public buslne ss
n?.y have inportarce in the New ZeeJand. sygten of
goverrment oa\t as
append.i-ces to liinisterial and other pronouncenents, [hey
are like1y to
be treated. by the nie.r,rs r.,e dia oa their nerits as ncws according
to thei:
tine line ss and rclevaJtce .
Other najor ner^rs
gvaera.ting solr.rces
are those connectcd_ r,,rith
econonic activity, sport and. recra.tion, ald lri-th the N-Z.P.A. itselfe
as'.qell as nervspapcrs and othcr cabl,e st:rrrj-ces. The
police and the larr
cor:rts nre1.e a further substantial sourcc
for nuch sensational\r-
incl
j-ne.d
natcrial
,
and are, of course
7
a blre.ad- and-buttcr
feature of
ar$r wire agencyl s contcnt.
f t nay aI so bc notc d, thet in ne a-rly
4
pcr cc nt . of the to tal
nr.urbcr of itcns, their writers hed to rcly on thc eliches and fo:rrulae
of anouyriity, eithcr to givr
sonr shadow of substarr.cc
to their orrt}
d:Lsgu:l scd. as sc ssnent s, o r pcrhe.ps tcr concc al a
gcnrri-nc ncws source
bchi:ed a screen of vagucnsss. [hc nunbcr of itc ssages which
owcd thoir
I Thus
,
Einar 0 stgaa.rd,
I
Fac tor s
Ih;
Journa.l o f Pc a.ce Rc:sc,arqlt r
f nfluencinG t.Lc Flort of Ncwsr
r
IrIr 1965,3T65.
rrg.
a.uthority to corrc spondcnts using bylinc s' wa.s srall
(
approri-nat.:1y
2 pcr ccnt.) end,Jvcn this ;rity harrc b;t:tr inflatcd. by thc. prosencc of
tho sp,Jcial N./..P. A.
corrcspoud.cnt in thc Unitcd. Kingdor.r to rcport
Tc st cri-eka t, anc'L t no thcr onc in Australia to covcr thc Springbok
to.rr, Drrring thc se';itplc weck 'chc N,Z,P.A.
thus h;d two cxtra ircn in
thc flsld. in eddltion'bo thosc alrc:.63r stafioncd. ix thc Unitcd
Icn.gdon
and- in Australia. Perhaps
a greater rcadincss on thc part of
thc Nc'w Zcalancl
prass to d;.;ploy ruso,Lrrccs to,
g:ivc incrcascd covorr.Ee
to iliilor.tant ccononic rrrrd. political ectiritic s
l.s distl-nct fron sport
r^lould overcelr.e soile of the cri ticisn thai it f ails to i:eet its
respo.nsnbilities adequ,etely
j-n
the interua.tioneL field.
General cuItural, educ:.tionn1 r:.nd r,Fiso cia.ti.onel circle s r:nlced
next
j:r
i.n'portc.nce cs nelrs
6pnerr.tors,
fo1J"or,,rec1. bI Anonynous so'urce s
concei-Le d. by fornulae, Prirrate ciiizens, i{eliicr.} :nd seieniifi:
cirele s nild then by Po
liti c l'J partie s
"
Other f entures, such
r.s the
i.cce ssibi Ii ty o f ne ws sour ce s r::d the techni,que s o f di spl ay and
pre
sent;tion in the ner'ispape r,s rd:tlI be discussecl, l;.ter. Here it is
apparent thr:.t the pattern of ner.rs handled. by the N.Z.P.A. clusters
to ?. large exte'nt around the centres of
i)o,werr
;rnd the se rr.d.ic,te
outward.s fro;r centrr.l governnent r.nd its econonic rnd conrfercio-t
counterparts in thu. general
ficld of busine ss, to the latr eourts
and the peJ-ice, nnd then to a vnriety of other institutions uttich
have received- reco6;nition by the nelrs s.genoy e.nd its representr,'bives
on the vrrious nr:rsp rp ers of the network t.s reliable 3nd suf ficientiy
llthorit ative nelrs' gene reting sour ce s
'
The' i'i'tpo'r tr:oce o f
gove rnne'nt
as a ner.rs genernting
souroe, r-..long rrith tHe volute of econortic illd.
politiccJ nells-nr.tter in the so::rple
(+l per cc.nt. of the tot":]
ntu:ber of iteus by subjcct content) indicates borv c.ctlve the N.Z.P.A"
is in carrXring out its servicc firnctiong.
.qIIJFJEII lil_
.$E
-PFit-r0-RI{AI'TCx,0.q
.r}F- }LE,IS-IPJ& .qr-$s!
r,
$Y.sgl4'l_
"crlQ$T'llrr
s_T1_crs-
How dicl the newspapers hind,le the N.Z. P. A. storics
with l'rh:ich
they wsre supplied? Whcrt subject content
priorities clid the;r
d.c;ronstre'be in publishing this iratcrinl? [o enswer tbesc questionsl
t-..
senple of d.eily no$spapcrs teking thc wirc scrvice
durj:'!-g tha weck
covcr;d. by
'bhc
N, I.P,A. u,:.te riel ws.s collectc'd.
and srbJected
to contont
analysis, Thc ncvrspf.pcr snnplc we.s rerstricted to e wccld s isguos of
I5 ncwsp..porsrprrtly bcceusc physic.:J rusources
did not pc:ru:it sny
larger nranbcr to be proccssodp but,:,lso bccs.us'3 ti:is nw.rbc'r enabled
e convonicnt rcprcscntction of tho daily nrrr',rspr.per sysfun
to bc
achieverl.. Thc sr:rpl; includcd ths cigh'b iretropolitan dni]ticsr but a
sclection of the r,:ncinin6 pi.pr.Is ws.s,:rri:rgccl
so thet it consi,'sted
of
gi
ght proulnciels
rrith ci.rcul:'.tions of fO
1000
or ovcr-- f our of
thcn in thc North IsJ-and, four
j-n
the South f sl:nd. fhis stratification
cxcludcd a.Il ninor uscrs o f thc, scrvi ca fron consid.eration, a:rd. at thc
sanc tfurc. it ord.ercd. thc ci6ht
i:rovinciaLs
into a.
p,attcrn of
gcographic
lo,eation as well as o,f si$rificant
circulation. A tinc dfurcngton was
also irai:irtaincd. in thc sanpJ-c by scloeting
four provincial noraings
and. four provincial cvcnings in co.nccrt i.rith th; fonr i,lo,rnings and
four crrcnin5's of thc nctropolitens,Thc
analysi s that follot'rs treats
thssc I5
rlapers
as a. d-aily nol'rspapcr systcrl.
(
")
Structurs.l Si:r:Llari'by
0n clr.ta-processiag thc :,iatc::i aI it iras found- that thc storics
rcpro,d.uccd bythc ncirspapor slrstcu
corrcsponded
closcly in thcir
proportions of subjcct contcnt to thc structmrc
of thc original funput
natcrials ia thc wire scrvicc
contcnt. Iablc f shows
thc iten flecqrcney
pcrecnts"gJs, b]r subjcct
contcnt, of alt N.Z.P.A. Llcssa8cs usod by thc'
nclrspapct's of thc systcn.
-J27^r
TA.,BLE 1
SI]B.]]CT COIMEM
(lr=9o[o)
se.f ety; traff ic problems
I
pub 1ic health lnd saf c'ty
Noxious weed. and aninal contr"ol; an5-mal welfare
$s!ir"3.
.
;;iR ATTID T]]D /TIJiii.JD SI{IVICES
l'{ilitazy
,
nava1, air f orce
,
civil d.ef en ce ac'i;ivitie s
POI,ITICS
lLoya1ty, vj-ce-regal
gff
airs
United. Nations, other internatlonal political agencies
Foreign relations, foreign aid schemes, d.iplonacy
Cornnconnealth a.ffairs
Parlia"rcntary and- le3islative af,fairs
Politics
,
politic aI
_c
artie s and le ad.ers
Local government
Rrblic ad$inistrati-on
ll[nriA]T I]TTIltlE,S:i' .lND iiOtli,I.. AFFTLTRS
Social problens and- services
Soclal notes, fasbion nens, beauQ,' contes'';i, wed-di.ngs,
engagenen'bs and. baILs
Personals, obi'r;uaries, hunan i.rn'terest s'bori.es
Lot'r;erie sy garobling
Clubs, assocla'i;ions, i.ecreation
Chari'cab1e, philantluopic, humanitarian,
ira'I,;ri-oti.
c
pro
j
ects anir as so ciations
;
educati.on; religion
Ad.vice
'co road.ers
,
philosophy, sententiae
,
hurnor
Gartlening, cooking
,
c':olneSt.tc notes
lr";vel lr:jnts ani oxperien ces
CRIlvlE, DISr,jfIf /i'lD I,U$,IC SAI.IF..TY
Crime, prisons, cou::t.. of
justice, jucl-J-cial proceed,ings 8.53
Dlsasters, acc5.r3-en'cs, flres, flood.s, emergencies,
&isturbances,
.olagues,
il1ness, cl.isease 7,OI
Pollce netils, nys-berious deiaths; rnissing peol-rle property
and. an5-mals; search and. resoue operations; r'oad. ani.
':eter
Iten Frecuenct/
__--+@-.
7"
5, oB
1.
JB
1, oJ
.n
1.92
.71
6.6L
.97
.f4
.63
.05
3.66
.18
1.19
,:,,
l,--2L
722
ilc01i01irc LcTnn'rY
General economic
ac'i;ivity;
governfiIent ex*nenC'ifure
14'20
Agriorlture, f ood, produ"tion and export
3'63
Indus try, Iaboqr, porrer supp13,, in4.istrial
desi6gr J.BO
Transport, tourisn;
popul*lion and- e,nployr.rei:'r;
siatis
ti- os 5.38
Town plarur5ng, architecture,
civi c p"oi"t'tt"
r--!
^
,.l+6
Mail
r*
t"l*phirie
arrd other cornnr-rnicaii
ons service s
;
rcetric
arrd. other sy stems; we5ghts and nn&sures
SPCRT
Rugby Union I'ootbal.l
Association football
and- o'bher codes
Cricket
Horse racing
r'ithletics
Other sports
SCIn\CE
i.'eather ancr neteorologY
I'iedical and. healtfi
Spa ce travel; astronorql'; computer
s cienee
Tele communicati
ons; mass oommunj-catlons
tsiology, e:qlloration,
t{yd.rology,
geolo6y and earth
sciences; zooloryr ruutr-rraL
history, fores'r:IXr,
soiJ
conservation,
agricultr:ral research
Senantics, lin6uisticsl
psycholoEy
Suweying, archaeoloaJ'';
museu$s
Nucle ar energy;
physios
;
ctrenlstry
Goneral science
CUUj'IAI
AI\TD Uit.jjlt:li I'ii{EI$I
His tory
Graphic arts
Literature
Serious rnusio
,
d.ramat ic arts
Filos
Rad,io and Tel-evision
Pop music and poP artists
Brlss, pipe rnC ottrer band,s; competitions
festivalst
susical contests
,
concert
Partie
s
Plastic arts; embroiiiery
and. treavin6l
l"laori culture
Rrzzles, conpeti'bions;
astrology; ohildrenr
s i'eatures
I.ilSCtrIJ"qNEUlS
Content
jldi-ces
r
nei?spaper
titles,
lnpri-nts
Ed.itorial remarics
,
comnintarie
s
,
replie
s to corresponrlonts
t+J+6
1,51
2J*
l+.BL
r.59
l+.EO
l.2A
].,60
1.19
1r06
.93
.05
.20
.18
irt
,36
.47
.23
.01+
.97
.17
.05
-
'
G-{|@
1 00.00
J23 _
UE,E- ?
'OiiPi=-
-IiO{
OF N-.-ZJF-'A'-.$LE![
..{tti
;-;'"'--'iiF_uEF&:m'iq
Fiubie ct
Gt-*E-tr
1.
2.
3.
h.
5.
I
l,.
7.
B,
h. J.H.-fue=.qu,ePg;r-
liZP,: Input News;ra;rers
crii
',lordrs
Le.r #t' I
i\TZPl'; Input NowspaPers
11.1+7 9.Oz
23.97
16 .92
g.g5
l:2.7O
u.Io
2O.O9
J.l2
tt'
(.)(.)
J-O r
Oo
7.5r
u.59
26.22
l9'-1+
5.58
2,66
6
'o[i
13.L3
0. oo
l:6.75
27 .l+7
rg,6l+
6.4-r
2,52
5.95
]-3.r:8
20,6a
l+.57
2.76
20, 83
7,49
3.55
2, Politics
t
Disaster
antl
7
,
S cience;
iribj-..p-!-.C.o-c...iEg:
1,
,iar anrl
-bbe
'-r"med'
Services;
ff*ri.rtfr''fttlff*
st- ina
S o cial
a'if airs
t
\,
Crime
'
Hlblic
Sdety;
5,
Econonic
e-c';ivity
;
6,
Sport;
I, Culture and.
Intertainrnent.
Table 2 conpares
the item frequencl'
anr'r
rorclage
trrcrcentage
distributions
of tbe nevspapersr
wire co:)Jr
usaie
with
the item frequenc;'
anc, wordrage
percentage
d.istribut:-ons
of
'bhe
or5g!:al
wire
copy
input
to
the systen.
The ve3'/ close
correspond'ence
be'hteen
the bwo frequency
d.is.bribu.bions
can be easily
seen ano is, of course,'i;o
be 6xpected''
T!1g, content
of the
ti. .L .P....
servj'ce
is
'bo
some exteni;
i'etermined
by
wrut its nembers requi.re
,
and i-b is thc,ref ore
probeble
that
substa'rrti;I
users of the service
rould. be likcly
to i'eprod.uce
s' more
or less
faithful
replica
of
-,rhat
rlas celiverod
to 'ciiem,
irr s'bt:trcture n
if not
in actual
qu;rntity.
Ind.eed,
j.n
quantr';a;iv:'
terras
'
a sma11
nunber
of
|i..Z.p.trr i';oms';Iere
r:ot used'
at ail by a41'neTlspapers
ilrrbhe
systent
and. others were used at very 1ow frequency
bi, onl;r
a few pap6rs'
(Theso
are rliscus;ei"
more fu]1y
in Ch. WI, Pa'cterns
of
irlcrws
Selectiont
Section
3t
tGatekeopin6
Decisionst.)
f'tt"'therrnore,
only
a few
messagerg
r,iere used. b;r evexTr ne,rspa*oer
in the system
and. onaT'
2'5
per cent'
Of
the total publisbo d.!r..Z.p.A.
con,cent
achievecr.
a.ny'bhin.q
liko
saturatj'on
usage in 1J to 16 ne'.ispapers r
Onl;r aP''i'oxila"c
e1y
!!'2
per cent
'
of
the total,
published.
.,': .T-.P.Ir.
nessa8es
tlere
used
in 9
to W nevlspapers
';rhile
]1r.1
per cent,
tr7ere publishe&
in
,
to
3 ner{spaiFrs
snd 52'2
per
12/,+"
cont. in 1 to
I
newspapers.
Table
J
shows in futaiJ- the rrohme of N.Z.P.A. subject
usetl by different numbers of nerrspapers.
r4glln.
J
sllry3..pI.rWSp.4,BErrS-.IEItS--rq...z-..e.4,
rs.Esqsr-
*BL
-
_srr3-{EpJ .c_o-rygnr
ftem Freq,
%
of N" Z.P,A". Itens lisecl by
of N,Z.P.A..
Sub
je
ct Input 1-l+
FB 9-12
13-15 papers
oontent actuall"7
Tota1
%
1.
2.
3,
4,
5.
6.
7.
8.
(u)
1+7
w
155
N1
5l+1
399
117
55
Inf ornation Overload.
60. Bo zB, o
9.60
61
,O5 31 ,OJ
6,21
l+7,22
41 ,66
g"A3
48"0J 33.33
1t+,1+
48,39 38
"55
12
"A5
54-,06
29,97 1i
.48
t*,44
36,11
1 8.52
59,18 30,61
B,1 6
1
.50
1
,73
2"ag
4.30
1
.o1
4"49
o.g3
2.O5
100
100
100
100
100
100
1m
100
$fUlg_*--qgji_t.4:
\ilar ancL tirc Armed. Services, 1; Polltics, 2; Ilrrman Interest
ancl Social a.ffalrs
t
3i
Crj-rne, Dlsaster ancL Rrblic Safety,
4t
Econonlo
activityr
5;
Sport, 6i Sciance
t
7;
Crflture ancl Sntertainnent, B,
In fact, in sinplo quantitative
terng, ttre systen suffered fron
irrformatlon overload., A totaL of Z6j
ryZ.p.A,
messaes sent c[rring the
sanple week oould. t'heoret5.ca1\r have generated. a roaxjmr.rm cf
33r8O
usaleg
i.n the 15 newspapers of the sarnple if every nerrslnper hacL been abl"e tn use
every rtessae. Tho
9OLO
itcns that Trere in fact prblishetL nepresented .r
usage of only 27.3 per cent. cf thl-s hJ4rothetioal nald-Eun. Consequent\r
tt oould. be saicl thst ttro
rystem
as a whole was on].y 27 pr cent. effioiont,
though this l-s to set aside sueh practical consicleratlons &s the
]{mifefl
space available to most papers, th" repotitive nature of sonn d tlre
nossagesr and the fact that the subjoct matter of narly of tJ:en was
rrke1X
to be rap5dly outclatod by the movement of sventg.
(o)
L4g,sf-re*Ie6
Another way of assessing sJ'stem perfornanoe i.s to test the ertent
J25.'
'bo
idricir me$sages taggcd behi-red. ln publica'b:-on.
'io calculate
tirist
the d.ate of publlcation of evory
N.ir.P..'. itern i;as recordCId
as it i.'as
located. in the various nelrspryers of the sarnple.
Tkris
j.nfornation
lies
then punchc.d. oi] cards al-on: ,rith other messa5o ca'ia so that the averade
percenta6e lag oi'aII the messages in each
subject cr-ivision
and
subject ca'rcSo1.Jr could be corapu-bod..
For this pul:iloser messaEes
vere cod.ed.
jl
four classes
--
thosB publishet'L on ',;ho
saf,K! day a's tlre
d-ay of trsnsnissionr otr the first day after';ltusmissionr
otr ttro socond'
dsy after transmissio:rr md on i;he third.
(or
subsequent) cleys.
A
search \?as nade, of the newspatrpr files ilto the fortniSht fol-loring
tho
sanple seok f or la3:ging
j-tsrrrs,
but the quarrtity i;as statistically
un-
i.nrportant.
Thc
d.egree of iunodiacy rvith which el1 itens
( gOt*O)
were
publishetl ilas as folJ.or,','s:
Rrblishsd. sarl(- day
one oay Lator
two d.ays later
Three or morr daStg
leter
Overseas itern.s lrere treateci lrith nuch thc
inland, i-i;oms. as
'l;be
f olloii5ng tablo shows
:
t
70,a1ft
?-2.\)i:t
5.7$',"
L.77lo
sa.cte
priori.tY as
Inland nows
Er-|.{r#
7{t"
^sh
ancl J.i(. Ii:-istend.ahlr
ti'Te-.;s
I
J }1!1g1-;!1.,
38z3r,3uur'''.rer
Frrblished sarno day
Rrblishc d. sr"rbso qiuen'bly
Overseils ne'ils
-_.-3f
rr.-!
7qb
30i'"
lhis coln:laros in'be.rcs-tintily wi'bh the rosults
of a Unlted. S'l;ates
rtu$r of the fic'r;slopor usago of the /.ssociatcd Press state viiro service
'r
by 23 ilinrreso'ca nc-,is )apCIrs during
',;hc
wcek of, Jartua^:1' l-1
-
16
r
1960.*
In that s',;uSr,
92
i)er
cont. of the r.rire s'borios
usocl b3' tho nevspapers
irere publislrcd- on'[he sarno dey and. cnly I per ce.:'c. subsequent]y.
Tho irrfcrcnce fron 'ul'ris
is that the iier; Zcalsnd.
Pa--crs
had' a nore
lc.,isurelJ' attltud.e to-,rarils the flo;r of ilc{irs ihan sone of their
United. State.q cotut'be.rtrnrts.
T'*f,;;To'b;rtT Jones, verling c, r'roldlral
ijelection Patterns fron a State-'jTs'"'iree
1951,
3o3-3J2.
L2(.
Some smal-l but
j.:nler.ls-bing
va:'ia'iions '.iere
a.l5''arent
-,hen
all itens
r;ere analyseo by sub
je
ct content d"ivisions,
( lss Table
4) .
ThP system
gave same day prlori$- to the publica'Linn of 1V.3. P.
R. neris about lconomic
activity, ilar and. the Afirpd Services, S':ol;'cr i-'olitics,
Science, Crlme,
Disaster and ll:'rlj-c Safety, Cultrrre and ...:'bertainment, md Human Inte:-'est
and So
uial
aff ai:'s in
':hat
ord.er.
T,tB:ig lr
Ig!tl+'i
-orii
iirq {L'* S*!['
.Bf_,slrEE._E-c.JI!-9E
(u=9o4o)
Eg'er&E"-
pf-,$l"s-
REf sltgg
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7,
B.
S;.ne
Day
73.76
59.o6
60.33
57.68
7L,78
70,r9
6A.28
6tr,76
.r
j"rs
t Day
lf
'Ler
irrbl:ica-';; on
91.26
93.25
9r.32
9lF.50
91F.01
37.69
90.
87
92.O7
Second De;'
.rif ier
Prrbllca',;ioit
99.+5
97,81
98.
07
98.4]
98.35
9E.7ro
95.2r
96.+8
Ellbrig"t
_c-q^qle:
1,
-,'ar
ancl. the
.lrr.red. servicesi 2, Politics;
tEffi-Irite:,est
and. Soci-a1 affaj.rs,
),
Cri..ne, Disaster and
R.rbli-c Safe['t
5,
jlconomic
actiuity; 6, Sport,
7,
Science;
B. Culture a1s1- ]'l:rtertairunent .
In the sane-Ciay distribution the higher rankln6
of Science over
Human Interest arrd Social affej-rs, ffid its ap-;rorinate aquality rith
Crine, Disaster and FrbLic Sa^fe$', nay be C.ue to ihe fac'b tJlrai weather
reports
("t
ich were aII publishecl on the d.a.r, of transmj-ssion)
fomecl
a substan'bi3,l-
;,:art
of
''che
mstorial cate6orised.
as Soience. HoweTsrr
by the f irst d,t;r a.f
'ber
-oublication,
ai)prorina bely
'bhe
saoe a^moLut of
Science arrd. Hunan Interest and Soclal a^ffairs nelrs had bean published
(9f per cent.) and the amount of publislrd. nevs about Crim, Disaster
and
h:blic i)afetlr had. risen io approxi:nately 95
por cent.
By the second day
onJ.y
96
per cent. of i;lre Soj-ence news had, been
i:ublished,
compared'
with
727.
98
per cent, of the other two sub
je
ct d.ivisions,
Apart f ron
this
,
the
relatively
Jow sane-dlaJ/ rerrici-ngs
of Flunan In'berest and. S ocial aff airs
,
Culture snsl.
,inbertainment, anil Crime, Disaster and- Rrblic
Saf,ety support
the hypothesis
-i;hat
the
gatekeepers ool1e ctively
considered.
that such
news could, be
-i:reated.
Trith s omewhat
le s s ur6en ey than the rest
of the
}I.Z.P.A.content.Theirprioritiesapljear.tohavebeenapplieciTlith
greater urt;ency to the categories
of llconomic actj-vity,
ir'&!l and' the
^l'rme
C.
Servi ces
,
S porb and. Politic s
,
in tha'b ord'er.
TABU]
5
@-:
Subje ct
3s:.-4t
Economie activity
,S.rort
Crjne, Di-sas'cer e^nd. fublic Saf,ety
Politics
Hunan Interest and. Social affairs
S cicqnce
.iar and tlre Arnec'. Forces
Culture and. Xntertai.nment
(
a)
F-upjqgt
pon';,og!
!;1i-o$$-igg
Table
5
reproduces 'che
d-ata from
r'able 2
shorr the rani< ord.er of subject content
by raajor
subject
&lvisions'
Iten
counts
of s-i:o::ies
l.ublished.
in various subject
categories
in newspaPers
ere, of course,
a far fron coraplete
lTey oi C'escribing
how the naterial
nas actually reprof"ucr,d,
For this reason,
many content
analyses
of the
rlress
use space
(in
column
Lnches)
",
& IIIessllIFr
'the
more sophisticated'
of such d.escr5.p'r;ions
afso conts,in
sone
j-ncl-ication
of the degree
of
attention,5iven
to di.:flferhg
subiect
mat'uer
in the etll'borial
process'
In thi,q study, several such me&cure
s of the oegree
of edltorial
attention
given
'to
itens of newspeper
content
lfere d.eveloped'.
Tbe wordage
'
space
(rneasurei. in coIu,n' i*chos)
erid the ano'nt
of lllustration
(neasured
j'n
column inche s
)
acconpenying
all l{ .2.'P ..1-.
itens were reOord'ed
but itr
ad.d.ition each item
''ras
s cored
f o r it s relative
proninence
in i;he
RA}ili
l',1-sh]-i.-slgqlx-]gaeJls-Bg?tl?
27.47
f:9.61+
t6,75
L3'I3
8.00
5.,|{-1
6.oB
2.52
i-:: rnore conci-se
forn
to
128.
2
nsrrspa.perso lt.t. Budd.'has shoTnr
J
ln an ana\'sls of the ccntent of
Uulted. Statos ner{s ln the Australl,en and. New Zoalr,ncl ptess ttr&t there
l.s
r{koly
to be a }uigh oonrLatlon botroen lten oountsr oolunn 5nohoge,
and. at'bention scores] Btrr-rils orJginrul oo:selation testl app}led. to
sanplns of lnillvidr:oI nerispapors, noasured. the varl,ations they sboved.
in reproduc5ng ite:rs of subject oontent. Ir tlr-ts study, tlro dngree of
agreenent anon6 tho variabl-ss of iten fbequenoy, srtory inobcget
IUlstratrions inchage,
trrouS,nencer
ed. nord.age by wh5-ch alJ. the nel-nspapers
of tho systen roproduced. tire N.Z.P,A. zubject oontent was er&anLned by
nsans of a
ccrcordarroe test,
4
Th" test irrdlcated that thee lras a hih
lovoJ. of egteef,Ent aracng those varlablse. labLe 6 showg th
guantf.tatlte
values
of N.Z.P.A. nsterial publishsd in the nowspapare
anil the orriler
ln wtr.ich they ranked tn each olassJfioatlon
d ed.itorlal ocrrter*.
g4-BJ$-9.
WIF*I4SE-U-$4$E!gJ-.4.-P-q$r,-9-Wr-.--gT-
gF-,c-4r-Eg{E&E-.s-9-e"pDlr.w
(N=9oho)
Story IILus.
$rbJe of Froquency Inchage Inclnge
Ft.ontnence Wordago
1
. 55o
(
Z) 4$36
(
5)
7oh
(
l)
1t
,851
(l)
?9
168o
(r)
2. I
,187
(r*)
rc
1260
(+) 1
A91
(z) 18
r57B
(r) 149
t?2
(.:)
3. 723
(l) 12r7*o (:)
595
(6)
91913
(6)
781929
(6)
h
1,513 (:)
9,165
(f) 1qfr (:) 15fl17
(+) 112,o*z
(+)
5,
Zi*B4'
(1) 'tt+r681
(z)
W
(z) z41168
(1) 1Tt
t]t5
(z)
6o
1tTt6 (z) 151726 (t)
2153
(1)
23,8+
(2) 18t.1z9
(1)
7. 5so
(6)
3r@6
(il
726
(r*) Brfr5
(Z) 69r66t
(7)
B. ?27 (B) 1
P7j
(B) 215
(B)
I,Job
(B)
,1
,267
(s)
If
=.8O
f
=?B.lJlfordf =In:[t]rp<rOl
Fgt,tq_o-:t_"C-o.{l,qgl
lfar and. the A.rmed Sorvioes,
1; Polltd,os, 2i Huna.n Isterest
anc1 Social afeairs,
3,
CrinerDlsaster and Rrblic Sa.feffr t+
;
Econoniost
5 ;
Sport, 6i Science
,
7i
Cultrre and Srtertailnent, 8.
2 See Ch. IIf, Mettrodoloryr Seotlon
J,
rA
Nems Pronainenoe Intlsxr, fot
details c'f this
trrocedrre,
3
R.Tf. Erad., R.K. ThorB, and L. Donolnre, of C orrrunloa-ti_o_n_s-,
Now York
1976
, 35.
l+ Soe Ch. IX, Append.fuce Seoti@
1,
Iten
Htrp-t-SbF-**-
rConoord.onoe
Tegtr
,
for detalls of tltis.
,.nc
a-L.
a
The rank oraer of sub
ject
oontent
in rable 6 lndicates
that in its
treatnent of
,,;tre
i*.z.P.tr. material the neTlspapei:
sJzstem paid heaw
attention io
iconoraic actirrity and. Sport
(::ith the balance consid.erably
jj1
favour of Sport l,rhen illustrations
and.. rordage are taken
jJlto
consid.-
eration.
iText it uas concerned. ntth Politics, wi'bh
Criroe, Disaster and'
Rrblic Safety, rri'ch
'i.iar
and. the Amed. Servicesr r;ith Hurnen Interest andr
Social affairs,
'iiith Science and. nith Cul-i;ure
and..ln'lertainnent.
Sofunce
nens x1ay have roceived
a s1i6ht1y hlgher
-orominence
score in t}Iis
hierarchy than i-b vould. othervise ha.ve ob-batned.
because it included.
weather reports
-.dr
1ch acrounted. to 19 per csnt. of the total
S cience
material. 'rhese recolved regular
treatrnent
in positions of proninence
6
in the nerrs peges of the sanPle"
gB.LEI.
ryqL
ilPEellFlq
li
IS
ry+
qElEL.oI I'T. .
!-.L.!r.
c_Q'gslr--u3!]GI0N,
.Iilgqt-
9utp9!.
&gEtg,
SSglryg.b,
ilqgE
J-ten FreE
''u &e4t
57.A2
5.46
15. 09
8.54
3.59
8.25
t.g5
Table
7
conpares syston input fiith sys'ten outpu'b ancl- cLemonstrates
that there rras a marice d. si:df t in the beLa.nce
between overseas
and'
1oca113, oriSim-t;ed. ness. In the input,
'bire
OverseilsTNew
Zealancl ratio
vas approri-mai;ely
573t+3,
bu'c
jJl
tln outlHt ihis 1;as exactly reversed
to 113..57 in iavour of i\Ies ZeaJ.and- nows.
T.ris d.eoonstlates
that tlre
gatekeepers of the systecn
gave priority
to
'u[e
publication
of the New
Zealand conten'u of ihe N.Z.F.I. service.
3y the cri'berion
of itan
3-t,rF._J...-
5
For sinplicitJ',
i-n codlng al)' r,.reather
i'bems related
to the N.Z'P'-{'
master fi1e, lfr" total .p*r" d.ezoted.
i o neteorological
ob servetions
as well as to the d.ai1y iominion forecasts,
lias oreditecl
as li.z.F.-l.
content,
along rith thl supportin6 wea'r;her
ma:3s trich
l7ere ooded as
illustrations.
?his ::esu1lec1
in sone ovor-weiSbting
of this part
of the analysis.
In
Table 6, Science ranks
fourth
in the illustrat-
ions inchagl classification
beoause
these rlaps Tlere treated'
as
S cience illustrations.
New Zealand.
l+3.1ts7
Euroi:e
6.15
Unit ed. Ki-nr6 C.om
19 . 10
.rr.ne ri ca
10. OB
Tb*. Irgr Eest erds.EJ|sLa 5.lP
.irustra-l-ia
l2.r+0
Other 3.37
1)
5)
2)
3)
6)
4)
7)
(r)
(l)
(z)
(+)
(6)
(l)
(z)
lJC r
frec,uenc;.,'l'abl-e
7
si:o-,;s thet i{ew !,ss1ana rankecr first, follorved by the
Uni'ced- Kingclon, ,,ner.io., :,.ustraIia, ,lurope, ,-Siarani-
CthOr regionSr
in
that orf"er,
Tabls C inclic;'ces that
-Lhe
pro3ortions of I{.2..-.4. con'bent by
ne,i!'s genera'cing sour ce rrere virtual$
the sare
i
n
'i:lre
newspaper output
and. tlrey r;ere ix the 5lrrut,
'uhe
on1;,' signif ican'i; &ifferences
being that
the percentage of i'bens
-bha'c
rlere generateO- by
f
olitical
inrties
increasei. sligtrtly f ron I.J per cent. iJl tb 5-n-lu-b
-i;o
3,9 Per
cent.
i-n
'che
outpu'r,,
'bire
lnrcentage
of itenis
6enera'ced.
b;r icononic orgAnisations
rose b;.' ;bou-l 2
i.rer
cent.
I
and the
.oercentage
of iierns
ganera'ted' by
',ii.re
services and neuslapers fe11 b;t tua$y 6
;ler
cent.
T.&.BIE B
r::Hr.i:rllL&tl5;JlEf
tsliq'S-g:i''4'3':'-;-O].P,qlg'
BY i{E,,B GNilU/I]}IG SOU:IC'J
|||||.;|||||rr-t4-
Governnent sources
Sconomic organis ations
Sporting and. recrea'tj-ona-1
s cR.lr ces
,iire services and- nelrs{:apers
Police courts,
judicial
tribunals
Cu1'br:ra1, eC.uce';iona1,
associa'bi-onal civ cles
Private ci ti-zens
AnonJraous sources
l,{ed.ica1 an'r.c'.. s cientiiic circles
Journalists us 5ng bi'l-ines
Poli-tic:;l parties
Inr:ut
-a-a
-
2I.Lr
17.5
u.0
].6.7
nar
O.1
5.lr
_ar
),
t)
ZA
2.9
r.9
l.J
O,rtput
r...'r
21.8
19. 1
l.7,3
12.O
8.3
5.3
1.7
3.3
3.3
2.Q
3.9
tl]
(r)
ti]
(6)
(B)
( g)
(g)
(u)
(z)
(r)
(
z)
(:)
(+)
(l)
(
5)
(z)
(
0)
(r)
(
ro)
(u)
Sirnila::1;-, only slSgirb varj-c.'bj-on
;tas a1r;caretrt rthea tJre proportions
of li-.Z.P.A. coatent b;'lod.e in'bhe irr-,u'i; trere comilared i;ith
those of the
output. The percen'bage of i'i;ens
".;ri-'l'ben
obieo';ively
:.ose s1ihtly
fron
72.!2 *Der
cent. in the inpu'b to
73.2t+ *r
cen'b. in
-ifie
output, while ihe
percen'bage of i.::'ber1:retative
j:e1)oxts
drop;:ecl fron LL:-.1r5 per cent.
in tlre
5.:rpu't to I1.C2 per cent. in t i:e output.
lhe percentage of items in
'uhe documel';eJiy noie also drop*recl fron lJ.Jlp
!:er
cent.
in'bhe input to
l2
,8B
per cen'c . in the ou'bput.
131
.
2. gr.rrui_g4l'qllJtl,.
-c_ols'.ryg
Ilhat usc cli0 ttre nevspapers nako uf nsteriilf fron souroes
adrlitional to tJ:e N.Z.P,A,? Table
9
sbows the iten frequenoy c'l{'q{s'l!-
ution of non-{i[.2.P.4. zubject natter in futoil, As night be expected.,
tbe oontont of thj-s r.urdorgces a narked. decline in t'lre category
of Tiar
ancl the, Anred Serrrices,
and. a consid.ercble incroase in tlro rarnber cf
ttens devoted. to covercge of }funan Interest
and Soola.L
affalrs, 4d
to Gulture
and Ertertaiment. But it is also intaresting to note tho
dcc}ine iJr seneral other oategorios. Using their own re'scur@s, flre
rnvspapers reporterl loss ne\is abant Pelitios, &out CrC.ne, D5saster aed-
Publlo Sa.fety, a.nd. about Econoruic aotJ.vi$r, wht1e, slgrrJfloant\yr
thry
oagLed.
an al-nost equal rnrnber of itons about Sport. Thls is obv:lous
fron Tab.l.e
10 wtrich relnoduces
tlre iten froqrnncy
and rank ceder of
subject ccnrtent of both N.Z.P.A. and. non-l[.Z.P'L'
edLtorlal oontent
by naJor subject clLvigions.
(trlote: the total iten frequency of N.Z.P.A.
j.terns
in this cal-anLc.tion has been inoreased fbcn
9OL0
to
95TZ
so a.s to
inolude
5y
1a6 nessa6es,) TabLe
10 ind.icates
tiat tJre newstrppers rely
heav5Jy on the wlre servioe for rmch of thelr news abcrut Eoonontc
octiviff, about CrinerDlsaster arr0 F\rbllc Safetyp about PolltLcs,
and
obout llar and. the Anred. Sorv5.oes; but they devote oonsJ.derabLe
energLes to pronid,i:16 thejr own extensive coverage
of Sportt
partLorJarly racing
and. the
rniqoelJnnJr cf activities li-ke bowLsr rlfls
shootlng, notor raoi::g, v,lrestUq
r
boxin8, basketbell, hocbyr tennls
anrl other conpetLtive
ga&es nh:ich for ocnven:len@
wtre oJassified
iJn
tJ:i-s stnr$r as Other spprts.
r$prF.l,
SUBJECT C0lmn$trlt 0F NO,I- N.Z.P.A IIEIS_
Eia.r'---tI;
=
.ti4"
i"-
""r'5':':-r
SubJect
T{AR AIID T}M A3.I{ED SER.VICES
M{
r {
tar1r, nerral, air force
e
c5.vL1 fufence actlvitie s
Iten F:rquency
f,
1.91
r32,
POIJTICS
Il.oyalty, vice-regal
a.ff airs
United ]{ations, oth*" i:ri; ernat ional
political
egencies
Foreign reLertions
r
fore5-gn aid. schenes,
&iplonacy
C omnnon'. realtb a^ffaii's
Parliamnta;1 a^ffairs,
].e5isla'cive business
Politics, political
",.Lrtie
s and l.ee,C.ers
Irocal govei'nnen'b
Public aclninistrati on
HUi'lAId l]ir'*f,utlii-'r'
/$TD SOCIA.L /LI'FALIS
Social problems
-.nc-
serYices
Social no';es
,
fashion nells, beauty contests
t
wed.fing
r
engagenents
arro bal1s
Personals, ob ituarie s, fiunan interest storles
Lotteries, ganbl5ng
Clubs, assoc ietions, re creation
Charilable, philantirropic,
hurnanitarian
r Pa
triotic
projects and. associations
;
education;
re1i6;5'on
Aavice to read.ers
,
philos ophy
r
sentsntiae
,
trunour
Gardening
,
cooking
,
cLone stic not es
Travel lrints
,
sd. exPerionces
Cnnfi, DIij.'jSjE"R -JdD lUBi,I-
S/':ItFf
Crioe, prisons,
jud.icial pno ceetlirgs
Disaslers
,
accii.ents
,
f ires, floo6s, ener*encies
'
C,.isturba.nces
,
plagues, illness,
clisease
Police news, r4ysteriOuS cea'bhs,
m5-ssiJl6
1leol:18,
property
"ni
aninels; search
and rescue
operations;
road. ancl, tiater sa.fety; traffic
problerns;
public
health and. sa^fetY
Noxious vreecl an{- aninal control;
an5-nal telfale
itcoNotttc l-c:lr\Eli
Seneral e cononic
aci;ivity;
Soverrunent
expendS'hr:ro
Agrioultr:re, f ood, pi'oi"uc'bion and- export
Industryr labour services
I
power supply;
i:rctustrial
design
Transport
r
'couris;r;
popuJ-ation and emplo;men';
statis-;ics
?own p1ann5lg, architecture,
civic
proiects
liailr
'beleplrone
and. other con.nrnication
services;
end. othei sys tens
;
riei6hts and- me asur es
netric
.40
.11
.09
.32
.39
3.60
LJc
L.15
1.86
1.86
6.53
.11
6,57
4,67
5,70
L,49
.29
L.\-7
2,16
2. OO
.2L
4.75
3.46
3.4O
1.1+9
L65
.88
L3\
SP@'.T
.tugby Union I'oo',;bal-l
Associa';ion foo';ball tllii. other cod.es
Cricke t
i-iorse raci-ng
.Atl:.letics
Other sports
SCITICE
In/eatlrer reports, ne'beo:ology
},{ed.:lca]- and- he alth
Strnce travel, astlonority; compute; s cience
Telecornmunications
;
nlass conr:nrnications
Biology, exploratior, hydrology,
geologl, earth sciences,
zooltg;', natural history, forestryr soil conservationt
agricultural research
Senantics, }i-nguistics;
psychologS'
'Sr:rveyirg,
archeeologr, rluseuEls
Nuclear enery,
physics, chemistzY
General Sclence
CULI.IJTtr fi'IO EfTII]I1'A]] *JIIT
Histcry
Grapbic arts
Literature
lieriolrs nusic, d.ra.n;';ic arts
Films
Bad.io and 'r;elevis
ion
Pop rnusic and. ar'cists
Brass
1
plpe ant'. other bands; conr-'etitions festivals
,
nusical contests
,
concert par''bie s
Plastic arts; embroiCery a;rd- weaving; idaoli culture
R"r,zzles, child.i'enr s feahges; asti'o1o6y; con;e';i''cions
}JISCFTLNEOUS
Content irrd.:icos, ne';isiraper titles, funi:rints
Xdiitorial- ::emarks, com'nentaries, replies'60
corres loi:d.-en'cg
4.2r
1.45
.18
6.2t,
.50
7.95
.65
.93
.32
,20
.91+
.Q7
.22
.06
.20
.82
,t+6
.67
1.76
.r+O
r,7g
.Eo
.14
.31
L.57
Total 100.0o
3.1+6
.46
1tu,
TA3T,E 10
c-wsr*--og-"lreERH
Subje ct
Econonic
activi{ry
Sport
Cri-ne
rDisastor
and
Politics
Hr.rnan Interest
and.
Science
Iten FrequencY %
N.Z.F.A.
Content
27.2+
20.39
16.]p
12.91
8.21
6.50
5,82
2.49
nl
3"
2
I
l+
6
1
I
,9
,5
7
1)
,,\
4)
5)
e]
B)
e)
Non-J{.
Z. P.A.
Content
Hrbllc Sa,feff
Socia1
affairs
17.6t
20.&
g.
ob
7 r\l
27.8
3.39
1.91
B.T2
3.92
irTar and. the Arned. Sorvice s
Cultrrre
and, Entertainment
i;iis oe].larre ous
TotaL
3.
gg,'iF-p.,g9Bl4lr CCNTEIilI
1 00.oo
10o,@
g@l
r't*-g
Table
11 shows the detaj-lncl
iten fxarquercy
&tstribution
of the total
ecl:itorial content
published by the neruspapers
of tlre system.
TabLe
12
oompares ttre rapk orilE:r as 1re].l as the iten frequency
porntages
of the
NuZ.poao
"
ilre non,.Noz"poA,
r
and. the total subject content
of the syston'
The iten frequsnoy illstaributj-ons
of the total subject content
of tbe sanpJ-c
j.:ncLicate
that i;he nerispapers
alre rrlssirrcly ccncerned
vith
an al:nost equa;L
':i:cttrro
of Econom:io
ac-i;lvity and. Sport
(45p"" cent');
fo1-Lowed
by IIUrls'n
Interest
and Sooial
affai-rse CrilrorDisester
and HrbJ:io Safety
(ll per
cent"), Pol-iiics, Tfar
and. the /\:rrred Sorvices
(14 por oent.),
and' Sclence
and, Culr;ur-re
and. Entertain-rmnt
(f f per cent.).
This e&itorisL
ntx wll] bq
d:iscussed in g::eater d.etail lster;
but it can be noted. here that
tfte systen
appoar' to be carr5ring
out its serrrico
f\rnotions
flith oonsiclorabLe
enerExp
at least i.n the fieId.
of Econora.io
aativJ.ty. To establJsh
r'w
we].l tt
performed in other
are8,e requires
&eeper
ana\rsis
t3, .
and cLiscus::ion
of the sa.mple ma'terials.
ilo-,lever, even a brief inspectioi'
of
Table l2 siror:s
-bhat
the l{.li.p.-,o service
provid.ed nost of the nerrs
about
War ancl- tbe ;\med Serv5-ces, a.nd' about
Crjle, Disasier
and' Rrblic
Safety; vrhile it
i:rovid.edr
substantiolly
i-ore of tbe nefls
about Politics
'
trlconomic ac'Livity and. Soic',i.rce t[an did. the nerlspapers
thenselves'
On
the oilre:. ha:rd., the neTTs;)opers
provid.ec"
the over'.-.1:elning
proportion
of
ller.'s u,bout Hunan
In'',;erest and.
;> ocial aff eirs
r
os well a-s nost of the
neris about Cultrire anf. ltrn'certainnent.
Significan'bly,
-itLe
proi:ortion
of
ite ns ab out
s
-rort
renaine
cL cons tant be fire en
'i,he
li .
11 . F.
j-^'
and the
nerlspaperg.
WL11-
:oJ*l*-Pr;@.-g-ollW-g:-l-E
PM
(n=r96J2)
Sub.i e ct
-a
.i:R /SID TFJ}
-*JJ:D
'JER\NCIIS
Ilili'i;ary, naval, ek f orce activi-ties
,
clvi I Cref ence
POLTIICS
Royalty, vice-regal
activities
Uniteil llations, oti.*r intenn';tional
politieal
agencies
Forei6n relations,
aid- schenes,
d-ipiomacy
C onrmonvealth
aff ai-rs
Parlia.meni;ar3l affa.iJ.s,
1-egisll'bive
business
Po15-ti cs
,
politi cal-
parties and leaders
Local government
Rrblic adnirrts trati on
i{UiruJi INt'i-rST J:D SOCIi-I' r!--.'J-lrUj
Social problems and. services
Scci;l no'bes, fclsirion ner,Is, beauty coni;ests,
,terlc.ings,
engagernents
and' ba11s
r,ersonals, obituaries,
hunan interesi;
stories
Lot'ueries,
ganTb13n6
clubs, *ruo"iations
r
Tsci,eati-ona-1
activitjrs
Charitable,
;.rhilantlu'o1ric,
hunartitarian
t
palr;liotic
projects and. asaociations;
edtrc:,tion;
religi-on
/rclvice to read.ers,
1:hilosophy,
sen'beniae,
hunour
Gar&ening, coolci.ng, c,ooe stic no'*;es
Travel tufur'i;s and exPeriences
It_egr-lr-e*q-ulln-cg
se:3,i-
g-.s
7r
3.82
.8,
.56
.30
1.00
.52
5.O5
1.19
.66
1.29
.97
5.25
.13
3,93
3.49
1.
go
.76
.15
v6
cnIlJ, DIS*'S r-,,11 :,.1D rUELIC S.'SI[Y
C rilre
,
pris ons
,
i
udic ial pro ce e ilin6 s
5 ,'l$
Disasiers, accid.er:'us, fi-res
,
f lood-s
r
emergencies,
disturbances,
plagues
,
iliness
,
d-isease
l+'
50
police
nelrs,
^y"lerious
d.eaths; raissing
people, objects
and animals; sea::ch anfl rescue operatioils;
road.
and.
irater rf et;l; treff ic problems
I lrublic
health
gnci pcfety 1.58
lioxious veed. and amilal controll-aninal
uel-iare
'11
ICCI'IOI,IIC ACTIV.ITT
General econonic
actlvi$r;
government ex"rsrrf-1iure
Agriculture, f oocl.
-trodruction
and export
Inaustry, labour services
I
poiler suillly;
i-ndustrial
design
Transpori,
-bourism;
population and. enploymen-b
statistj-cs
Town plarur5lg, archi'becture,
civic
-rrojects
1,.ri1, telephone anf, o'bhe.r comnr.mj-cstion
services;
netric
ancl- other s)rstens;
'.rei-ghts arrd. measures
sPc[rT
itugby Union footbalf
-/,-ssociation
f oo-;baII :nd o-bher corLes
Cricket
liolse racing
Athletics
Other sports
SCT-NCE
,ieatirer rel:ortsr 0teo:'o1ogY
lried,ical ancl heaf i;h aci;ivities
S.,race travel, astronom;r; conpu'ber
s cience
Telecomnunications
;
mess commrnics'tions
Biology-1 ex1)lora'bion,
hydrology,
geolq6y,
zoolog-,
natural
hi-story, forestryr soil conserva'bion,
agriculttH'a1
research
Senantics
,
l5-nguisti cs
i
psycholog;y
Surveying;
,
ar chae o 1o gY
r
mus eums
Nuclear energy
,
pbys ics
,
chemis trXr
General s cience
CUI1UPJ,']lD
lX{iiPJAf'n,m\TT
Hietroy
Graphic ar'cs
Literature
Serious music, c-'rana-blc arts
Films
lad.io and
-be1e
vis ion
Pop nus lc and artists
Bras s
,
pipe and other bends
;
eontests,
con cert
Parties
Fls.rtic arts
I
enbroiil-erY
and.
I\rzz1es,
childrenr s features;
connpeti-tions
festlvals,
nrusical
weaviag;
llaori culture
astrologY,
conlnti'bions
g.2L
3.53
3.73
l+.35
1. 06
.l+5
4,38
1.4-7
L.28
5,96
r.o5
5.57
.go
1.
JO
.7'
.6L
.95
.06
.20
.16
.10
.le
.35
.52
1.15
.31
.91+
,87
,15
.18
,Bo
57.
firsc:jtlft][601l$
oonteat ind:lces
n
neilsl,lPer
titlep, tgrFrints
Editorial, reaa,rks, oolnmentaries,
roplies
to
,corresponoents
Total
L.76
.24
-*,+--
100.0Q
---*----
rjglqr2
Ir;iiM-atF-qsr_pJF$JSEI-qL-FL+$tcgi$i$$-
UEgg_qF
-'-oiEl*p$.4{g
i3ubie ct
-!---
S.:LtB'A'
Non--.{.1,, .P.4.
rrelDl t tD-'ar.
TotaL
'..F++-
t7
"63
2A.5Ir
9.
CIr.
7,lrt
27.6
3,59
1.91
g.v2
3.9'2
fop.ig%t-Cglt$g,31r'iferenclthe'{rne&servlces;?tPolitics;
rc;TnirEest
anct
Socia1 effairs
i
ll,
!
iner
Disester end
l-Ublic
Sa^fety;
5,
Economlo activity:
6,
tiportl'
7,
ScieAoel
C, Cul',;1tre an&
lnterbair,anent,; 9
t
i,iigeellaneous'
iilat is the prat,bern of eclitorial
content
nhen other variabLes
aro
,ua,ken
into aeoount?
Table L5 shor'rs
'blre
itecr
fre'guenry tristribution
of total e,di'coria.l
conroent
bJ' news
Senorat5ng
sotlr oo e
sporting oJrtl
reoreational
elroles,
elosel-y follor'red
by Ooveriine$t sourcesr
th
newsilatr5,rs
,and. wi-re ageneies thenselves anJr
DcoiionJ'o orgarlisetions
are
,che
rnos:b nassive
geaerators of nerfg, acooun'i;i:15
for approxlnately
55 per
oent. of tr:a e&itorie-l oontent
of tbe newg-)a-oefse
,.
5.
Lr.
2,
3.
7.
I.
3.
9.
27.24
(
r
2c,.39
Q
L6.t42
(
f
J2.93
(tn
8.2L
(S
6.50
(e
5.82
(l
2.tg
(s
1)
2)
i}
?]
3l
e)
3)
2)
h)
i]
8)
;l
7)
22.3'
20.5L
W.6l+
10.u
n.87
5.01
3.8;2
5.69
2. O0
L3c
'l.,S,T+-JJ
39i.I$!.qr, lE,
3Y i.X S GIIE}TAIIi{G SffJP.,CX
N
=
:96::2
)
rsp-J'-L*l. lank Order
btS^leqe.r_aling
-S_qg.g
g
Sporting end. recreatioraal sources
Governnent cources
,ijre servlces ancl. ne1..{spepers
rtrcononic organisatio:rs
Cu1-bura1, e d.u c ati onal
,
as sociational- cir cles
Privatc citizens
Police cour'"1s,
jud.icial
tribunals
AnonJzrnou.s
gources
Joumalis ts us 5n6 byli-ne s
Iiedical and scientific circles
Poli-i;ical partie s
18.18
t7
.59
16. 20
12.75
9.79
7.17
6.7r
5.22
3J6
2.p
o.73
(r)
(z)
(:)
(+)
5)
5)
7)
B)
e)
rc)
u)
Total 1OO. O0
Approxi;ra-be1y 10 pr cent, of the nerls r;as derivecl fron Cultura-1t
ed.ucational and. associational circLes.
flds iTas nad.e up of news from
educ ational souices
(t.72
per cent,
) ,
religious sources
(
f . t8 per cent.
) ,
charitable arid. philan'bhropic organisati-ons
(O.77 per cent.
)
anct cultr.lraL
sources
(2"92
per cent.
)
"
Nev,rs from a wide range of social organisations
ancl. associations accounted. for the renainit3
t.zO
per eont, of ttre itens
in this category.
Private ci'cizens
(who
fi5ured nos t\' i.l. correspondenoe columns
and
in reports of accicl.en'bs
)
gene rated approxirutely 7
per cent. of tbe news
;
Police cour-bs and.
judicial
tribunals generateci. approximately 8 pr cent
I
snd Anonynous sorrces
(
t
inf orned quarters
I
,
I
of ficial circles
I
and
the like as well as contributors and corresponoents
usi:rg psauclonyns)
generated. another
5
per cent. Journalists us i:rg byl.ines accorrnted. for
approxi-nat ely
3
jler cant.
,
i,ied.ical anci s cien'f if ic cir cle s approrinately
2 per cent.
,
and- Poli'.;ical parties l-ess tharl 1 per cent.
Poli'i;ical
partie s a1:pear to have be en only slightly ac'bive in
'bhe
pre s s antl
r39'-
perhaps may not
6enerate
veyy much news iJI i'b unless an ele cti"on
ca'npaign is in progres s.
These d.ata are obtajled fron a detail-eir ana$sis which reveals
some other interesttry emphases in the pattern of neTrs. liar veterans|
associations scored O.79 per cent. of i;he grand. toial, conperecl with
0,15 per centr scored by anti-war associatiors and. Vietnan war protest
groups. Llaori organisations scored on-ly 0,15 per cent. IriterarSr
sources received. a s core of only O.47
.ner
cento
Table 14 provid.es a breakd.own of the goverrunent news generating
sour ces .
I'i;
ernphasi-ses the
i nportance of
'che
polittcal. ancl adnirris trat -
ive centre s of por.rer an d clraws attent ion
'b
o
'i;he
comlarative insignif
j-cance
of both private mernb er ancl opposit ion sources ln this process. The
low le vel of activity of 1o cal, compa,red with central
,
government is
also noti-ceable.
ryr4__r4
Governmont d epartoents
,
offi cials andu cir cl-e s
Governroent ninis-bers, Ieaclers, heails of state
Government priva-te neinb ers
Opposition leacLers anc private rnenbers
Local governrnent olficj-als and. cj.rclos
Ottrer adrni.:ris tratlve agencies
United. Natj- ons and" o'bher
jnt
ernat ional a6encie s
Diplonatic oorps, Ll.oyalty, vice-regal ci-rcles
Armed. services
Parliamentar", le gislative officials
hrblic utili'i;ie s
fn
2.89
5.70
o.37
o.45
2,54
1.22
o.54
o.84
r.53
o.32
I,Og
Tota1
L7.59
iinothe r sou rce variable i.'hich is usef u1 in c;e scribing the pattern
of nens con'beat is ned.:itm of transnission, orbhe neaJls inclicated in
the story as to how
'che
particular item reached. the newspapero
A
total of 27.9 per cen'c. of the ed.:itorial content
jrr
the sa.mp1-e was
clearly attributable io the N. Z.P.A. inlancl- networlc, md 2O.9 per cent.
to its overseas channels"
Another
J.8
per cent. could. be assiSned
to
1L0.
rrarJ.ous
overseas sourges lil{e feahrre sor:vlceg
and rreprtnted. naterdal
f,'on 3versoas nowgpoperso For the rc,naini.ng 47.1+ Wt
cent,
e
ncl ne[ilxr
of trsnsnission coul-d. be attributd.
rsB,rF. 15
gqs4Tl p-ry-Br4l'.
.ccl{Tg\{r_r_-BI. 3Egr.gN
Begion
New ZoaLond.
Un:lted. Kingclon
(n
=
19612)
ft
AnrerLoa
AtrstnalLe
I\uopo
The Far East and South East A.sLe
Other
Rank Order
75',21
g
"15
6.14
4.67
3.15
2.2o
:f
1)
2)
3)
il
7)
Tota1
10O,0O
The systen appecrmrl to pLaoo
"offi"able
ecphasls on rnrrs of
national sfurrlflconce, By orfuntatLon, only 28'4 per cent. of the
ed-ltorlal content of tlrc sanple vas oonsLdered
to be concerned. wlttr
a.ffairs of l-ocal slsnfftoanoo, cccrpa.retl vrtth t.1 por oent. clevotec] to
o.*fajrs of natlonaL oon6g1.n and.
J1.5
pr cerrt. to a,ffaLrs of
internationaL s igntPtc&ltcs o
It was al.so app.rent that by far the greetor prt of tdre sanple of
ed-ltorlal oontont wae devoted to nervs anrl irrforrrati:-in. Tabls
16 ana\raeo
ilre rnoda of conposition of aJ.l ltens of editoriaL cortent.
tl total of
api:roxlnate\y
]2
per cent. was lmitten i-n tlre forsr of neus re'portsr
of
slr-toh
approxlnately
6O
per oent,
nqre tn ttre
lobJeotivot
sfirJ.o
and.
approxi-natoly 12 per ocnto votp oongldero& to haw been wrLtten tnterp-
retatirre\y. However, to this rnrst be ad.rLed, rLocrrnentary reporbse oorrelst-
fug of oontent irrlices, ido:rntlonal lists
and. accounts of wedri:i.lcgs
anrl engagomnts, anoturting to aptrxoxinotely 1J per oent' Feafirree
anor,urted. to only
5
per
oent.
(.tppnoxinatcly), e&ltorial-s
1 per oent.p
@rrespond.onoe appnox5nate\y
J
per cent., revfuus of books, plsysl fLlns
and.
vnrious other otr1'trrra-1. aotivltl,eg aplroxinate\y O.B
per co[tre
and l.]-lustonations
141
.
approxlnately
5
por ccnt.
(fnis
calculation
cloes not irrclud.e Lllustrattons
accompanylng tlclis Ltens, revlei;s, features anct d.oartonta:ry reports;
it
sccountq od;o for natorial that wos presented soJely in vlsual forn).
TABTE 16
I:cv.rj_rlpg'!&I4Lc.w
(
n
=
t9612)
16
50.ol
12r16
.50
.58
.25
.O7
.7O
,@
.40
,08
.11
.23
.50
.36
.OB
.06
3'15
.81
13'o2
1.79
,26
1.22
,64
t@
zJ+2.
.39
r-.--I
100.0o
&gg.
Factual rcports
Interpreta'Livo reports
Fse-h+e.il
Donestic featuros
Factrral descriptivo foafirsg
IXlstorical
FLction
C ontemporary oonnentartrr
I,J.tera,rXr
a.ncl scholarly featnrres
Reli6ious and. philosophicaL featr:res
Biography
Astrology
Aclvertislng supplenent s
$!$to-qi.als
Fjrst fuiad.er
Second Loacler
Th:ird, ltracler
Other editorial- conment
@.rgggo-tr!.-of-r,cg,.
Lotters to the Eilitor
&gqtp-t?e
B-ooks
r
plays, filns ar,d othor cultural
ggSggn-tpLy-R-ep,orSg.
Info:reational
llsts
Content
lndice s
Tlngagonents
&*tpli.epr-
Conlc s'crips
Cartoons
Irix drawings
PhotograBlr:i.c re$rocluctions
Rrzalos
events
Tota].
142.
4, c,uliP-{E}ry-v.-E
Pit nr..o-TtMA-}lcE
.
-pL -rxf1 -N!'s[{Litig
Table 1? shows the
percentage item
frequency
distribution
of the
total subject content of 15 daily ncwspspers
and the standard
deviations of the varioue subject
content
categories'
fhe remarkable
over-arl similarlty
of each ncw6p'perrs
distribution
of content
is
apparent by Lnspection.
The newspapers
of the system showed
consider-
abre agreement in their
ord..-ring of the
proilortiono
of subJect
matter
t
with fairly smalr variations
epparent
in the varues
for eech eubJect
eategory. T4e EvgJrilg Star
Save
Human
Interest
and Soclal 'lffairs
prccedence over sport,
while The-Ev-e-+:l&Pos.!
and
b9E-t-"i.9l}}ll9.!
Sta.T
6ave
apprhxlnotely equal fank to Human
Interest
and' Social
affairs and Sport, otherwise the only departure
of any considerable
consequence
from the general pattern appeared
in the csses
of some
of the provincial papers. The ,rag61n111..-C-$.-g$S]'
fn.-!gJLE'
The TiJraru He rald,
!r,g-g"iB!g
:ig:e
,
The
Jlaq[gg
-Pgg-Jl".r"lg:g=i!ggg'
and@aI}rankedsportaheadofEconomicactivityin
their relative
proportioning of items in each
paper' This
was probably
because the provincial papers were not attempting
to duplicate
the
encyclopaedic
coverirge of commercial
and industrial
affairs
to be
found. in the metropolit;ns.
For this reasonr relatively
greater
dispessir.rfi is apparent in the distributi:,n
of values for ]iconomic
activity than in aome of the othr;r cetegories.
Anoth.r
minor variation frcm the
gener;rl pattern ie apparent in
the c:lse of
-[!1g--i1-"1soq. +"-"-4*ltg-l'f+f
which followed
the 63me
pattern
as
lhe
Evenint gtql to
give priority to uconomic
activity
and to
Human Interest and Soci:I effairs,
followed
by Sport,
in that order'
Some varia.tion is aleo apparent in the treatment
of CrimerDisaster
and Public Safety,
particulrrd-y by the provincials'
Tne Daill-Igggr
The South$gd.
Times,
fLglggkgs B"V
,H"rt1d-Tribg4et
The Daily
Post
and Thq
J,{eleoL Fye.nine.
t'ieif cr.rried.
fairly high
Percentages
of this
news by comparison with aII but two of the metropolitans
(The
Evening
Post and
.ffre
Cttrist-cftqrctl ):
In ovv'r-811 terms,howcvert
the
table indicates that the editorial
mix of the subject
content of the
typical de.ily neu/spaper
of the system consisted
of an average of
,'8
per cent. of items d.evoted to rler.rnd, the Armed. Services,
10 per cent'
to Politics, 18 per cent. to CrimerDisaster
ancl Public Snfety,
21
'8
per ccnt. to Economic activity,
2C.8
per cent: to Sportt 5'?
per cIltr
to sciuncel 5.3
per cent. to culture
:nd Entertainment,
and 2'O
-l4Jr
per cent. to nisce1.l.-n?ous itens, In most ca'begories there was little
d.epartr:re from the se f igure s
,
as the 1ow value s ob taine cL iJI the calculati o::
of stand.ard d.eviations ind.i-cate.
T.LB_I4
J7
q{Bg
4iI*gg*-II'
;I mr
Qgn[
c
L
I^ri:J;{Iii
g:t
*pi XeIx ry,
DTVISIO,; fN,IlAclI-
i-rI{fI-.ED*l'FiFgf$r,
(m=::96;-2)
lle;;s
paper
E-A4-*-
Subiec'; Division
ttJi-*^'
@ r
428
I{. Z. Herald
25.O 2l.,7
Doninion
23.6 2L,3
Press
25,8 18.1
Oiago Daily Tinas 25"7 18.5
Auckland- Star
21.8 20.8
Eveniag Pos'u 2Q.9 19. o
Chris tchurch Star 22,L 1B.6
Jz . r,l,:-' Str.r
21. B
U.lr-
; &Dgsnui
Ch:onicle 16 .6 24.I
Daily l{ews L9 .2
2l-,6
Ti-rnanr Herald. zt.I 23.7
Southland
Trnes 27 .3
23.6
iiaikato Tirnes 17
'3
23"7
Herald. Tribune 18.6 2I.B
Daily Post
f3,4 2O.3
Eveni.reg ir[ail 2O.7 17 .5
17 .5
LL.z 9,9 4,ro
15 . 1 IL ,4
IL.IF 5 .1+
15.1
11.
5
l.C.7
5.2
17 ,2
10.7 LL,5
5.2
16.9 9.5
wro
B.o
19. o 14-.0 11.
9
6.9
18.5 L3.9 1O.O 6.3
2o.7 IL.S 10.5
5.lr
rg,
4
10"9
7.8 7.5
l:6,g 18.1 3.3
5.2
18 .1
11.
9 7.
O lr.3
15.1 14.9
7.5 3.O
2O.5 11. 6 11.
5 5.7
18.5 74.6 10.1 6.6
17.6
v,5
10.11- 6.1
2O.5 l-1,5 9 .5
l+.7
l+.1
4.2
1.8
3.g L.8
2.r
6.0
4.1
1.5
h.9 3.7
Z.j
4,8 4.O
2.2
5.8 3.3
1.2
4,4 3,5
2.5
5.9 3.7
2-B
6.0 4.3 3.1+
5.3 1,1+
2.O
6.1
'.9
1.9
L.
O
3.5
1.1
4.2 J.8
1.7
5,1 1,4
1,3
7.5 3,4
2.Q
6.7 l+,3 2
.6
Average val-ues
21.8 20.8 1B.O J2.C
$ tart'iard. d.e via., orrr-7; .;;;;
10. o
5.3 5.2 3,8
2.0
Elbj^gS3.go.q$g.:
1,
'Jal
and the
Arrned' Services;
TiTlrffn*flffi"urt
inO. Social affairs
i
t:, C;i-reet
Rrblic
Saf,e'by,
5,
r.cot:orn5-c ec'bivitl';
6,
Spor'c;
3, Cuf,;ure ancl- Inter.'i,airuoent
;
9,
iriiscellaJleous.
o.5 r.3 1. O O.6 0.7
2, Politlcs;
Disaster
enc
7
,
Science;
.
CHEHTM. 'trIT
Ga@4
PAmmNS
0I NBr,'E SE4IU-ON
'J..AJfrd
1. THE VAI'T]ES Ctr T}I3 SYSTEM
---._@
The ne iTsp{rpors of the systen cc4ntt
rvLth the fLon of N.Z.P'4.
m.tcrlal- only by &isoa.nd,ing ner\y itens
and. irrposlng ssvEre 9trts
on tbe
rsnei;1der. I,llut
prlortttos &id. the eyeten
as e vdroLe denou-strato
lJo
nnrlertalCag ttrls ord,ti.ca].
task of ns'lrs selectlon?
Whst selootion
patterng
eperged la tbe nerrs that was prrblishef, a.nd how &Ld tbe i$divirltBl
Dvspapers oo[tparn in perforrranae?
(")
&rg-.sig
Ilhen
g1
percentage olstrlbution
of worci. cuts
nnd.e by the DsvtstrPper
*tr'-s&ltors processing the N.Z.PFA. input ls exarirlned,
anotber clLnension
of fufornatlon overload. isned.{'tely
becones
agparent. Not only
''las
ttte
oSnston supplleA'irtth Eroro nossages
ttrsn it ecf,rLd.
user it was obJJged'
to
art tlre word.oge of nhat it tlld use by nore
than on8-ttrl^fd..
The N. zrP'. A.
Enssages
appearing in ths ne\Tspapes underwent
wordago orts
to the ertent
of approxLnate\y
]5
per oent. of thjr orig5-raaI
anbstantl've
mrdage.
Bhts
O:arcrLation
wgs nade fron the data iJr the N.Z.P.A.
d.etall deok' It
containecl
a separote oard. for evcXr
N.Z.P.A. Essege
whlcb each newslpPer
fur the saroplo usecl,
ond data concorplng
the t'reatmnt
that the mssage
reoeiTed
fui tbese usaggs lcre rooorsd.
on eaoh
card'
Thrst Jf
16
nerrspapsrg
usod
e
trnrtJ.cular
N.Z.P.I.
nossege
,
16 oorrespon&lng
detatl
oards
pnnched rrittr the idonttflring nrnber
of that ort6inal nessage,
a"e
welL as aocmper\yfng furfornatim
about the rpwspaper
usage
of ltt wee to
bfound.lnttreN.Z.P"A,detaild.eok.Sinllar\yrlfnonewspstr'erwocla
partloular x1ossago, there wore no card-g replrsentCng
lt in
t'be dotatt
d.sok. Each dotall card oallltLed
the nunber
of words that hacl' been
pninted. fu its parttoulor negsPaper
115iage
as rlelJ- as tho srbstasti'To
worrdage of the rpssage oonoerrsd.
The oonputer
was
programod to
oonpare these tro vafu:es
and. to eun them
a.s a base fbon whlah to
oa.lotrLate the ssr:fl,-sst naJles for that category.
Ttrrs
lTotal
Wmd'g
BeooLvecil ln Co:lurnn
2 of Tabl.e
1 is the tota.l substsntive
wedage
of,
aL1 itens Ln the N.z.Ra d.etaJrl deok. sccludct
frcr tt
ane tlrose
1\5.
trlossa8es wlulch Troro not usc'l by enjr rnlrslxpor and. those vhiolt rrero
ocni:i1cA in ttte d,ocur:nntsg11 nocLe arrr- for r*rich wor"'& ccrr:1ts Trere not
nar1o.
lTotol
Tlord.s Cu'bt in Cohrnrr 1 is amived. at by subbactisg the
total nunber of vo::'cls priJ:-oec-i
fron the total nunber received.. Newspainr
itens vero
consLd.ered to bo
l
outr nessagos only if they oontalned. ferer
uord.s than tlro orlgi":ral substarttive toxt of the nessage. T,'here
neirs?apers
orj_gineted. an N.Z,p..rir rressa,gop but thensolves prbllshod.
gn
.
anplified
or variont version of what nas transuLtted over tlre rrire
netuorkrsuch an iten vras cre0itod' to then as one fUlJ. usage. This rras
d.one irr ord.or to give a norcr fait;irfl:l rend.ering of the oovere of
N.Z.P.rir rrolis by the nor"Ispr,l:e'rso
1sooil*fy,
nhon a rnlispoper
(as wag
often the
case with netropolitans senrlSng their crnr raen to cover sirorto
events) prrblisherL u report fron sone alternative source which, neverthsJess,
in substanco duplloetecL ttre contont of an N.Z.P.A. Erosso6, a worrl cornt
equ5.tn1enttot,}retofttEcorresporrciingN,Z.P.A.n9ssageFfasattnibutedto
Lt.
Tobl,e 1 gives quantitative
infosration obout ttre ertent of word.-
cuttin6 in the various oategorins of subjeot conterrt. The grcratost nurber
of irorcls vero out in the wtegories of
S?ort ond Ecarontc aativiSr,
rdth Poli.tLos, with Yfar rurd. the Amed Servicesr and ilith
Science rext,
It{ossa5es in the categonies of
Crlre, D5sastor anrL Publtc Saf,etyr of
llunon fatorest and.
Social eff airs, ancl of CuJ.tr:re and.
E:rrtertainnerrt vo4
su'c leiss sevoretry. The rclntJ.rc severitSr of vorcl-cutting in each subjeot
illvision, howevor, is sirown in col-r.uur lr- of tho tebl.
IIore Sport ogain
re,ceived. the mst intonsive treatnent (50 p"" cent.
of the naterlal in thjs cetegory) zuggesting thct the r:ensp,per sub-
editors were facoci with a situation i.:: r;hi-ch they h,ad to nake sone
Tler} heavy cuts" flxis a1:plied.
lnrticulariy
to scno lengthy nessages
oovering the cricke'b
Tbst irr the Unitecl FJrrgd,on anC. the Springbok tour
of AustraLio" They rloro ablo to clc.al- with the re'nci-n5:rg srsss of subJoct
oqttent sonewh,at nore equitably"
1 Ttuis follov'rs a
isocec}rre
usod. by R. Ir. Jones, V.C.Trold,shL and. J.Kn
Hvistsndntr-l in their stu{gr of
rNews
SeLection Patterns fron o State
'
fIS W5ror, in .lot+gg{!.s-n-9.,
39a2o
Sunnsr
1961
,
3f}312.
tlt t2
| _{_Oe
gSI*Ei-
[c[tD
CI]IS IN FUBLIS]IID I'I._2..-P..4..
- -IvS3S.AJilIS
L .BI-.plJ&IEgg
Subject
6.
5.
2.
1,
7.
4.
3,
B,
Tota1
Total
lTords
Cub
127
,B2g
gB
1167
62
1936
6o
r71z
55,fr4
43
1815
27
,626
?+r2O1
312 rO5B
215
1492
212
2258
14O
1462
125t%5
155
1897
106
1555
55,468
fi
[fords
Cut
per
Subject
Divisi- on
50"
o
35"6
29.7
4.3.3
U+.3
28
"1
25.9
43"7
Wo:rd.s Cut
Total Ls
%
of
ITord.s llIL Worcls
Rece ivo rL Roceive d.
9,2
7,Q
lpo6
4'l+
h"o
3oZ
2.o
1"8
il
5)
7,\
1)
6)
B)
7)
6)
5)
1]
?]
56
r74O
1
,3831235
36,2
$.ulio.c!
C.o-Sgrg: Tlar ancl
'uhe
Anred. Services,
1; Politlcs,
2; Hrlnan Iaterost
and. Socie,l af,fairs
,
3i
Cri-ne, Disaster and Rrbllc Saf,otyr
l+t Econorrtc
activity
,
5i
Sport, 6; Sciencc
,
7i
Culture
and Entertainnentr
B.
TIar and. the /usaed. Servicos, Science, ffid Culture
onA Eltertairrrent
\rere treated. ]-ess severoly
yritir
porcontao cuts rangting flon
4313
pat
ccrnt. +n
44"5
per cento In the ccse of Politlcs, ffid also of CrLnop
Disaster ancL Publlc Saf,etSre as vreJ-l as Hunan Intorest
and Soclal- a,ffairs,
tho scoros ranged. fron 25._9 per cont. to 29o7 p* cent. Econosrio astivity
rra's treatett' rnith nedtun severity
at the
35'6
pat cent' leve].'
(t) Prminence Vafue s
The worrLo6e J.oss
j-rrcu:rsed
by the N.Z.P.A. content rienonstagtes
on\r one aspect of conte,nt se1ect5.on, and. f\rrthernore,
rlEly be d-lctated
nore by the relotive over-supply of inf oimaticn in some zubJect catogorles
ttran by any narkod. preferenco on
-i;he
Pri;
of s.rb-eilitors.
A nore
oonprehelsive neasura of tire roletive
prefe:snces oxerted. by the systen
fur dlft'erpnt arees of srrbjoct conten'b is
prorLd.ed. by the proro-tnonce
furdex doscrJ.berJ. i.n Ch" fV, Mothod.olory, Section 3r'A
Nows Proninence
Inrlexr . The signifi-conce
in quantitative te:ns of the najor dLvisions of
N.Z.P.A' content when consicLered. by this oriterion
has alrearly been
enptr,rsLsecl.
(See
Table 6, Ch,
1II,
Tho Perfonrance of tJre Newspaper
Systen.
)
ft mad.o uso cf o, procedure fo:r
n''llosating points to each
nolTspaper in accor&ance with the position of tho iten on the pee of tlre
nefispepor, the relatirre sigo of the hea&Lirre, the add.ition of aqy
lllrrstsotions-.
and. the use of e variely of typogropJdOal
devioes. IIl
1n.
thl.s way each iten of ncws!&per content tlas
given a pron5.nence sooret
and. these scores rrore usod to ascert&in the porfo:mance of the
qysten
ln han&Ljng N. Z.P.L, content.
Tho procedure for thei-r calculation was slightly ilifferont fron thet
foll-owad. in the calculation of the proninence values that rrore shorrn ln
Tabl"e 6
,
Ch.
Ii:t. To e conon:lso in nactrjne tine
,
ttte N. Z'P.Ao flrf,motf,
deck was used. rather than the fULl N.Z.P.A. detail cLook of
9OhO
oard.g,
Thls oonsisted of a d.eck of 1B5O
carcLs representing evorXr N.Z.P.A.
nessago rrhioh had been usod by any of tho nowspapers of the sanple.
rr
srulnarTr of the values scorrc'cl
jn
the varioug paraneters of reossage usego
was
ilrrnched.
i.nto each @.rd.. This
jnclurLod
the snan pron:ilonoe scorecl
by the nossage in its various usc6os as well- as lts lrnan l-Ilustrations
usage. Those tmo values Tyere then ad.C'ed. together in the contrnrti.ng
stage
jn
orcler to take the actual quantity of illustrations nore fully
j.nto
account in aniving at the final pron:inence soorer
T/'3LIE 2
ELo"IryruE--S-q@ry*_QF:N-.-Z-._P,A?_C^QE!IL9
SubJe ct
tr
J'
2.
6.
4.
1.
3.
7.
B.
Total Prorri-nence
6zr9oz
(t)
61
,615 Q)
fr
1217
(:)
4or259
(+)
25
r97t+
(
S)
19
1209
(6)
15rt+)+B (Z)
6
1236
(B)
Mean Prcrdnenoe
126.3 (B)
212.5
( 1
)
163.1 (:)
th4.5 (+)
207.8
(z)
133J+ (6)
143.o (l)
127,.3 (Z)
S_qp-igct
C"JIing:War and. the Amsd. Servioos,
1
i
Polltiosr 2
t
iftinau
Tn-t-eie;1 u* Social a,ffairs,
J
I
Crine, Disastcr
and. RrbJ.:lo Safetyl
4,
Eoor:oruic activ:lQr,
5 ;
Spori
,
5-; Scionoe, 7 ;
Culture
and. frrterbalnnent,
B'
ThB sun of those truo vahes producetl tho
|Tota1
Prccrinenoe| scoreI
ehorrn i-n Tab1e 2 abovo. Becausc of the variptLons that have beon descrLbecl
in the netlrod. of calculation,
these total prorn:inence scores sre not
quantitativu\y id.entical rrith the prourinence scores of [able 6 in Cb. V:f .
Howeter, iJ1 proportional terns, they cro aLnost id.entLcal. [he ra,nk ordor
of the subJeot content &lvisLons is ttn sa$, ex@pt for Po}lt{os
whloh
148.
has noved into second
place at tire expensc of Sport
whioh has dropped
into th:ird. place.
gne
rel.r,son for th:!s ner.y have boon that the nean
total inchage ,lf illustr.ations dcvotec] to Polltj-cs
rlas
Greater
than
that concornecL with Sp,:rrt ard this luls hod. its effect in the resulting
csloulations.
One d.efsct of the nethod. of denonstrating
the rel-ative
prorrinenco
of d,lfferent categorios of N,Z.P.A" conteint
by quantif!5rr3 the prord-nence
scoros they receivoc]
irr the nol;si)opers is thct the significance
of
a4y extrene values
jl
a serios rrnd.er
j-nvestigation
is liJro\y to bo
concoaLed. Conseguent\r,
nscLn pron-inence scores
were cal-cul,rted'
in
order to exaroj-ne tbe vs.luos reclisei.
by each N,Z'P.L oatogor5r
Ln
rel,etLon to th nunber of itens ix it anC. to thcir lrang". This was d.or:e
by ilivi&ing the total pron:inence by the nunber of su.rjrnary oard.s
i-n t'lre
1:nrticuJar
catogorSr
r:ncler ana\fsis to
Blve
ali cverage value
which ls
refe:sedr to in the tables that f o''l'low
as
t
lt'lean Proninenoef ,
table
2
conpares
the total
pron:inence of N,Z,P.L.
subject content
with its
f,rean proruilence ancl denonstrates sof,te
iltoresti:rg shifts
fur signfic'3'Iloe'
Tlro rel.rtive
i^lrportance of eoononic
actiuity
is d.rastically
roversed
t'ror
f1rst posLtion to eighth, Pol:i-tics
rf,oves fron secondr
plaoe to flrstt
and, rJcrr
and the lrrned. Services noves fron fi-fth to seconcL
l:osition.
StorLes
about lTar
and the A:mod Services,
and about Polltics,
though
not
as nunerous os ltens about eoononic
activityr l-fore
Siven
greator
ilrirspl,r;r by ther nevspcpers
than';tbe'r
itons cf subject content,
ed
tlris is
apparont in thejr lllecll prorr5-:rence
scoring. Sinilarlyt
a'
oonparison of total rri-tlr f,realx pron:inence scores for tho various neYrs
gonerating sourcc categories
shons sone
j.:rteresting
djfferenoes
in t'befu
rank ord,or.
(See Table
3
"
)
Journalists
using byllnes, Political
ParLies,
and Anor\]naous aouroes
nove fron near botton of the totcl
irroni.nence
d.istlrlbution
to the top
of the noa"n proninence }lst. CuJ-tural.r oducational
and' associationcl
ojrcles,
and Governnent
sources
(
vrhich
are next ix order) secure on\y
a 1ittlo nore prouinence than clo e clustor
of other nells
genorators
vhioh
are bolow then. S1.'ortilg
and recreational
cj-rcles
and Econon:lc
organisetions
(tlo of the nost nassivo categories
i-n quantitative
tenrs)
are relegated.
to a positi,,n neor the botton
of the
list. c1oar1y,
storj'es
149.
attributed. to ilourneJ-ists using byl5nosrPolitical
i:arti.eorAnonyucrtrs
sources, end. Cultrrral, oduoetional and. associ.atlonal circles(though
on]y
sna,ll propor.tion of tho itens of N.Z.P.A.content) often recelvecl feature'
trc,otnent, ond. r,:.4y of these i-torns lrere also fongtW,
ruI4::
ryE,s'lS$'ls9iEE--0J--[9.-PrA.*-c-
qgB[g
Catcgory
Government sources
Sportin6 an.J recreaticnal circLo s
Ilire serviccs and. nefisp.r.iters
Econoni-c organisatlons
Pollce c:urbs, juclici:.l
tribulrals
16 .oo1
(
6 Cu1ttrral
,
c clucat ionol
,
as so c Sational oircJ.e s 15
,W1
Anorgmous sources 141656
trt
,g1z
( r
t+6
1957 Q
L+)+fi78 (l
w
r7B2
(+
%r6zt
(f
Total hon. Iilea.n Pron.
171
,2
(
5)
1w.7 (s)
153,3 (5)
12j.6
(to)
151
,g
(Z)
|n.B (+)
198.1 (5)
317'.8
( 1
)
12r.7 ( rt
)
1P.t+ (9)
257.4
Q)
Jou.rnalists using
SrU-nes
Frivate citizens
Mcf;ical o.rul
sejontific oircles
Poij.tical pa::tio
s
Region
Nerw Zealand.
$uopo
U.KO
Anerica
The Fcr East
and. South East Asi"a
Au.stnzLia
0thor:
1
o,48g
B
rB34
7 J+15
5
1118
7
B
9
i?]
Conparlson of the rogional
pron:inence scores in Tabl-e
I
shows tlrat
Nev ZealancL novsd fron flrst in the total prontnence llst to thfu.'d tn the
nean prom:i::ence 1ist, vilri1e the Far East and. South East AsLa rose fron
fifth to first position, Inspoction of the prorrinence scoring for these
itens
jnd.:i-cates
tlre'b ttr:is tr&s bocause of the play which nost nenspapers
gavo to ropor'uR of the Vietnarn war and. its acconpanyrng polJltlcal crJ.sep"
w.,L
FR.OM]].IS[CE SCCN.NS OF N.Z.P.A.CO}ITEM
BY REGION
TotaL kom. Mean hon.
1fu'o4
15,38 (6
59,659
(2
1*,9
13O'8
18o,2
1fr'2
211
n1
13O,8
129'^B
27
1329
18
1792
1)
6)
2)
t+)
4
5)
3)
7)
3
5
2
I+
1
T)
27,478 (l
7 1269 Q
Ttr:is emorges nore cLear\y
jn
Table
5
which ana\rses me&n prornftrence
volues i-:e tems of iho varjous subjeot content &ivisions.[he
Far East &Ilui
South East As5a, scored. highost
j.n
the War and,. tJre Arrred Se:fi,:iccs distnrb-
ution, but the Unitod. King&on alnost egu&Iled. its score. The Unitod. Ki4g-
d.on sccre for po}fltical news wes ttre highest
of the entire
seldes(and' nn3'
have owed. nuch to reports of a ConrrcnweaLth Plrlne Minfuterst conferenco,
in London
rirhich was
f,oaturoA
iJr nost ncr.rspapers)
but Now ZeaJ"ntL.md
tho
Far East and. Sou'bh East Asja rrere nert in tbo catngorSr
rritjl approrina'i;e1y
150.
equel soore s. /rustraliil obtained. the lr:i4hest score in the Sports categorXr
(ptosunob\r booause of tJre repcrts of tbc Springbok
tour). I\:rope raterL
srr4rrisjngly hi6h in lilrnnn lntcrest
and Social
affoi.rsr md Nerr Zoalandt
soored well in Sclence
r i)robabr.y*
because woatber reports,
lrhioh Tlore cod'od,
as Scjonce nelrs, lrero pror,r:i.rnentlJ displayed ancl Lllustratod
rdttr';reather
Elaps ln nost papers.
[\ropo soorccl wsIL
jn
tho Crj-ns, Disastor crni.
Publio S"r'f,oty nows as veIL as irith Eoononic activity. The Unlted. Kingd.on
obta'ined. th best scorc+ for nows about
Cultrrre
and
Entsrtainnento fhe Far
Es,st ancl
South Easi Asi.a, and
Othor regions, scored. notluing
j.tr
this
crrtegory.
TABI,E
5
}F$uJLqlryJ{I-cE--s_c_qlEs.0.4Nr3.,FrA..-cgIH{I.uFJ.&Egr-q{.3l*sgpB-cE
Subject Asla U.K. N.Z. Anorioa
E\gope AustralLo Other
1.
2.
6,
3.
7,
4.
5.
B.
AVc,rage
I,lea^n
Pron.
2l+O.5 237.2 228,8 227,9
71 .5 77
"B
2q+,1
159'6
6z-6
160, o
153.5
112,2
l+5ro
Tota].
1297.6
1262'5
949,1+
945.2
9t&.3
9rt,..,O
853,7
567.1
1)
il
4)
5)
;l
201.1
335.9
203.8 167.6 138.3
75.9
'131
.O
I
5O.5
1n
,8
138
.2 8J+,4 2OlF.
9
102.0 115.4 138.7 136.2 171
.7
121
,2
BB.5 1o9.L 18j,7 135.j
g1,.g
175.0
1q9,6 1l+2.5 152.0
114.8 176.5 126,4
16r.5 114.3 1V+.1+ 107.6 199,3
8g,6
-
1r+8.9 11h,o 1ro,7
58"5
115,0
211
.1
180.2 154.9 150.2 1JO,B 1]O.B 129.8
S.qb_i-e_g_!_C_o3*ggi Tfcir and. tho i:srecl S.rvicos, 1i Po1itlcs,
2; Hrrna"n Interept
ancr- Social affairs
, 3i
CrinerDisaster and. Public Sa.fety,
4i
Econon:io
activiaqr,
5i
Sport, 5i Soicnce,
7i
Cul-ture and. Entortainnent, B.
Over.-a11, the nassivo play given to TIar
ancL the Jimed Servlcos
and. to
PclitLcs onerges in Colrun B whero the neans iJr each row atre tota3-lod.. Ths'
attentl-on pald" to othsr subjects appcars to have boon renarkably evon,
ocoept fo:r a notLceabLo C.ocJ-ine ln tho ca.so of Eoononic activitye and. a
sJr:np lrt the caso of
Culture and.
Entertalnnent. Tho avorago f,roan proninonpe
valuos ln the botton ron of the tabl.o a.re & repotLtion of the overhell
nean proninonco scors of Table I+.
2.
3Is._EsBI9Iry'4.{g*-Fj..,0I'_
-rrrE-
}qEli,rrE'4ut:g
TabLe 6 shows the nunber of N.Z.P.A, Ltens in oach slbject clivlsion
tleat ware usod by eaoh sonplod. newspeper durirrg the week surneyocl.
..H
d
rf\+
.Fl
.rt
o()
t{
.r
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f-
cl
q{O
f+{
O
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o
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rn \o
rj .h
HT
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c)
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fis,
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fl$
to
orr 0
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151
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9u.nroag
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pTe.xoH
sot]Ti[| q+nost
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pfcaofi
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assa\$nco@
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tn\O
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rf) r. \o
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cc
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-sr
c!rr
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EpSfi36e
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ct\ Q| $l \o rr\ rr\ (\
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tr5,8 RH$
slr.'-
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(\lrrr-r
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pn53s\3$9
Slrs
F
lf\
o\
tl
4
F,
Hl
gi
st;
4i
H:
ts?j
Hi
'ii
ti
sll
roi
dl
Hl tl
rii qi
B:
v,;
Hr
tfr r
F1
fi:
Hl
e:
lrl;
Ei
fri
!q1
Hi
+
(t
c)
ot?
E
(n
152.
The netropoHtan da.Llies pfus
Ltp-_ASg_tt$J-lggg
usecl nany f,Iore
N.Z.P.A. itens than ilid. the rest of the provinciale in the sanple. The
ayerage percentage of N-12.P.A. ltens
jn
tho total ecLltorl,ll oontent of
each nelrspaper ls al.so shoml in Table 6. It rongocl fron 2t por cont. in
tlrer case of
!he_Tfe!lq!o_
Tlrre3 to
58.5
per oernt. in tho oase of The
Eggt$gfr{_Ltnes.
Th everoge usage rate per rewspaper rra^e Ir9 per oent.
k P*q#n,
The
Eqgg,
I!'p--0ipao-Pg+lu*r;g9e' !@;+*a--OS'
Th
.Dgi-U-Ugwpr
arrd fhg
Lo:ft41#1A!j+g!_
usecl
ffo
per cent. antl ttre rost
used. botween lp-lo per cent.e oxcept for
_f.he'ffqilcqtg _TJ4gs.
(u)
bqererrs+-E'-s{
Content
fabl-e
7
usos tho values of fab1.e 6 to rank oaoh subjeot in aocordance
stiti the priority that each sanpled nowspeper geve it vhon selooung ltons
fron tho N.Z.P.A. input. Theso ranldngs were gfven a concordanoe test an(L
a valuo of W
=
.92
vas obtainod., 5l&icoting a very hih level of
a6reenent anong the 15 newspapers os to th subJect rnatter of the wtre
storLss which they publishod.
rABlEl
TAIIK ORDEII OF SUB]ECTS IN N.Z.P.A. CCI{TNNT OF EAOH
wqru._tHfIEAF_qr
Ncwspopor
N
.
Z. HeraLd.
Dosdnion
hess
Otago Dally Tj-Ees
Auckla.nd Star
EvonS:eg Post
Ghristchurch Star
Dunoilin Star
Tlanganui Chronicle
Taranakt DsjJV Newe
Tinanr Hera]-d.
SoutlriLnnd. tLno s
Walkato Tlnes
Herald. Tribuns
Daily Post
Elening UaiJ.
5,
6.
Subjeot
h.
2.
3.
B. 1,
7,
5768
5768
5768
5668
5768
5768
5678
5678
7658
7568
6578
5678
5768
5678
6578
6578
1234
123i,+
1234
1243
12t+3
123t+
12rt+
12rI
1234
5214
1234
1231+
412'
132t+
2143
1234
W= .92
153.
ttd-s trec.tment of neris selection pettezns is crj.cpted. florn
a study by
David. Golcl lu:ci J.L. Si-rmronsl noho exatri,necL the proposition that there e,rLr
close si-nils.rities betrreen Anericon neusiJcpers in their henclllng of wir'e
sen/ice nows cnd. tho.t
I
though
llepers
di-ffer iJr sone respe cts fron conrrunrLy
tc connunity, the nei7s storios or5-g5aating outsld.e
tJre
conclr.rnity
are the
sarne, uord. for ruord.r . How voll-aj.nierl, then, is the criticisn
often
d.jsectcd. ogainst New Zealand. d.ailies thet in nrny restrncts they alre
2
r:nifprnly nind"ed. in thejr roproduction
of nerlsr ond that thi-s i-s a
cof ect lr[lch is ncd.c f,rore
f.r3or]our1.ced
by the dependonce of scfiie
paiFrs on
the I{.Z.PoA. service?
Tho close correloti-on betrneen tbe subject content
fr"oquency dlstrib-
utions of mossogss sent by the N.Z.P.A. and. rhat the nerlspapors
of ttro
syston printed, be,s alreaqr been observed. Itrere ttre selction
patterns of
individ11c.I newspapers corrfisn
i;hs.t in choosj.ng
tirls nateriaL there wa.s &
lr:igh clcgrea of si
rriLa.r5.ty
anong the gatokeepors at l-o ast o^s to ttre
1:ro1.,ortion
of stori-es
j.n
oach subjcct category that they used. To sof,Ie
erLent, tho criticisn that tbe systen repro&rcos
& sirntl,1r
pattern of news
al-t over tho ccr.rntry
appe3rs
jrstifierl, though whethsr this is considsred'
a dof ect or c drhre d.epenrLs on what tho
$.rnctions
ctr thCI systen
atro thought
to be. Certainly"
the over-alJ proferenco it showed for news
about Econordc
actiuityo about Cri-ure, Dfuaster
arrd Rrblic Saf,ety
( wlrich i.:rcludccl narSr
reports
of
;uilicial
proceo &ings of considorabl,e
pub15.c S.nterest)
anC.
about
polltics,
ildicates ttrat it nay be perfo:ming its serrrioe funstiong
rTitb r or:arkablo,
and. perhap s cornnond.able,
unanui-rr5-ty.
1
rNevs
Solection Pattorns /rnong Iowa Da:i}lest,
sl-oli3i9Lj,,,
2923t
Ea-r-L
1965. leSr-J#)O"
2EL1zabethi;farburton,'AStuqyofthePress|,@'Bi]lS.entep!e1
1951+, 1gg, conpla:n6a
that
t-rrarlety
of nerrs
cna ofinfon
i-s the chisf
La,ck
j3
Nev Zealculcl newspapers. The news
given iJI the norning
papers
overlaps nuch cf the n ,"r :n tt o even:ing
papers and vice versa. Ths
sanc kind- of opin:ion atrpears in both, onn pil:ittcal interests
are tho
sane tlrroughorrlt. S:nitaro"-, noro ths.n 90
per cent. of the responclents
to a Consuner Institrrte $rrvey conducted
in 1966 a8reecl thot the
t
sa.reer:ess, timid.ity of contro'versy
and. lack of vrriters with
ire9s9!11ity
nore the nain defocts
of, tho preu-"t.
(see
consuner
26, L{arch
26 1966
t
15)
.
154,
A further test of the degree of homogeneity in newspaper
usage of the I'1, Z.P.A. content was made by calculating the
standard deviation values for the item frequency distributions of
the 16 newspapers listed in Table 6,
(See
Table 8).
TABLE 8
Subject Mean Standard
Deviation
5,
163.A 71,1
5. 122.0 J5
.8
4.
g8.z
28.4
2.
?7,4
22.5
3,
49.1
19.o
7
.
38.9
8.6
1.
34,_9
9.2
8. 14.8 5.9
Sub
ject
Codipg: ilar and the Armed Services,1
;Politics r2lHuman
Intere: L
ffiffairs,J1Crime,DisasterandPubIicSafetyr41Economic
ac tivi ty
,5;
Sport
,5 i
Scienc e
t? iCul
ture ancl Entertainment
,
B.
The values obtained in this test indicate that there was a fairlv
consistent and compact grouping of items about the mean values of
all the sub
ject
divisions except Economic activity and Human Interes
l-
and Social affairs.These two categories showed
greater variation of
values relative to the meanrsuggesting that the newspapers demonstrateri
some variety in their approach to these areas of the news.Some of the
provincial- papers carried relatively small amounts of this material.
Thus
r
the WanF3nui. Chroni c]_e
,
Thq Daily News
,
The Timaru Herald
t
!!!
i,Vpikato Times
,
The Daily Post
,
and Th.e
lelEon
Evening Mail reproduc ed
Human Interest and Social affairs news only lightly,perhaps because
of lack of space, perhaps because of a preference for local content.
The Waikato Times, The Daily Posj,, and to a lesser extent, the
Wggganui Chronicle and The Daily
{ews
carried relatively felv items of
Economic activityrpreferring a higher volume of local content in thei.r
editorial rnix. All thc'provincia1 paper6
aie in competition with
lerge metrdpolitan
rivtlsr and this is one reison whg some of them
(:rnd
particulerly
The Wlik*lg_gi*Su.
,:nd
The Deily Post) also carry
a relatively low quantity of N. Z.P.A. material.
155
'
1. GATHffiPI]{G DECISICI{S
-
Between the orrgin of a nelrstrorthy event onil the ordinary reacler
there cre obviously c nurber cf
pornte lrt r','hrch a rness&ge rnay u::d-or6c
chasge, d.elayr or even scme
;lrocess
of rejection.
Tlrese positi-ons can be
d.escribed as
rgatest
r',-here e variety of
jcurnalists have the polrer to
ncke iLu-cisions about the trairsnission of c version of the nessa8e to
fnrther positions in the conuunications
ne t''.zork.
In the ca se of ltl
'Z
oP ,l-
"
nelrs there are lilcely to be t'.,io such najor
5i:tes
vithrn l{erz Zeafand
rvhere the
jud.gnents
cf inrliviclual nelrsilapcrrnen ancl the values of the
institutions in rrhich they are enployed., ac iiell as a great nar{f technicrl
c:nsid"erations, are ilrportant in the seiectj-on 'rlrocess.
Ole cf tirese is
the sub-ed.itorial de sk in tire
putrcular nei'rspaper office; another is the
ed.itori al ccntre of the itr
"
Z .F
'.Ct
. it self .
Studies carriecl out in the United. Sta.tes have d.enonstrated.
that to a
large extent the rare agency has becorre tire recou.nender cf nelrs to the
telegraph sub-ecLitor rrhi-; evaluate s it accorrJing
to the way it is sent .
u
In a classic re see.rch
pro
j
ect by
f,ialter
Gieber/ it lves fowrd that there
tvere no naj or d.if ference s in nets selection ancl d.isplay d.ecisions
anong
16 telegraplr eCitors. Just 1.,'ha.t clifferences of selecticn
d.id- occur alrong
the gatekeepers ef tlre
j{eu
ZeaLend, nelrspal-ler sample uill be cliscussed
in
detail leiter, nreantine it cen be observed- that the i;'nrted. States experienco
is highly relcvant to the riaSr 1n i'rhi.-jh i,l . Z.P,-I!. content
is irand.led. by i't-eri
2e aland. nerrspapers . The pictu:.'o exler6e s of a h:rghly co-operative set of
nelvspa.pers n:a.king extensive use of the ltr,Z.P.J'.. service ancl. approaching
the
task of content selection i:'rtir a higir degree
rif
'*niforrnity. Ind.eed., it has
sometiroe; been the practice in lteii'ZealrLnd. iiretropolitan centres for pairs
of d.1ilies to co-operate in the e-':cliange of li.Z.P..&. copy'
flte sub-
erlitors of sone norning papers have custornarily sent across to their
opposites on the evenings, the galley procfs of unused uire stories
rvith
the file of unused.
.,are
ne ssage s. Similarly, the evening nen lrave left
tAcross
the Desk z .t' stud.y of 16
@.,
33:4,
Autunn 1956,
Tclcgraph nclitors
|
,
),,r?J-leJ2.
156 .
their unused. copy and galley
1:roofs
for their norni-ng colleaguesr
trris
ls ccnvenient fcr several reasons. Souie continuity
in the flovi of wire
nel'rs ancl its treatrnent ccn be obta:ined. bctlreen
pepers; furtherraorer the
practi.ce prcvi cLes ear'1y copy which carl
innccliately be sent 'rio
the tfpe-
setters as sccn as the sub-eil"itorual staff cone on
.iuW. Another way of
provirhng earl-y copy is sinpl;r to c1i-p fron the norning or cven-'-ng nel''s-
paper those I'i,Z.P.A. iterns nl:rch rt ni6;irt be convenient
to l:eprcduce
either in full- or in sor:re alrl-.r.eviated. fct:trt.
O1 sone I'Tev; Zealanrl d.ailies, ti:er flo'r of rdre copy from the teleprintr-r
i-s watclierL by the eirief sub-eclitor, cr by a nells eclitor, vilro d.eciil'es
vrhethcr or not to use a particular iten, rrltet'e it is to be
trrIaced.,
and
even what presentatrcn it
j.s
to heve. fl:ese r:etr leaf tlrrough the
material ;nC allocate it to a subord-inate for furiher treatnent, or put it
into the overflol'1. Ox such
i)apers,
one n3n nay virtually d.ecid.o the
arran6enent of all tlie ir:nportant areas of eciitorial content.
ILls
d.ecision-naking nay be influenced by neyrs conferences
and. a varieff of
other factcrs, but for all practical purposes he is chief
gateiceePerr anC-
on all inportr-nt questions of ]lerrs seleetion ancl d.isplay his chcice
is
likeIy tc be clecisive. This -i-s not to say that cn some large metro-
politan
nerrspapcrs a considerabie
rlcgree of specialisation
ney not prcva:l.
to tl:e ex'Lent that 'chc cverseas cable sub-ed.:Ltor or the nelTs ed.itor, for
exrunpIe
,
night nct have consid erable autonomy as to what materic.l to
reprod.uce in the ereas cf tire
i)ilFer
under his ircr:ediate ccntrol; but for
the mcst part, the structure
r:f the lT ,Z,P.A. netrs as it is published. in ti:l
dailies is likeIy to Te'r;resent a c',:.rcli-tioned resptnse on the perrt of e
snal1 nrrnber of gatekecpers to the
5ener,';l
florr of rvhat t s supplied
by the
i'iire aC,;ency.
(
a
)
Trire Service--Txclusiops
Some stories, hoviever, lTere not l:andled. by the nel?sjleper
gatekeep'ers
because the I'T.Z,P.A, itself decid.ed. to exclud.e thern. Xxaninati-on of tile
message file for the i-ieelc covered- by this stud;r d.iscloses that 137 itens
vrore not sent on to the nerrspapers of the systen for a variety of reasons.
this coul d. be d-escribed. ais an initral infonratioir Joss of approxi-irrately
six per ccni. of tl:e grand. total of 21200 messages received for relay to
the ne',Epapers . Table
9 shol,rs the sub
ject
content d istribution of the se
itens. The excLusions were
most heavily inposed.
in
the subject ca.tegcries of Crj-ne, Disacter and.
h.rblic Safety, Politics, Iiunan Iniercst er:C. Sr:cial affairs, anul 1{aF and
the J\nred. Sorvices. lris :-,r,r.teria1 ccnstituted. 70,9
pcr ccnt. of the
total- items exclucled., Approx:-:etely 66 per ccnt. of the e,<c1uc1ed.
messages cnme fron :.verseas regicns and-
Jl; 1:er
cent. ccille from I'ieii ZealanC.
sources, su6:estin6 that the Tr
"2.P..[.
rnight a'c tjsres be relatively over-
suppliecL r:,ith intcrnational ner,,s. The heaviest
exclusions !?ere inposed.
on ],lond.r.'..,'r s ne ssages
(
approxinately
[6
per cent . of the total number of
exclusions) inclicairng tha.t systern capecity ancl message selec';'ian
proble:.:,1:
rnlght be most trouble sone at thi s tj-.:ie beceuse of the accilrulation of
nel?s reatter over Sund.ay l'rhen n:ost cLailies in iiev Zealan'J. do not publish.
TASIE
q
ITEI{S EXCLTIDE! BY TilE N.Z.P.A. . BY SUB.TE,CT
Subject
,+.
2.
6.
3.
1.
5.
B.
7.
%
2\-.1
21 .2
10 .2
13 .9
11 .7
10.9
5.1
2.9
Itern Fre quency
33
29
1L
19
16
15
7
,+
g- 1 00.0
Subje?t Cod.ine: lYar and. t}:e Arnrecl Services, 1i Politics, 2; lluman
Intere
st and Social affairs
, 3i
Cri$e
,
Disaster and hrblic Safet;r,
4i
Sconon:-c
activity,
5;
Sport, 6i Scicnce
,
7;
Cul"ture and Entertainment, B.
T;rcntSr-trro of these exclusions can be clismissecl fron further consid.cr*-
ation on the ground. that their content was corrsred. elsewhere, or had. been
d.ealt lrith previously.
Another four i'rere nct acuepted- becriuse their
content was consid.ered. too loca1 in sign-ificance, ancl one
'i'ras
tiritten in
a lray vhich rrad.e it too d.iffrcult to foJ*lorv. Ti:.e remain:ing overseas
messages that rrere exclud.ed. Irere niostly cf lovr priority
and. d.eal-t rd-th
ninor eventsr or consistecl of background. connentaries on rnatters of no
special i-:nportarloe , Hovicver,
judgrents
of this kind are e sseut
j-aIIy
subjective. Sone of the ercludecl messages listed. belori cou1cl be
consiclered.
just
e s noi'rsllorthy a.s nuch of the naterial- that was in f act
approvecl by the Ii
"
Z.P.-4,, for transm
'-ssion
to the rlewspaprs .
158 .
I'Crrrer Cor:go'V-it:e-Ir::esrd.ent
CcnViCtec
of trcason'
Nkru:nr-h tr,ii4: sperci3l coux:;u
;'cr i,iinisters at id-eological
institute'
Dlcg Gregory, a ir.egrJ conecJ-ien,
injureci
t-n civil
riglrts
d-emcnstraticn'
Soutir /friean gol,rertrncnt llan
io bal colurunists
fron legal
posts
'
l\us-uralian
Ilrire :.iin:ster in iire linited St:.'t,cs.
l{"S"1,-l'. lrlorrr. Ijal'uy crrnf'crcnce spec.ula.tes
abcu'u
ri5ht ivinS'
A
"J-,.P.
shc;ul.l. aaopt f in: fref cnce lolicy
'
'
Si:i profcssors d-isnissecl
froil T,a5;os Universit)"
Ilian i.:ifled- :Ln }inbau.l ln erg,unent
over tir:' of fish'
Jury fails to ftgree
in l,ct:dun cc]]spr-rc.cy
case.
.!anl; ,:f Fecp.]iets chinrr
:rn ;jinga.ilore
to clc,se
d.o'l',i'n.
P::ospccts r'o:: ti.r.gr'T
inclust::y
rn Papua'
!'uture of Syd.i,ey 0pera. Iicr'ise -
Iurtlrenjrore
it coulcl be argucd.
thl'c ';itc
follotrrnS
naterial
about $rro-
foo.n'
politrgs t'inr: t'iorthy of tre.nsnission
because of
its general
political signif
icance .
Erharrl- iiscusses cLjfferences
of opini on l;itl' De Gaulle
'
De Grru-l] e rnrfl. Ilrltard agree
tc holrl sonfnrence
'
.Franco.-German lrt'"i.tud-es
to swrniit CCrr('erence
.
France ne)- tc,i':e part in nezt
tfail-ext
lla'uo exercise'
Frarieo-Br
=
ti sh ';all:s cn intcrnatir,i:al
liriurr.iity
'
Eccnonic ref orriis ln Yugosfa via.
It cculd. alco be contenleC-
iiiat {}ocounts
of a
United- l]tntes cciurt
case
in r;hioh n. moclel
'r'ia.s
acqurtted-
of a charge
-of'
vrearing
ind'ecent short;''
arr Albert liall- beat
i-:oetry
rec:L';a14, ancJ
the 1965 San Sebastian
Fikl
Festival rcsul'r,s, rlefe all itens of
genera-1 rcciologicirl
significance
as
ue1I a s entcrcaimci'rt ',rc.il-l-e u.nd iiel:e also
rrorthy
of c. ploce in a nel?spapex
tryi'g to
pui be i'ore
i
ts read-ers c conprelrensive
acsount
of r-iorld- events
'
Ind.eed., c I:,11:lte sensrtionally-mincled-
pres$ than the lrTerr Zealancl
one niglit
have J'eatured. such
r:ratrr;ers as
the nod.el, the irlbert liall
,
and' the sjx
professor.scfLaSosattheollprgn$gofmoreprcsaioaffairsifithad.been
6iven
the cltan;:e
.
/rs for tlre exclusions
in the itrevt Zea]and
na'cerial,
it r'ri5hi be a
reasorrable
etroupf: con';ention
ihct tfie o:'ficers
elected at the CotrnCil
of
]trev Zealagd. Fig Dreede:s
f
an:rual sonference,
t[e results
of the I{ew
Z,ea\arfi. FeC.eration of Country
Girls
t
publle speeking
cornpetition,
the
vielrs of ller'.i Fly:routli bar roon
Eroups
ab'rut
increased
beer
i:ri'ces'
an
announcenent
tlpt the i-nportation
of bailuoon scales
nould-
be increasecL,
version of this ltem attributed'
Jr:ne 22 1965.
,+ The Pre-E, ltoivever
,
pub li shed. e
.
to :.ts Lonclc,n corresPond.ent
on
159 ,
a report of a flaming satel-lite.
in the sky at Tokomaru Bay, the results of
the New Zealand National /rccorcli,rn Contest, the Nevr Zealand. Xed. Cross
Societyt u shipments of milk polder to Pakistan, a lr{ember of Parlia.ment
I
s
adventure s nrrth the Totalisator /rgency Board, the Llasterton Rrblic
Xelations Offieerf s vievs on l-i-censing lavis in Nev Zealandr or evcn a
Dannevirke civil servantrs responses to a suggestion carnpaign being run by
the l,[in:istry of ltorks, \?ere all matters of linited rather than national
interest. But the I\T.Z.P.A. gatekeepers also vetoed. reports of si:c court
cases. Three of these involved d.efendants eharged. r:rith rape, the others
dealt r;ith less
serious criminal matters. TLre agency also thou6ht that
tt'to itens of hr:.nan interest trere not suitable for transmi.ssion. One of
them was a Nelv Plymouth message about the airard. of an unusual Spanish
honor.rr by General Franco to a resident of the city, the other vas an iten
(which
lras accepted. as genuine by several South Island. newspapurr) to tlre
effect that
rlord.
Bourbont, successor to the lrench title of Marquis de
Bourbonnais, r/as living rn obscurity in
Queenstorvn.
The folloning nel?s from gover,ruaent sources lvas also cut, though it
couId. be argued that it may rvelI have had" qualitles of widespread. interest:
ld.P, cal*ls f or inquiry into rnentaf health services
Statenent about staff recruiting for nental health services
trthitebait research infornration available from l,'hrine Departnrent
Department of Agriculture report on rnilk treatment stations
Secretary of InCustries and. Comnerce vievs on vocational
training
Acad.eu'ric board.s and the control of teachers
I
colleges
N.ZoB,C. cond.uctorts plans for riorl-d. artists
trre service also killed- an item to the effect that a rugby league
test uouId. not be televrsed. cl-irect to New Zealand, ed another one giving
the anslvcrs of the nayor of a North Island. tolrn to criticisn
published in
N,Z. Truth about his alleged. involvement in a land. speculation.
f,bon this :.t appears that the I'i.Z,P,.{r. d.lscri-ninates against certain
kincls of cor.rt cases,
i
nposes sone restraints on the transmission of items
that it
consid.ers wrreliable or too locol in interest, and. cloe s not vish
to act as a forr:m for the d.iscussion of crusacles launchort by a rival to
thc daily press.
16(r.
It is also sensitive to the activities of pressure
Sroups.
A statu-
nent by the sccretary of the cyclc scction of the Autonotive and. Cycle
lihole salors
f
Association in Chrr s tcliurch vas re-trritten
in such a i7ay thc t
spccific detail conccrning a governncnt decision to forbid. the importatioir
of anything but token qrnntitie s of bicycle s from overseas was converted.
into loose generall ty. Tne nane of a large firrn bcing
6ranted.
a nronopoly
in the manufacture of cyclos in liTerr Zealand. tras onitted from the re-
riritten version along i;ith othcr infor"nation. A follorr-up
to this
statcment rras macle
j-n
the af ternoon by the cycle associationt
s presiclent
but it rras cut conpletcly.
ft allegecl
that the llj-nister of Ind.ustries
and. Comme rce and- the l,{ini ster of Customs l?ere using the f ind.ings of a
Tariff an6 Development Board inquiry to gra.nt protection to the Nevi Zealand
ind.ustry in a manner not consid.ered.
by'che board and. to an extent in
excess of that rccommend.ed..
Ttre Id.Z.P.A. staff also rc-i'gotc a statcncnt
by the South Canterbury
Rrblic Relations officer criticising
the Mt. Cook National Park Board. anrL
the National Parks /iuthority for their rejection of e locel compenyrs
application for approvnl to build s. notel near the Hetmitage . The re-
vrritten version tonecl d.otm some critici sm of the Lnncls snd Survey Depart-
ment end cut somc details of the company|s
plans.
An item about the opening of & new factory in lfellington ms exclud"ed-
a s
I
free publicity
I
along rvith othcr rtcms about the crrard of a Nerr Ze alan,1
tr'e1t and Tc:<tile l,tc1., safety
prize, and d-evclopments
in r1ylon
prod-uction
at a factory in Shannon. TLre report of the U,A .0 .D . Fricndly Societies
I
annual meeting vras also exclud.cd., and so rzas some of the discussion
on
pricc
s at the annual confcrencc of thc d.airy section
of Fed.crated Itarmcrs.
A statcmcnt by thc chcirnan of thc Dertrancl RusselJ Pcacc Found.ation
izelcoming en announcencnt by thc Primc l,'linistcr
(tt.;
'
I{olyoake
)
that he
would cxpcct ncgotiatj-ons in Vietnan to include Victcong reprasentativest
but taking him tc task for calling them
t
f ecele ss men
r
nc.s also exclud.ed-
by thc 1'l"Z.P,A.
Such examplcs ind-icate thet the rrire service
practies a ccrtain
amount of gatekccping of its orrn aceord encl in the process toncs down or
rejects sone
pressurc group mltcrial. Holvevcr, this rlas not alviays
un-
f avourable to the group
c onbernecL . The re ria s one inte rc s ting example during
the sample veek in rhich the N . Z . P .A , excluded. an itcnn at the
161 .
request of e pressul.e group. A d.ebate rras held. at Yictoria University of
l-/ellingtoir ancl sturlents voted. 185 to
51
in favour of a motiotr
f
that thrs
house vri1l noi fight for
Queen
cncl Countryl.
th:-s item lvas published. itr
The Dominioq and
Jbg
New Z,ealand llerald, but siudetit representatives
complairred to the I'I"Z.P,-/'.. that the debate l?as not open to the press and
the I'i ,Z.P.A. message
,
accor,1ing1y,
I,'Ias
not sent
'
One further i-nrpedi:nent to the florv of nelrs clerives from the possibil-
ity thct ind.iviclual nerrspapers themselves might fail in their respollsibil-
ity to contribute an account of a nerrslrorthy event to other mer,tbers of the
networl;. Scnething of this sort seems to have occurred. in the ciise
of
one of the l{orth Island. provincials rvl:ich rall a scoop
to the effect 'chat
l,rl}Rice Davie s
,
n f anous .Br.iti sh ente rtaj-ncr, had. been invited to sing
at a l{avrkes Bay cabaret. I{o version of this appeared., of any sta65e,
in
any othe r l{er:r ZeaJand. d.a
j.Iy
paper,
lre
sumably
because nothing concernlng
it
1yas transmittecl on the I,I.Z.F.I., systen at
ihc tine.) Similarly, a South
Islancl daily carriecl a front page story of na.tional, s.ncl
possibly inter-
national, signif icance to the effcct tho.t there rias a d.octrinal split
in
the ranl:s of the Netr Zealarrcl Connunist
Party. Yet no account of this 17cs
transnittecl th::cugh the sYstem,
(l
)
Nevrspaper Gub
Holr c1id. the netrsjleper gatekeepers d.ea1 lith the general problern of
content selcction r,'hich con:flronted
thern as they processecl the N.Z.P.A"
material? Oo the v,'hole, the sanple shotrecl
littie evid.ence of attempts
to
re-r'pite or reorgani-se messages so as to
give rea.ders a more coherent
and
continuous version of events. But there riere some occasional
exceptions
rrorth noting, Some papets r?ere stinulated
by itens in the overseas file
t.c inquire c.bout iheir possible losal significance
or application.
.&.
Nerz Zealdncl. I{eral4 investiSated. thn ;or1.. d.one in lilev Zea.land to assist
heart cases by the use of electronic devices and
published. a. locaIly-
orienta'Led. story about this ,
flid_Igdli4g
- Star mad.e its oi'rn inquirie s as
to r.'hether ],Ieli Zealc.ncl hospitcls folloved. Brltish
practice in keeping a
tblaclc
bookt in irhlcir to recorc] t}:e activities
of chronic
mallngerers.
more vid.esPread
a
perrnit for
5
llerrs of tiris affair
r',hen the ]dinister oi-
I'liss Rice Davies to
Tias, hoi-;cvcr, eventuallY
mad.e
Irunigrutiotr refused- to issue
enter thc country'
162,
Sone
papors nagagocLto
gcononise on spacc
by Hor8ing several
rolated. itens into one conprehensivo story.
For exer:plo,
both
IF-.h"99.
and
T-he-W
C'ealt t,'ith a scquonce
of rep'crts
about a sh:ip'
lrri.;frts
I
striJco
j5
ffc115n,rtcn
by ttr:is ne thod.. In each coso
,
th loca1
eveni.ng ne'ilspapers hacL carrierL vory bri-of
accounts of tho affajr. Tho
norruings printed the Lirlusccl parts of tl:o texts thct had been sont to the'
evonings the 1ry bcforc, along
r,;itb tho nerv naterial
they trad recoivecl.
Tl::is treatnent geve nore continuity
to the N'Z'P.A. content
thc.r: it
wou1l otherwise bave pcsscssecl, but rucourso
to it roquires
tino
(wbich
is not a-h,rays cvailcble) ancL a noiLest degree of ski-|] on the part of
sub-o&ltoTg o
f_ip_Igi"g
canried
out sono extonsivo
re-vrriting
of N.Z.P.A.
gossages
which i,t vas usirrg
jn
leait positions,
and. it nanagod
to conpross
o J,:rge nunber of itens into d.aily colunns styled
tN.Z.
Nows
jn
Brief
I
oncl
tNelvs
Spotsf .
W
ran
a sj$ilar colunn entitled-
tspotli8ht
on thc lirorlat. Sr.rcre of the provincial papors shovsed.
ingenuity
i.:r thoir r.rste of overseas nateriol,
TlleiJe]*og@,
for ilstu'nce
t
carrier] out sone re-vrriting
of introductions
as well
as sone editorial
syntbe,sisi.ng of nessages,
parbicular$
jn
the case of itens reirorting
the
progress of tho Viertnan 114r. In one issue it neat\r
tjod' an iten about
jlustrelian/United.
States accord to an acccunt of a nooting
betvlcen
hosiclent
Johnson
anrl Sir Robert
l'{enzies in Washington'
This forrred'
lort
of a ca,ble page plctorial spread. beside
an analgan of lvar roporta6o'
!&l@,
yrhilo
6iving
a stron6l loc.r.l enphasi-s
to tlro neTlst
rlas also hjhly consistont
jn
its al?areness of events both
i-n the Unitsa
States
o,ndi
j-n
South East Asja. J-,ctbcrs to the ed.:ltor
were
given clouble
co1:inn foatgre treetnent,
ant1 a fcnrn
on Viotnen
quoted. rocr].ersl rriews
extensively. DurJng t}re sanple l-reek, th,a paper colsied
a full-Fego
d.ispJ.ay advertisenent for
tvi-sit
U.S.A. Woek*Go
lvlatsont.
Tluis uaa
supported by an intenrior,r wittr a United.
States travel
ageincy rL:irector"
A
United. States policy d.ocision to
jncreaso
the forcos in Vietnnn was
rnad-e i.nto c front pago 1ead, and th:is rras foJ-lowed by for:r other itons
in
&igest
forn, describing other developnents
i.rr th Vlatran
situation.
An cccount of
tJ:e Ner,v Zealand. Prime Mi:rister
lunching with the Japanege
Errperor rocoived.
a big
P1,r3r
and it was
jnterestSng
to note that thls
newspeper also ran background featr"ros
on Rhodesia
duri-lrg tJre sarnple
vfook.
163 .
(
c
)
Sub -EilitoriaL
Teohnique s
In sone nerrspapers, hoi'rever, the stand.ard.
of cable $r"b-editirg
ras
u::a'fcl:i-"-
1y feeble, Ttre eliches, cable-ese ancl banalities
of the original rrire colly
rrere, in many instances, reprod.uced. rzithout alteration.
Sone pa'pers
slavishly
rep::od.ucec1
gobbeis of cabLe messages to
give a congloroerate
treatrnent to the Vietnan r,Tar, but the consequence
of this lras that parts of
the resultant stor:ies
}acked. coherence.
In some of the
published ma'cerial
"
there r-rere too feti explanatory erosshead s and too
little eviclence of carc
or thou6ht in sub-ed.iting,
Illustratj-ons of ten lacked relevance
to the
content of accompanying
nessages and seen
to have
been used largely
in
accord.anco irith some
general notion tlrat a
page of nevsprint recluires sone
sort of pictorial light relief, vhether or not rirat
is provicLed'
j-s
of
importa,nce or sign:ificance
.
Some vT;r crude niethocls l;ere used. to d.eal. vlith the nessage overload.
problem. The most obrrious of these r?as the decision to i-mpose a total
veto on
publication of the iten. For lnstance, only three out of 16
pctpers
publshecL a me ssa6e
to the effeot that Catholis
prie sts ought to be
allovicd- to marry; only tvo published the intere sting
f act that the ]'tayor of
Ideri
york
lnd resignecL; and only frro the d.isturbing fact that suastikas
had'
beenpi:intcd.onaJevishmerror.ic.1inGernany.Sirnr1ar1y,.@,'
perhaps in d.eliberate prrrsuit of ihe unsensational
r
rei ected a story
to the
effect that it',.ias proposed. to give dancing lessons to ttre inriates of
\,talkeria prison and insteacl ran an accompartying
iten about the
possibility
of release hostels Lreing established.'
Techniques of truncation ancl fragrnentation
,'lere used. by all
papers,
sometime s to obtain brj.ef paragraphs f or use cs fillers at the bottom
of
a colunn. Oscasionall-y this had ,Lisastrous results. Xeoders of
-&,-Daily,
A
g1qr' for exarnple, $ere teft in sus'pense
over the price of Japanese c&xs'
An itern concfud.ed. rrith the statemcnt that
tthe
grod.els
prod.uced by the nerl
plant rrlll range fror: the Toyota
700,
the lolrest priced car
in Canad.a,
tor
-....
Presr:mab1y tfuis l?as a case of a d.ropped. ]ine of t]ryer ox a coarposit-
orial error, rother tiran an arbitrary cut, but the effect Tlas one of
r,qystifrca'Lion r,-hetever the reason. The d.evice of uslng a large nulber of
brief itens from the overseas ne]rs
6ave
l'iid.e coverage to
vorlcL events at
6 June 16 1g65,
9.
164.
the cost of severe truncation,For instance, The Dominio.n eut an
item about the British Farliament from a
)OO-word
baekgrounder
about the conflicts to be expected between the major politieal
parties and the issues for debate to e cryptie
J5-word
announcement.
How adequate is such treatrnent? Providing that in the first place the
material is written in a suitably brief form it may he a convenient
solution to a problem.
tsports
Snippetst were published by The Otago
Daily Times in this way. Similarlyr The Christchurch Star managed to
extend some of its Parliamentary cover3ge in a colurnn called
t
Parliament in Brief
|
.
Some papers used a technique of fragmentation whereby portions
of a story were published
on dif f erent days. For instance
,
The
.E,vening
Post published
165
words of an 845-sor4 overseas message about a
United Nations discussion of Australiafs role in New Guinea in two
instalments over two issues. SimilarlVr The NgIson Evening Mgril
published
an item,originally of
749
words, about people returnJ.ng
their medals in
protest
at the Beatles reeeiving the M.B.E,, but this
appeared in two segments.
One
part, consftsting of 171 wordsrappeared
on the front page
I
the other part
n
cut down to
74
words
I
was published
on page
3
the following day.
There were
r
of cour,se, some mysterious delays in the way in which
j-tems
were published.Readers of one North Island provincial were told
on Saturday that Ivlary Revell
r
arr Australian long distance swimner,
;
was getting ready to swim across Sydney Harhour' But this was a
Thursday evening I\l.Z.P.A. message. A further one on f'riday had
already announced that she had sueceeded in this feat, and a Saturday
one eontained a 212-word intervieur with her on this subjeet.Readere
of this nervspaper were being regaled with stale, incomplete information.
Unfavourable plecement
is probably the easiest sanction to invoke
against an item which is thought to be not particularly ne.',rsworthy.
'
For some curious reason, one of the South Island provincials buried
an important announcement about a 10s, drop in the price per cwt. fop
New Zealand butter in the British market in an obscure position at tlt"
bottom of the cable page when sueh an itern could well have been mad.e'
into a lead story. W:s this an error of
judgment, a fail-ure of
percept-
ion, or som:thing imposed by the necessities of page eomposition and
impending deadlines?
(")
[orr. Vsaeo_Jleg.
Tab4c 10 id.entLfies
the nunbcr of sanpled. neuspapers which usecl
each of tho 1B5o
N.Z.p.-t. nessages that were publishecl witlr.in the systen
0uring tho sanplc perioci.
Tho avercge
nunber of papers
using each nesseo
lIes J+.8, but fror: tho ttbLe it can be calculated. that
!2
per
cent. of
the nessages appoarod
i:: only one to four noristrLlpers, and. 86 per
cent.
elpeared.
jJl
ono to eight nelrspapors.
TARIE
10
I*rTq=-q-SttlP-4ffi*url$gF---W
No. of Newspapers
i.r: rrhich llessages
Appeared
TotaL
100.0
1
2
3
l+
5
6
7
f)
c,r
9
10
11
12
13
1l+
15
16
No. of
Mossa6es
2fr
239
239
?n
220
1U4
122
105
n
64
40
27
15
10
11
9
1B5o
f6
of
Total
13,'9
12.8
12.8
12.4
11
.g
10.o
6,6
5.7
l+.2
3.5
2.2
1.5
O.B
o.6
O.6
o.5
Only 1[ por cent. eppeareA in n-ine cr r0oro papers. Tttis suggests th,at
the systen as a wholc gavo largo-scale recognitton to a relativeJy sm,1l
oore of items and. selecterl irith a good. rLeal- of variation from the bulk of
tlre romajnd.er. It ind:icates that although tho ildividuel newspapers of thc
systenr nay have beon publishing
content that was si'rnil,ar. ia its
lroportiores
of subject mattor, there nay have be,en considerabls oclttoria1 narlety in
ttre prbicular
items actrralJlr
seloctocl for reprochrction. For instance,
258 itens appeared.
only once, and,ZJj
only tw"ice. This onsners sone of ttre
critj.cisln of ex@ssive lromogoneity of content. The overha-ll proporhlons
of subject content may be s{nt].ar.fron poper to paper and,
ttrls l.s not
166,
neoessarjJJ a defec:, lxrt
j-ndividual
nevspapers are by no rnarut lnprdsoned.
jnside
the stnrctturaL bor:ndaries of tl::is f ornuLa. They aro abler lf thoy
vLsh, to exert corlsiderabl-e fnoed,cn as to what specS.fia itens tbey ln fact
fuoid.e to pubJ:.sh" It also pronotes the f\rrther inquirryr what sort of
i.tens
.',Tere
givc,n such Iow priority as to appear tn onJy ono or fiiro paPers:
and, why ili-d, the s;rs'l:en appear to be so urrfavourably
ilisposed towards then?
A proJ-ini::r:17 anal;rsis of tha low-usage naterla]. shovs tlrat not on\y diA
scrne neitsp:r,1tr-':';i u:c a mxrber of nessases very scantl$,
a totaL ot 211 of
the or5.ginal i\i.Zo:P".Ao f,ressages were not used. at aIL by any newspaper.
(See
Table
11
"
)
Th:ls r.epresen'bs
a total of aptrnodrnately
10.5 per cent.
of
tJre NJZopoAo lniru-b file and. it is rorghly ccmSnrable
vrith the wastage
of
7
per cento no'bed. i:r
'ite
Jonos, Iro1.d.al:J.
and Hvistends'tlL
stnr{y.
7
TJLBIfi
11
N&,l.-4r:-rps,lF-s+lml
FIF,rru
Not Used. One Paper Trvo Papers
lotaL
Duplications
Doounenterl
Renalrrd.or
13
46
154
m
J\ggregat:'-r,S trese uar.secl nossages vritJr those used. by one or two
pape.rs, tho res'ri-;L:rg
'lota.l
of
J10
was clerived and. the cha:racterlstl.ss of
ttre materia1 incl.'i:cjcd- iri it seno exani.netl rnore close$. SiJrbf-slx
of
those itens Trere clisnis;:od. fron ftrrther consideration
on the grcnrnds that
they uor 1a'':5e\y auplications of naterlal covered elserlhere ln the rrire
agency son'ice" Sin:ilarJ-y,
a fiirthe
1t2
were &lsposed of on t]re
ground's
ttrat flrey consj.s'i;cd. of C.celucentary reports either about sports ffuchues or
ootrnercial.
aci5..';iii.cs of relatively ninor significan@.
Tturs it ooul-cl. be
gatd
thau
J/;-
per csnt, of the I'tr.ZoP.A. input register of 2C63 ltens was
eold.on allc;red. to
!3sr
by the neuspaper gatekeepors, but Less than two-
ttr:lrd.s of this neterraL
(+SZ
5,'bens) cortalned news and. irrfometj.on otr any
particular sign:ficallce
"
These itens were placetl in a spectal Iow-trsate
register and. closeiT scrutjn:i-seclo A total of B5.B per cerrt. of then oa,ne
fron overseas souyces! in&icating that to a large ertent their lm
uti'llqation nay l:eve been a cofftequence of lr:folrration overload. ln the
7
T{evn Selectj.o:r Patterns fron a Stato ITS 1Tl$ef
r
Jorrna1isq9.rfr33,
Sunrrer
1961
? 3oi-312
"
6
192
W
w
24
6,
152
&
29
85
1t$
8
Total
fic]-d of intcrnr:tirnnl
stcady
i-nca'c,ese in thc
se, thc wgelc
ProSr'-tsscd.o
(
Scc [abIe 12.)
167 .
ne\7s.
Ilroir distribution
by d.ey of oriSin
shows
i''
nr]IJl)or
r..f
Bes.ecOs
bOinS trcatocl
r'i-th low
priori?
nccr\r i1 qtr.r:rtcr of thcro origirr.zting
on Sntqrtlcy
'
ILBLE 12
- Dey
Ilortday
[\ro sdcy
T/edncsd.aSr
Thurs,Jey
Friclny
Seturd.,cy
Total
Sub
j
est
2.
1.
1.
7.
4.
8.
5.
6.
f,
t
h.8
12.8
15.3
15.9
18 .8
4.1+,
100-0
I{o. of lorr-Usago
Jtems
6t
58
6o
72
B5
110
-
,+52
Iable 15 s or.rs the subjact oontcnt
d.istribution
of the lov-usegp
itcms. Colurnns 1 and.
p
givc irrforrrction aliout
tiho sctual
n'-utbcr
cnd"
perecnta,Ee of lcw-usa5e
l-tcms in cncir s,ubjcot
clivisionn
While column 3
ind.l,cotcs
r{hr}t porcentagc tlroy cqnstitutod.
of thc total nur:rber
of
me ssn"gc s i'n oncJ: Id . Z .P.A . 5.nput categozXr
'
Totol
l.4,52
Subi cct Cod.i t!e,,
v.Ja
the
fntercst flrid. Sociel af,fairsn
Econonoic cotivitY, 5i
SPortt
fr
at
N.Z.F.J\.
Input
!r-5.4
37
.l+
25.8
a.4
24.9
20.0
12'9
9,5
1
90.0
Arased. Scrvioesr 1
;
Politlosr 2i Human
3;
Cr'lne, Disrster and
Rrblic Scfety
, 4i
6; Solenco
,
7i
0u'Ituro and, Entortainment,
f"
of
TroVr-usege
items
31.+
12.2
8,9.
5.5
13.9
2.1+
15,5
8,2
8.
TJIBI,E 1]
- I.Io. o,f
IrOrf-'UrSnge
Its!r.s
151
55
l+o
25
6S
11
70
T7
158 .
About one-third. of the loir-usage re6ister vras concernecl rrittt messaEcs
about ii,rr and. the J-rmed Services, iLbt)ut lluman fnterest ancl Social affair'.:,
and. abcut trcononic activity in roughly conparable
a^mounts
r
but the pro-
portion of lc.ir-usage itens to i{.2.i',i" rnput
iterus
in the subject
d.ivls-
ions varierL ccnsi:lerab1y fron
37
.4 pcr cent,
ln the case of T/ar and. the
Arned. Services'tc orLly 12.9 per cent. in tlrc case cf trconoriric activi$r.
lhe d.iscrinineti on of the gatekeeper.s :leems to have fail-en farrJ-y heaviJ-;:
on PcDtics, and. on llar anrl the Arraecl liervices, less heaviJy on iluman
Intere st and" Socir'.l aff airs
r
oil Crjr:re
,
Disaster a.nd. Rrblic Saf etyr sn
Science
,
o.nd. on Culture aruJ lln'certrr.irune nt, anC. relctively 1i6ht1y on
Dcononis activity ond on Sliort.
Table 1l+ enphcrsises thst about S6 per cent, of the lov-usa6e nesss.Seii
',7ere
froi.,i over.serg sott:rces a.ncl only 1l*
I'er
cent. origS-rr.trted.
1n i'Iev Zoala:rcl.
IABLE 1J+
IIIJIIBXR 03 trQ't?-US ilGE lT . Z ,P ,A . l.lBSSi\GnS . B{ RIGI0I.I/IL SOI&CI
I{o. of Lov-
/o
of I,ow-
fi
at I{.Z.P..ri.
Usage Items Usage Itorns InPut
Re gion
Othr:r regions
Iar nas'b rnd. Scr:tir-Ia st lrsia
Australia
America
U.I(.
Europe
l'Ievr Zeelc.rrd
3L 7,5
5|.
12.0
100
o)
108
3o
o)
22.2
1J.9
23.9
6,6
13 .9
48.6
li7.B
39,1
30.3
27 .l+
23.9
7.O
fotal r$2 1 00,0
Of the ovorser s co togorio s
,
the United. Itlngd.om
(
approxinately 2lr- per'
cent.
)
nnd :tustralia
(anproxinately
22 per cent .
)
produceil ttre greatest
ntunbers
rrf
Iou-usc,ge i-tems, .L1thou,3h tho sai:re nutnber of nessages cane frs:.
tzithin l{ew Zea1a.nd" as froln 'che Aroerican region, thcir relaiive
proportions
(expressed.
es r percentage of ii
"Z.P,A,
input ur co}:nn
i)
lrere voxy
different. 0r,1y
7
pcr cent. were fron i{eti Zee}arnd. corirared vith
J0
per
cent. fron Anerj-oa. I,lessage$ frorn Europe anci the Unitecl Itingdon lTcre
treate,l r-v"itir rou6l:1y the same d.egroe of d.iscrininationr cs rfere those frcl:::
Australia, the Uer tlast cnd- Sc
-rtlr
llast Asia, airrit Other regions. But itens
from these tirree latter regions tyere hanrlled. vith norg severitSr than i'/ere
those fron the forrror trro.
f'bom these d aia it oan be seen tirat thc tond.ency of the nclYspopers in
reducing the volune cf ll .2.P.!r. output to moro manageable
proportions Tras
169.
to drLsoa11l itens concerned nain\r lzltb PolitLos,
vsith Econon:io
actlvity,
nitb Cr{.ne, Dfoaster and. Fubllo Safetyr
and. with IIar
and. the Arma Serrilces
(zubjects generous\r reprc,sented
in the flor of nevrs). In this prooosst
itens about
politics
and. about Var
and' the i[mrer], Services tend.ed
to
rocelve reJativoly t&e nost Bevere treatnent.
ThLs d.lsorinination
vas
exerbed. nore frequent\r on naterisl fron the Un-itd lGtgd.on
anrl Austlellat
but it vras applled with Erore reLative severJ.t3r to news fron Other regionst
fron tho Far East and. South Ea^st Asia,
and. fbon Ar:stralia.
As against ttlis,
hovover, it has to be rccogrrised that ttre fact that st)Els iteng were
rrntrsed
and. others only ]:tghtly ussd, doos not necessariJy reflect
a.qy d-lscre&tt
on
eitlrer tho N.Z,P.A' servLce or the in&ivi'dunl nernspapers taldJtg lt. Tho
tusage
goalsr of tho service
are not ne@ssarL$r to get the nrll erqrlol.t-
ation of every iten in its fil"esr ffid tftey nay be hard to define beoause of
a.n r:nder\ring parad.ox.
B
,, ** usagc rate is low, o&ltors ntght thl$k ttry
atre gott5ng
too nuch useLess nrateriaL. If it ls too hteh, thy nfght
conpllSn abcut lack of vari,ety. The
goal of the servlce ls obviously to
strlJo a balarrce betweren ths ttrro. The slgnlficanee of the sltuation
ilescribed. here is that the newslnpe$s of the system had consid.erable
veul'ety availablo to then in seleotlng rnaterlal to accompany the harA core
of naj or nows Ltons,
jf
they vranted. to exoroise i-t.
,1.
3^A_rTguiF-.
-
._oI.Jg!
r_q_,sgEg_qgI
(
")
p_qgp-a-t^{o11irl
ltu.qg
Close ana\rsis of the treahent of few:usage iterm is instrtrotive
beoause it sul:plios d.etailed. i:rfornation abotrt tJro way i,n v*rioh tJre
neuslplers rejected, particular
clusters of storis, Thes included a snaJ-l
ntrnber of ltens that enphasl-se(1. topics concerned. vnith sex and. violence,
Toirard.s such naterial the buLk of tho Ner Zealand press custonarl,Jy shows
ca,trtionp portly because of tlre 1e6al problen of clefirring obscenlty
and.
lnd.ocency, and. part\r out of a concern for vhat it omsiders to be
d.esl.rable
oonnunit3r values. For i-nstance, the staff of
I!9.-SJr_3_g_4*pB
$efgl$
ttxirk that
t
without pe ddlins
.
pornogra.phy artt1 vnithort
interest in biologl-ca1 futaiL,
pemd.er5ng
fu a norbid. or Lascivious
a noi?spaper has a public
B See Robor'b L. Jor:rrs, VerIJng C. Troldahl ond. J.IL Hvistendshlr g1ls_g$-,
170.
dgty to oxposc scx crino s
t
.
9r,-,,
thc Eriters
adri & signif icant
gualif icat
j-c
ri
^
t
It nust bc ronenbere'd. that if e rcport contains i.ndc ci,nt or obg ccnc
r.:etorielrits fairnoss or accurccy vill. provid.o no dc,fcncc'
jJI
3, crininal
prosc cution based. on its indo ccnt naturo
|
. Tho clifficultics
of clcfining
obsccnitSr or
jnd.cconcy
aro in practico groat cnough
to causq r:any Nov
Zoaland. coitors to stry wc11 ai/ey fron thc publlcetion of anlbhing irhich
is
likc1y to ceusc offoncc or onbaruassnont
to rocd.ors.
tO
For orp ro.!s on thoy
.3rc
hanporc d by thc vcry brcad.th
*nd unct'rtainty
of
dcfin:ltion of thc lalr.Accorclir6 to tl:r. Ind,occnt
Rrblic;tions
Act
19$r an
i:rd.c ccnt do crrnont is
t
any bookrno-,Isp,;lp(rrrpc'riodicalrpicturorphotogropbt
photographic ncg:tivcrphotograph5.c
pbtorslidc or fill and any pint or
rritingrany
popor or any thing irhLch is printod. or has
jr:presscd'
upon
it or
otherrrjs c shovrn thorcon any viond., stotonont, signrpicturo
or roprc'scntati
onl
rncl such a d.ocuncnt wiIL ba ind.occnt if it includcs in its gual5'tios
t
dcscribing, dopictingrcxprosslngror
othorriisc
d.caltng vith nattors of sext
horrore cri-no
e
cruoler or vi olcnco in e nanncr that is injurious to t'hc pubf ic
good.f Tho 1953 Act a-lso sot up an Inclccont Hrbliceticns
Tribunal
to hcar
d:isputos 3s to thc irdo con-b character
of books
,
nagazincs
and' sound rccorc'-;
il6s, though not of nCIrstr)opers.'rthat constitutcs
lnjury to tho public goodt
thorof orc rencins, in thc, caso of ncrtstr)opcrs, sub
jo
ct to thc dctcrninstion
of thc courts in thc edinory riay.It is pcrhcps typical of tho l{oir Zoalond
ettitudc to urthority that thc ncaning of the word.s dofinirg
an fudccont
do
qrncnt
has not bccn vcry fu1.1y tcstocl.In
tlreir daily opcraticns,nost
nc\Tspapcrs prc'for to avoid. the risk of prosocution by lecviDg out dubious
itcns.They a.rc likoly to bc the noro attractccl to this courso
as a result
of a dc cislon wlrich
.rohnHardinshan(od.)rs'-[q:r-go-@L*"ol-ol--Jp-ug1n:*L19gt
lTollington
1967
,
1O9,
Sortoo, rith thc staff c,f tha N,Z.B.C.
g!q-*1Li$g:-.-rp-o-1+4lg.gllflS^c:l
.o-r-jgo-e-ap-cp;qAAg-]lqd:"*:4r
Social chapg.c.s*g9-
cggvlgt*i9-13,
N.z,B,C'
;fi;;Er'"i'h; tl;TlEist-"n
i
93'B;^
;i]tiis-:1irilaJ;ot
al-Iow tho ust' of shbar
r,-ord,s if tho contoxt or tho connoti-lticn
would bc snutty,
md carc
is
teken over tirr, placcncnt of
trnrigraruJcs
oontaining
then.Thc
N.Z.B,C.
ls
norrr ccutious in sonc rcspoctsrporhaps,
than otlrcr ncrdta:
o ncTlspopcr
in rc,porting
e trirl, ni6it p"iit th; irord.
'bastard.rr
j-f
this hcd'
oceumcd, in evidcncei U"l
j.t
rioukl probably not bc usod in nor"s
bullctLns
|
.
10
I7I.
invo,lvc!-
-the
publication by a cleiIy ncwspapc:r of rcports eabl,ad, tbrough
thc N-Z.P..fr. nctlprk about a r:-e.ttcr o'f vcly
5reat
publi-c intueeet wlEch
nevi:rth.clcss provccl into'lcrably offcnsivc to sonc roaclcrs.
In fgfir TeranaJri ltrcvrspapcrs Ltcl.
r
proptri.cto'rs of
@
wcru co'nvistccl in tha Eawcra l,lag:istratef s Co,urt
,trn
a cherSc of ocllrn5
en i:l,f;,ecnt d-osrrncnt.Ilft i* was an issuc o,f tJlc
papcr
ca:rz1ain6 arr
N.Z-P.A* rcporrt of the Stephcn lfanl trie.I in Britrfn. Ihis rcportlf,es
rrldr:Iy pulilishecl in ncwspi:pcrs tlmoughout thc world.r es wu-lJ; as in otlic.r
parts c.f I'Icw Zcaland, but a private citizcn in Hawera wes
t
go
inccnscd,l
'.vith
prrts of it that hc institutc,c'l
Xroceedlngs.
]lttncsses at tirc trir^l-
sslC that parts of thu. rcpo,rt ha.i} .liscrrstcd ancl. offiiud.cd. r:aqr peopJict
oncl thuy o.bjcctcd. to c'l.ctails of iii.so,ctristfr.c sc:nrs,J-
practices as weIL r.g
tu a st,*ncnt by a ssli*rr tb,at lfarcl l'rf.s prc scnt whil-e shc hed sc:rrrall
intorciillpsc r,ritli othcr ncn ln l:is flet r.ncl that thi-s ws ncrnal anrl she
ser nr:thin6,'
Gron6' r,ritir it. Thc pro,cocclin6's wcrc b,rou6;ht tm,ccr thc Inclcccnt
Publicatior,.s rict IITO anil its ant:nc'lncets pri.o,r to, the I95l Act which at
thet ti.nc ha:l not
'l.rccn
passed. Thc na6istratc appnicd. thetcsts ltricl clomx
in a T95!, er:rontrant enc'L founcl that thc. ncrrspapcr hrr-l und'trtry urplulsieeC-
nattors c,f scx
tby
.i.,alin6 n{th thcn i'n n n&nncr whictr offcs.ls against
thc. standerrds o,f thc cri.uruniQr in :^hich thcy erc publi,shcdr. f,e founC
that this r'roul{- havr hrcl
t
a tcnclcncy to rl:tipfr.vG c}r cornrp't
ycun6 pcrgonsr
cf both scvesr anrf i;irst
I
pri.nting eac'l sclling tJre ncwspcper to thc p;tll''lic
without rliscrirtil'1.fir,n r,ncl. plr.cin5 this inr-uccnt i:atcrta]L T:eforc ell ab'c
6ro,ups
an':1 classcs of rcr-''.crs lrust irevc c'n inncrl:;r]* nr nischicvuus
tcn<Lcncyr . Itris
juilgncnt
wcs r,:acLccl i,n spitc of tl:c
&et
thct thc' rcport
:ne,:chci'. thc nc'Flspr.pcr tli.rough what rfas cluscrib d as F. rruputc.blc ncws
scllttFi-cc ancl tlu.t thc n:roprietors of thc ncr.rspr.pcr i'larl no rix.:ftrll intunti'"'u.
to offcncl. Ihe dc.fendants Cid" no,t appcal. against this d,ecisionl tlrc,ugh
tltcy nay w.:Ill harc l:cc.n ebJ-c tc. fincl edcqr:ratc
6rounc1s.
Ehc inport of thi,s cosc is tr, ci:pha"siso that ncusp.lpcrs i.n Now
Ze a;..iltd
r
at thc ir pcni.L
,
pubXi
sh natter that n:iSht Lrc tr ought i-nd eocnt
by sorlc scctitlns of thc eoru::unity;
jvrcn
thl,u5h it ney ccnslst of ncccu:rts
ff ReportcC iln l{*i.strates Co,irrt_Dee_ijsi.g$S-r Vc;l. fI, f96},66, 16-6I.
172,
of crir'tnal cctiv:itics that bave
-worl-d-vide
pol:itical inplicationg
and'
repercussions ancl are consequontly of great public interest, This beinel
eor it vrns nct surlirising to fjJld. sone itens of the notTspapcrr sanple in
this study hcavily i.rscrini-r:cted. agcinst" (Soe
Ch. IX, Appenrlix, Soction
5,
|N.Z.F.A.
l,lossc6est f or the ful-l- texts.
)
On1y one pclper r:)n en account of a
irolicewonants
clain for da,nages
ageinst the Nsi? York city acl:.ri.n:istration on thc
5round.s
tftat sho had.
boccne prognnnt in rcsponsc to pJ-icc instnrcticns" Onlj/ throe pepers
used. an iten d.escrib5.ng hou crn ltalian filn actross used.
Gurls
concoalA
in hcr bra in a filn shc h,-r..3
just
mad.o. SiJc papcrs publ5she'J. a brief acoount
of the prosccution of threa rvonen for swj-nni-ng nudo in a publio fountain
5n London, but no ne'rrslapor iJI the saraple ran a ncrn5.n6 sllift nesso6o
gbout
a Britlsh clerg;rurcur whc plrctographerL a nucle actress in order to
protest egainst what ho caJ-lcd
t
the artificial- and. hypocritical ettitude
ilh.ich is so prevalent i-tr our society, perticuJarly in thc church, towerds
Bext. orJy one paperr
LfoJ?*Jy. F..-o,jl-E,
rcur e
J6o-word.
evernilg shift
vorsion of this affai.r wh:ich containecl a foir noro d.cteils. fhe only cut
thc ne'lrspaper f,rade nns a statenent by the cctross about the inccnvenionqo
of renovirrg her unilerclothing
tr,rith
aI] those people (visiting
irressnen)
horet. fn genoralJy rojecting this i-tern, the newsp.apers nay hcve bcon
playln6; serfe anC. taking
1;recautions
agailst evon the slight
t)ossibltif
of
6ivin6
off ence to sof,to sectlons of their readership. Thoy may also have
beon carrying out their status conferral rolo
12
whereby tho nass nedia tond.
to protcct values generally held in approval by the comnr:nity
and. take
ccre to sho-nr connunity lcaders onC favoured. publio fi6ures only i-n a
irraiseuort!:y
light. Cne of the easiost r?aJs for then to d.o thi.s is by a
Itrocess
of nogative, so lectir.rn. Tbis cons
jsts
of onittlnr_l or obscuring
j.tons
which ni5ht
I
jeopard:iso
tho socio-cultr:ral stnrctr:re, or
irooitLots
12
',faruen
Broed.,
tl{ass
Connunication nnc]. Socic{ultr:ral- Integrationf
,
.S*oSg]_-IgryS._ ,
37
z2
,
De oonber 1958
,
1W-115. Tlui-s study of neg*tivo
screen5ngs fron news content cauiad, out by the nass nod.ie founcl that
t
powor
t
ancL
l
clcss
I
as structurs,l strata r?ero prote ctc. d by mecLj-a
pcrfornetrlcr)
I
wh:ich trieci to irithdrcr.w fron unnecessari\r bari:rg flaws
i.n tho vorki:rg of ccrbain authoritative
j.nstitutions
ancL sour@s cf
cu1.tural irrfJrence, like the volues cf capitalisn, tho honee religion,
heolth,
jtr.stj-co,
tho nation an(L the cornnunity
-areas
of blocked.
conrrunication, sacrod. corls
|
.
173.
feith in ltt.1J
In furthcr support of this assorti''rn it szn bc obsorvod. horo thct no
na-irspapcr il tho sanplc published. en itcn
';ftich
describocl- hoi;
f
lvlr Novakr,
c.il ector lrho pl,syc'd. tho part of a cmsading high schoo1 to.:chor i-n c hi6h1y
populnr tolqvision scrios,was fincd for ilisturbin6 thc psacc b3' singing
lourl\r aftor nid.night and. deflnting
lnoplc|s
car tyrcs.Nonc of tho ner.'sl)"purs
publisherl an eccount
of c rict folloving thc perfornence in Glasgow of a pop
&:tn,
thc RoILing Stoncs. Sinilarly, thc,rc ries no us('\ of a story Ln v&ich
i1
Bitish nolispepc.r colur-urist seicL:
rHerr'
lTC. have c
Britain
i,'hich is frozen
i.:rto e pattc.rn of snobbcryrclass C.ivision c.nd. tuft-truntingi a Britcin wherc,
your ltm&Lc or your acccnt arc n,irc ir:_oortant tlrcn irhat you do, or say. i.ic
need. to takc an exc tc trad-itiorr.
o .
Britai-n
j.s
a ldxci of f cud.sI od.dityt .
Thc'
i{. Z'P.A. itsclf dcletcnrL rcfcronces to thc
Quoon
as e
t
6oocL
skinl
(Mcrscy
f,i:loct for sonobod.3r vcll cstcencd.) iurcL to thc BirtlvJ.ay }lonours llst as
t
thc Top PoopJs
I
s Chartt
.
Thcse phr;sos occtrrrcc-',.
jn
a ress.)gc about thc
ei,-rrc'L of tlro L[.8.8. to thc Boat]rs.
Thcre t?erc a nunbcr of othcr
jntcrostin6
lapsos i.tr thc covera6o lihich
th,.-) syston
Bavc
to the contcnt of tho N.Z.P.A. fi1o.0n1y tJrroc
B.'.pors
publishcd. an iton conpla5nin6; nbout snobbcry in crLokot and" only onc pcpcr
ran an account
of tho ojoction of
n nativc fron a Port ir[s36rsb] hctcL
for
not woaring accoptablo
shoos.On\r onc popor publishod. en c.coount of the
pessing
of South Af,rican Jogislation
onporuoring thc Atborncy-Gonoral to
ord'or tho clctcntion
i;ithout appoal
for up to six nonths of stctc rritnossos
an
court casos involving political
and cc.rtajt sorious crlninal chargos.
Only onc paper published
en account
of an inportant
Unitcd- Stotos Suprcne Ci.rur.t
clccisic'n :,hich
revcrscd thc'conviction
of Bt}lic So1 Estos on the grouncls
qr.:t
thc
'celovising of the originel prccccd:ings
cgcinst
hi;1 had. prc judi.cocL
his
trial.Only
tiro papcrs publishc,cl c hunan lntorost iton about a forncr body-
Suard
of AL Capono r,bc trc^s try:.ng to
raisc non.-'y by selling his tattoood.
hnad' on a paJr-norlrcolloct-lcter
basis eft..r his rLcath.Sir:il:lrlyronly
tlro
pcpors publishcd-
an account
of an allcgcd
cheating scanclal in c vrorld briCr6;c,
contost.Only onc pc"por
usod. c story about
thtr
jcili.n6
of sone Busslans for
watu-'ri.n6 dornr supplic s of voclka.
13
lbl-o.
174.
(U)
grrs.!gi1.s,an
lie:e
trho r o.qion1l
d.iscr!r!r.-.'i;ion ..g;i:rst
neA.B fx.on Aus';ralie, h^;s a1t.ear5r -r{J
beea nentioneci.Ths
ng',,'sil;.pers a.:pried. this to o gro;t u:.riety of natei.iel
sone of ;thlch
concelrred. i;he ;:,ctivltios
ctr ttre Alrstr:Llen folces ln South
El.st Asla'
One strean of nsss.les cl.eelt ;r:lth the aniv::l
of tn Aush:;]:ian
j;rfr'nb:3'
b:';telion
on
'bhe
Viotnsn front, the other C-esc:. ibei" the anbuslrlrrg
of cn Ind.oneslen
p;.trol.
b;' Austrelian
troops in the
,S.:rau;k
areo
.In the
collrse of the neek the ne',,'si).ti)ers
.,"riblished
11 nessc6es conc:.llirt6 these
events and. re.Je cted. t'.ro of r
sens.rtj.on:1, crrc'. politj-ocr,
ngture.Arl these
ltens i;ere subJ ect coied .,er ;.:rd the Aneed. Services,i,-:ch
nessoge in thJ.s
subjeet &lvLston
nes e.rl.ec''i. by ln 3ver;go af
L,3
pa.:ers, but for thtg
selostecl. group of Arrstr":ri::r nesscgos
the, a?erago iroppec) to
3r2,
St nil-rr1Yr
the evei'?6e proninc+ne for nesscges in thls subject dlrrlsion
:.
it:rs 25
,2, but f or t'tre se 1o ote r1. group
it
'r,-es
only
g
.9 ,
One of the ltens tn
titis
Sroup
ooncsrned. a clesh betreen iiwtrelian and. i-:rrLoneslan forces tn
the courso of whieh the irustrslbns
anbusbed. and. ]cilled. a nunbor of
fndonostans.
Ten no'.;spapers published. sccounts of
'r;his
incii.c;rt, but they
fur;rosed. :tord. ttrts aaou:rting
to S7
:oe{r
ocnt. of thc fuIL te:rt of 1525
vortls. (thc
{rvcr;ge
;:orcentige
of rords cut tn the subJeot d.tvision
.u;B
)+3.2
*)cT
ccnt,)
i\o no',Bpcper
j-n
ttro strpla usod a4ybirJlg of e
95o-zorri.
foJ-lolr-up ln
;rhi,ch t-,lo Austu:lien
soLiljicrs ;,'ho h-d,. br,on furt:,nric',;od. ;ftt r;.:rds in
hosl>itel s.i-d. tbat killin6 thc Incl,one sicns ,; :s
t
just
;Ijllcc shooting cl-ucks
I
,
but tr-ro
.olpors
pubJ:lshed.;*,rt
of -1ii offlsir]. cq:ne:rt frog thc Austrelien
Govc''rnnent nc:rt cny ilhioh s-'.Ld. tho solai.crsl stetctc,nt rras i.ou'boly
o;:b-:n;ss5ng, (Soc.
Ch. IX, Appcndrix, Scction
5,
f
lI.Z.P.J'n. l,ioss;.gos
I
for
tho toxt of tho
tahooting
duclcst story.) No pc:pcr usccr. e 26}--t;or6. lntonrlc,u
',ilth
anothc
r Arrstrelj;:r soldLar
'.ilro
s:i-cL there ri::s. no
-J;r,J'
of tolltng
r,hothcr thc Vioteong
',;ere
irTorth or South Viotnancsc, 15,'-t Sr:uth Vlctnnncrs(/
boops eonotincs klllec oiullifirs by
rshoo'b5.ng
first ;,nd. :std5g qucstionp
latorf
r
end th*t ho pcjrsomJ-\'
ogrrlci. l'iith this t:c-bic,
In gonc'::a1
torns, thcro 'i,,oro
S9 Ltens in thc Aus^Lr:lllan l-oir+rs*go
filo &Dc'. thosc publlshec'.
scorc. an evcrigo proaincna, of 5rO
lnr
iten,
soxlp{rlod- tdth ln cvcrego pronJ.nonoc.
of 13.1
for aLl th.. ltens orlg5.;ratlng
in AustriU,g
ttr,t
-'rcro
used. bv ttro noi;spcper syston, So:e, of thls undrr-
used mltcrlal';::s
of oonsie.c'rsblc iJltorcst,rt includ.t'd. ei1 aoc.nrntri;hLeh
175.
nobody published.,
of nysterious plantation fires
j.n
Neir lreland, and.
several hur,ran interest
j-tems
lilce the trial or'a Papuan uidon and. Jrer
lover 1-or sorcery
(userL
by one l.ieutsp"per) rncl" the c].l-scoverXr of a bo.J-y it
Rabaul thc,t ha.cl been hali'-eaten by pigs (used
by one
1-.apcr).
ftens irbc'rit
an aboriginal d.iscoverin6 gold., rncl cnothel about an eboriginal
6ir1
t,'lic
t?as said- to have acqui-reci an eC.ucation by rretching televisiotr, wexe nct
used. at all, nhj-le a serious c1i-qcussion of an aboriginal sohool teacher
train-lng plan fies used. by only one pcper,
Ihg-lIgE.
the tre atsrent of incid.ent s in the Vie tnan uar ancl the Ind one slan
oonfrontation of l,lalaysia have alread.y been mentioned.. In ad,clition, no
newspaper used. an iten to the effect that l\ustralia night not be able to
rely on its aliies
j-n
South East /isia. Cnly one
paper used. an author-
j-tative
statement tha.t Australia would d.c,fend. Malaysian sovereignty.
lko papers published
an /rustralian university profe ssor
I
s views on the
fndonesian
situation, and only tlro mentione'L tha.t the Australien Chief
,-rf
litaff iias tor,rrin6 Scuth East Asia,
0f si>: storjescovering thc acirvities of the Australian Prjrne l,linistc:'
at the Prj.ne l,'Linisters
I
Ccnference, thrce trere not usecl at all. Aic
papers publisheC
nccounts of his negotiations en route in 1'fashi-ngton, tu-
ran an iten about his apporntnent of special
press representatives for tire
conf erence, and one publi
shecl a hunan intere st item about his crj.cket
watching propensi l;ie s a.t Lord.s. T\'ro pauers alsc published an account of
hon Senator f,'itzgerald. chased an rntrr-rder in his hone rri-th a crioket s'Lr:np,
but nobod.y hacL any space for ihe activrtj-c;s of an Australi an parlia.urentary
d.elegation in }Iexico.
A nunber of lotr-usage itenns lrcre ccncerned. r'rith Austrafian econort'c
affairs whlch i?ere also of sone significellce to New Zeeland, read.ers. I{o
nelrspaper publisired.
an announeenent of a tracle agreenent between
Australia and the Philippines and only t'1,'o papers ran an iten about
Australia.n beef being: rc
j
ected fron thr: Dritish market. I{obody published.
8.n announcenent of Jnpanese intentions to buy r\ustralian wheat, or a
United. State s
groun
t
s
plens
to br.1y lderi South 1Tale s coal, and only tvro
published. d.etails cf another lieri Soutli iIales coal
,Jeal-
rrith Japanese
interests.
176.
Ihree stories about tlre Australian wool ind.ustry were unused by ttre
newspaper systen; a etory rLesoribing Austmlian extrnn&ltrre on wool
pronotLon Tras published by only one
liaper,
another on wool safss was
publtshed by two papers, anrl another dealJ.ng with the AwtraDsn wool
reserst pr{ce scheme was reprodrrcecl by only or:e papsr. Swo storLes
abcut
tJre effeots of a d.rought in Australia were ignorod oonplete\r.
An Ltoto
about tfts d.iscovery of netup.I. gas in Brisbane was publishecl in one
nerrspaperi another about the d.iscovery of nsttrane
gps wa.s sintlarlry
treatedo
Trrelve nessa6es concenled. either tho AustraUan Labour Party or the
Nevr Sotrttr Tlales l,abour Party, botlr of vhich h&d. been hold.irrg thel-r
anrusl
oonferences. The neyrspaper gateke,epers &i-scrimtnatod
sharply
against this
naterlal. 0n lrlonday, tuesr).ay and. T{ednesda}r the foJ.lowing co\terae rras
given these events by the N.Z.P.A.
Newspapers PtrbJistuing
Itens Sent by tho N.Z.P.A.
Calsmll warns Labour Party about Connunisn
Youttrfttl Inage for Nos.l?.Labour ParW
Vatersldersr Vfuws on Labour Par{y
A.Ir.P Gonferenco wants rlage adjustnent
A'I.P. oonbats faceloss inage
A.Ir.P. e]-o ction f inance
A,L.P. views on ships for Vi-etnan
A.IrP. opposes troops for Vietnan
A.L.P. ele ctions
$.S.Yf. Ip.bour Party suggests nationalising the
waterfront
Calnellf s f\rturo
CalweIL cancels Singapone trlp
the
i,ten
]on5nionr
ChCh Star
F
Donjrrion
Auck. StarrWa^fkato
Tl-ures
ChCh Star
llnaru llera1d.
-
Pness
hess
[fatleto Slnes
rHorald.
Tribune
These itens obtaJned.
11 usages in seven nowstrEpers
and, soorcd
an
averate usage ln the entlre nelrspalnr systen cf onJy O'7 ccmparea with
lr.O for all the itens in the general subiect &lrrlsion of Politlcs. [hose
published. received. an aver^age prorrJ.nenco of
5.6
conpareA
rzitJr 15,5 for the
entire subject ilivisiono
It cannot be assuned, horvever, thet because of this cl:isnel
perfomance
there is a
calculatod. blas against nevrs of the labour novqnent in tbe New
Zea].and. pross. lYhat it d.oes furilicate is that the New Zealand s,rb"editors
dl.d not fina tlris Ar:straljan naterle.l srfficientlJ
newsworbl5l to
iustljY
treating it with groater favln:r and prorrinence. Nor corld.
aqr evlLence
be
fourrd. to srbstantiate allegatiorls, freeuently
rnader tbat the Nev Zealand
177 .
dail;' press is bi;sed. agarnst the i.leiv Zealancl labour novement. During
the sanple ",;eek
tl:e lead.er of thc Pariia:nentary Labour Fartyr.[.]i.
l{orclneyer, rrirs involvcd" :n an cxchanEe of vier,'s ldti: the d.eputy-lead.er i:'
the ileiir.nal- Ferty, J,It. ih.rshall. The subject lras of consiclerlblo l1er.-:l
intcrest iis it concel.rlcd. tiie rnicrprctr'tiorr of c stetement
ihat had. beetr
nad.e bJ'tire Prime Liinistcr, I{.J. Iiolyoalce, at the Connonliea}th Llinisterst
Conferencc to
'',;he
effect that lre favcrrrecl negotiations being attenl:tecl
vitir the
tfic'tcong
leaders n.nr1 that in tlie neantine he woulcJ d.efer sencli.ng
an artillery battery t.r ttre Vietmn front, Itrordmeycr maCe f ive state'
mcnts outl-rning h:Ls vieiis on sll this, The vafues tih:-ch these statemen"'rr:
scored in the nevspcpers corrparecl favourably trith the average values for
aIl- i-tens of polltical news cnd. i'dth 'uhe scores calculated. for a length;'
statcment on the srrre sub
j
ect nad.e by l,Iarsha1l.
(
See Ch . IX
r
Append ix,
Section 2,
t
fhe iforrl.reyer-l,Iarshall Exclta.nge
t
.
)
TLre rrustralian loi'i-usi:ge itens also
j-nglli(Led
a tru.nl:er of hrrnan
intercst
stories wiricir coulcl casily he.ve been reprcrlucetL by eny neiispapcr
atternpting
'bo
present r. tlpe of nei'fs ill.j-ch
'r,i'as
ra'1ical1y clifferent fron
thlt fcvourerl by most of the systero. T:ere rtere stoa.Ssr abcut a Dane
caught trying to smug;g1e hi s pe t cat into .tiustralia, ttio sfui prrecked.
irustrelians pickeC up on e. ref t, a Croat irnnigrant recovering heroically
fron bonb injuric s in a Syd.ney hcspitcLl, ihe ad.venture s of a chi1c1 sent
bsck to Britain by its paren'u s d.ornicilcir in /rus tralic
,
and. the nysl;c
ry
cf
a clead skj-er fcund in Perisher Va11ey. In adclition, no paper published. irrl
account of an Australian /vrihropological Socie',:y langui:ge proi ect, but tt.'c'
pa.pers reproduced an item abcirt e proposccl
rer'l5Ginch
opticcl telescope
for hustralia.
(.
)
TLre Vie
brarrr
Il-ote st l.icvement
The content of the sa:irple lres exa.raine ci for e viclence rbout hou the
neiTspapers treated nel'rs which hacl been generated. by the Vietnarn var protest
moverrent. Eight iT"5.Po-fro messagcs
1,;erc
foi:nd. to relatc to the vj-etrs and.
acti.rities of various groups anJ. intliviC.uals located in tlie general
novernent, en0 a further 12 nessages t?ore loca.ted uhioh recorOed. eii;her
opposition to the riar or criticisr: of its conduct,
(See
Ch. T.X, Appencli:c,
Section
3,
fThe
Vietnan Protest }{overnentr, for detalls of the nesseges
and thcir nelrspaper usa6e nnd-
prominence rcorer,) Reports of the protest
r7B.
movepent
(rvhich
r,rere ell subje ct-coded. as Politics)
ac.hieved on\r a
2,6 e,vere,ge newspaper usagp compared $rith
pJI
average
of 4.0
for the
gene
ra1 subje ct divi sj. on. They re ceived an evero.ge prominence score
o f
;1O.2 compared. wlth T5._5 for the
genernl rubjeet
division.Ilence
it
ean be said that as ilews iternsr the reports of the activities
of the
prote st movement clid no t intere st the newspaler
gatekeepers as much
fls
other
irolitical
me.terial at their dis",osal.Consequently
these reports
were rublished with less frequcncy
and l{cre
givcn }ess prominence than
the everage iten of
;lo1i
tical nerrs. Wheth.cr
this amourts to a systenatl
c
bias or not is a na.tter of subjcetivo opinion as to the me rits of thc
news i tems concerne d; but thc fect th:t this materi af w8,8
8lvetr
Less
than &veragc attcntion b3r thc sub-ed:L tor s o f 16 ncwspapcrs has obvious
inplications. Elther they all agreed it was 1se7-prioriff
material wi th
low ncrrs intcrcst, or thcrc wer.: othcr rcasons for not publl-sbing it
with grca.t'ir
frcqucncy and'rromineneG. Allcga,tions
of systcma.tic
bia.sr
of course, could. only bc invcstigated by mcans of a full inquiry into
thc gatckccaing rracticc s of sub-cd.itors
on ncllspeilcrs and. in radic
and tulcvision ncws s.rrvi cc s in Ncw Zc aland.,
and no such work
has yci
bccn attemlrtud,.I4 It nust also bc :rotc.d thet oaly otr,: iten in this
group
o f \rlc tnarn pro tc st n-- ssagc s lre s no t publi shc d. by ary nc wspapcr
of thc systcm
ancl- thai; thi s was arl u.""o*i of a
protc st nccting in
I'ianila at rvhich an cffiry of Unclc Sam rtas
burncd.
A sinilar analysis of th: itcns r:eordi:'tg
gcnera.I o:)position to
thc Vi;tnem r'rar, or crriticisn of its conduct,
by sourccs
othcr than
spccific clcments of th'
prctc
s'b novcmcnt show;d.
thc cqually low
usagc rate of 2.I but high.:r
lrrornincnc;
of I4,I due to thc' fact that
scvc ral ltcns in thi s
group r: ceived cornparatively
genero'us play'
A speech by a u:riversity professor vrEs r^rcIl dis,layed in
-$e--$ggqi-a3.
Bg**;
an acoor.lrt of an Oxford Unio:r debate o:1 the conduct of the
T,rar w6
puS
t-i
she d i:r ei ght papers and
14 Corrrpleints'bhat the news media are biased against anti-'Vietaarn
war rriews e:td activi tie s are no t necessarily va1id. They may
r
for
instance, ignore the
t*ifferential
F.c@ssibility of news soltrcesf
referred to by Eeriry Mayer il his discussion of bias i:r
![q-P-r-e-s;g
.+r. _4$_s-t-r*a.Li_q r
lrlelboume T964, Ifr. Anotber
pra.ctical reallW ls
that news from government and other institutional sources
is
alrreys likely to harre a considerable edvantage over nost other
material i:r obtaini.ng spece.
179 .
received a relatively
high score for
prominence;
the ]rlational
co'ncif
cf
y{omenr
s views on vietnan were
prominent}y d.isplayed-
in t'wo
papers; anrl
r'
re clue s,u f or the rrithiiravral
of Australian
and i{ev Ze aland-
troop s mad'e by
Presid.ent Nkrumah t'ras d.isplayed. on its front
p?Eu by flre Auckfand'
S,tar
(
though no other
paper thought
it ner?srlorthy). '2
One statenent
by the
Bertrand Russell
peace
Foundation
vras coropletely
cut t'y the lI
'Z
oP'A'
itsel-f . This was n comment
by its chairuran
welcorning'the
Primo l'{j-nj-sterts
stai;ement
that he ivould expect negotiations
about
Vietna^u,
to inclucLe
Vietcong representatives,
bui also taking hiro to task for calling
the
Vietnanese Jeaclers
tfaceJess
ment.
The statenent
end.ed' vrith
the observ-
ation that
,
those
people who control
the war
(
trre Pre sid.ent
ancl. Secretarir-
General of the ltrational
Liberation
Front
)
and rvho
govern up to
75
per cent
'
of the Jand. irith the support
of most south
vietna$eser
rvoufd. obviously
be
includ.ed. in any serious
negotiations.
rt is regrettable
that we coulc'
nOt hear their sid"e of tlre story
before lve agreed
to
glake
lYar on the
Vietna:nese
t
.
fhe vievrs of the Australian
Labour Party and
the Australian
Liberal
Party on the Vj-etnarn war rvent uniecord.ed
by any neTfspaper
in the sa'mple'
anrL so did a statement
by the Prine lllnister
of rnd-ia opposing
tlte use
of troops in viettlam.
rn another
item, the Northvietnamese
higb oofitrloliil
,l'ere
reported. to have congratulated.
the Un:tted'
State s Air Foree
for
shooting
61e1'6 its ovrn fiShters,
but this,
toot was not
published'
0n1y
one nerspaper
publi shed. a vely abbreviated-
version
of a
Rus sian
Goverrr-
ment riarning ad.d.re ssed
to f iew Ze aland about
the conse
ouence s of its
involvement
in VietllaJl.
15 It is also of importance to note that
qre-Pqess, d-uring the sample
week,
""""i"a
r
6O-i""tt leader
page articfe
Uy a
prominent
United
States
political scientist
vrhich discussed
the United States
political situation
and. the groizth of the Vietna$
protest movement
there .
C}IAFTM. \[II
slF:rst
-q4P3P_r_rr_r
rx g
sp
FRotsrm{s
1. TJ{E ROrrE
.cn _qp- llr-?rP=-4.
Tftrcncvcr any event sud.dcnly threatens to disturb the equiDbrirrn of
thc Ne'rr Zoala.nd.
doily noirspaper lndustry it customarily reacts as a wltole
to prcscrvo
tho status rluor
An oxamplc of this rrcls tho typically sharp
reacti-on from most mernbcrs of the Ncl': Zealand. N'ewspapor Proprietorst
Associa-i;ion
''rhcn
Lord. Thonson, thc ne\?spaper magnate, na.noeuvred. in 196+
to takc, ov('r control of
llg_logryg,
trollingtonr s mornilg newspapor. Thcr
trvo bfu Aucl;1,:.nd units,
k_Alf@*q1|-Qgg
and
T_lle_Nggft@
combi-ned. to pu-b f'oistard. plans to forcstaLJ- hfu, and tho 5ndustry, naki::,,g
use of its caperci'cios as an
economic
jnterest
groupr obtainecl assi.stanco
fron thc Nov Zcaland. governrrcnt
jn
tho fonn of lcgislati-on controlling
overseas tir.koovors. Anothcr exaurplo cf tlris tondency l.ras the hasty
joint
pS.arueing
of tho claiJy nc'.rspapers of Auckland., Christchrrrch and. Dunod.in
j.rr
Jurro 1965,
vi'bh tho notional a:inr of prodr-rclag Sunitay nowspapors on a
co-oPeTa-bivo basis in cach city. This foll-ored, scaro announ@ments tliat
several oxf,evral
j:rtorests
might bo about to onter this fiolct on a nationel
scale. Sildlarlyr the proprictors
or
LhqS:f*r.rg*._Etar
and
lbq_Neq.-4ejblirnt1
ttofq.1{ rlorc
'uho
main sharohold.ers in Ro{rio Arrckland. LtcL., ono of thc
companies rihich appli-ccl
carly in 1970 to the Nov ZeaLa.nd. Broaclcast5lg
AuthoritJr for a liccnco
to opcro,te a private
rad-:io station in Auckl,end..
Tho mctropol-tan daiI.los arc in a strong position to combine for
such mutual d.efcnsive purposos bccause
of thc f,se-flovspaper oquillbr:Lun
tlra'b o:is-bs in
'i;he
four main
ccntres. In thc.ir norrs
lnllcies,
lf not
altrays
jJI
their circulation and ad.vcrtising
campa5gns, theso p.lpers lend.
themselves to analysis as
t
ri''ral-s in confo:mrityt
,
which porfonn uany
of thcir ncrs gathoring
tasks with a basic stmilarity of
181 .
approach and.
prcseni;ation.1 Tkre tacit acceptance of conventions
in the
treatinent of nelrs may be
jmposing
unde sirable
limitations on the lYett
Zeafand. hess as a market place of inforrnation and conflicting
i-clease bu'.;
it strengthens
its econor.iic structure,
The absence of intense compe-bi'u*
ion in this part of the rnclustry has enabled. most of its neYrspapers
to
pre serve conservative nevrs pre scntation ancl d.i splay conventions
along
lvifli an ol-d fashioned broad.sheet foruat.2 Yet an
important conse
quence
for the lrTew Zealand. read.er is that he r:ay be exposecl to a great d.eal mcre
netrs oontent than hls counterpart
in countries
elselhere who rnay be
obl iged. to clepend. on sensational tabloicls.
Broad-sheet
publication celi
reprod.uce not only a lot more netrs, it also
per:urits a 1ar6e wlurne
of
classifieo. as well as
;l{spfay aclvertising
to be carried..
A system
vitli
a large nwber of relatively small-circuJation
nevspapers need-s this hi1;lt
aclvertising content to boost its revenue fron sales.
Consequentlyr
onc
of the stron6;e st argunents
f or protecting Neu Zeal-and. from the inpact of
overseas netrspaper practices
Stan1eyK.Bigman,|Riva1sinCorrfor:urity',J@,2Jz2,Jurre
191$
,
i Z7
-131-.
thi s stucly of two conpctinflEilGE
-in
a med-ium-sizetL
pennsylvani:r
city showed. that the quantitative- clif f erence s betv'reen tJ:e.--
lrere trivial-. They had sj-nilar
proportions of advertising spacerncr.'3'
eclitorials and. features, and there rrere only slight differences
in ti:.e
proportions of news of city, county, state, national antL
lititogrationc'-!
irigins . Many of the nevrs storie s rtere f ound. to be
I
verbatim
tti'ins
after e sometj:nes revritten first paragTapht, Until further
research
is carried. out, sof,re re serveticns
must be nacle about
the application
of such &n anaiysis to the iTellington dailies since tlre 1965-65
perio'J-
r,{th which the sampling d.eta f t^ir this stud.y
is concerned.
'
lhe nanage-
mentof@hasintro.].uced.changestoitsfornatarrd-iothe
tre atme nt c,f nel'ls . thi s includ.e s the
publication of more s
gmmentar-
ies on public affairs, Jt claims
to be d.eveloping
tinquiry
into the
Tre
w
2.
t
... competition for business between nelrspapers
in I'[ev Zealarll is to
all- intents and. purposes non-existent.
ltro morning
paper has to con-
pete rdth another morning peper in the same tovrn, ancl the snme
j-s
true of tire evening papers. The proprietors are banded. together in
the Pre ss Assoeietion vihich further l1mits the field of competi-tiont
.
II . Z
"J "A "
advocate J . Tr:rnbull. ad.C,re s sing tire Court of Arbitration
clunng avarcL proceed-ings. P.eported. in ,
624, l{ay
J1
1961
,
2.
ne1rs, with greater specialisetion
in areas of reporting ranging
fron Ciric affairs to foreign policyt .
(J.4. KeJ-liher, ed.itor of
Dominion,
f
lhe Stud.ent hess and the Factst, The Reporier, 1:1
,
I
E-d G;
occasional publication of the Victoria University of
\Tellington) .
182.
i-s that it enable s the present relatively
r:nsensational
broadsheet news-
paper to surwive.
Lord. Tlromson rn4r have seemed. an agreeable saviour
to
many i{evr Zealand
journalists
hoping to llberafise news reporting
techniques, anc] d.rea:ning of a quality pi'ess, but the routine facts of
competitive
practice coul-d" nevertheless have turned hin into a sensation-
alisin6l ogre to be exclud.ed.
in the interests of mutual survival
by the
rnajority of lderv Zealand. ilellspaper ovrners.
glre
of their acconpanying objects vras, of course,
the preservati'on
of the N,Z.P.A" netr,,rork. fhe d.escription of that ol'ganisation
which
has
been given in this study has emphasised. the extensive services
it supplies
and. the range of their content.
fheir daily operation
to reasonable
stand.ard.s of speed and. accuracy i s a consid-erable
achievement and- one
which is often overlooked. by its critics.
fhis servj-ce
i:nposes an
obligation on menber nervspapers to supply
the associati-cn
rith basic neirs
gathered. in ';he areas f or whieh they are responsible.
But ind-ividual
newspapers are by no means the prisoners of this obligatj-on'
Ttrey nay
send staff reporters to any part of New Zea!an3"
i.f they wish to obtain
exclusive cover of sporting and. other events, and. there is nothing
to st;r*-'
then from opening bureaux in rival temitorj-es
to gather il'ews for their
onn exclusive use, r:.s has been d-one in lTellington
by both the Aucklancl
d.ailie s . Ore reason for pre serving the
pre se nt structure
of the I''I
"
Z
"P "A
'
is that it cnabfes a large nurober of small-
papers io surviver
though it
can be eqr:ally l.rell argucd. that their elimi nation raigirt not be the d-isast'cr"
which is frequently assu-med.. Gou1d. not 15 or 20, or even fewer, la.rge
nerrspapers
give as good. a service as
39,
provlcling they 17ere bci-ng
efficiently run and- uere coming und.er some kinC. of competition
fron
somelvhere in the general news mecLia system?J
One stucly suggsts
that so far as major categories
of news end
ed-itorial fe ature content are concerne d", there are no signif
icant
Tend.enOies tolard.s a.ualgamation and. more efficient
plant have
begun to energe .
,
&[ afternOOn da-rfy ]-n J-nve
cargi11, a.malgamatecl-l'rith Ihe Southland.
tines, its mornlng
paper
afternoon d.a-i1y
Inver-
opposition, i-n February 1958, and is now printed. as an afternoon
ed.ition of the Latter. Sirr.i larlXr the morning and evening
papers
in l{evr Plymouth nerged. as flranaki ltlervspapers Ltd.., and the company
continue s to prod.uce separate morning and evening pepers using the
combined
plent.
use
in
183. .:
djfferences
iJr iai].y rn',rstr.lper content
which
appear to be related-
to thui
presence o: abscnce of locerl ne',ilspspor conpetition
in citLes
of less thafl
4m,OOO
po.puLati-on in ttre Unitecr. States.lF Othcr investigators
h'rve founcl
that nc'i?spapors which o.re norrin:Ily conpetltive
often
llrt-iJito
notlon
rr
pro cc sscs of standar0isatj-on rather
than il:iversification.'
Those findings
t
of course, do not necossarily
apply to New Zealand conclitionsrand
it woulc
require roseaJrch to rienonstrate
tleat tlrey oo; but they rJ.o establlsh
t'hot thr'
rurriber o f
1rc,per
s be i-rrg
1:ub
lishe d in cn area cl.oes not ne ce ss artfy orda;in
tlrc
nature of rheir content.In
Neri Zealand.r
aW reduction
in thc nunbc'r
of
daily newsp{,lpers rlou1d
.crobably
result
iJr the e:ctension
of ne-';spaper
chair.s
ljl New ZeeJand. I'ie;sp&pcrs l,t0., but it oa'n
be argueil that zuoh organis-
ations vroulc. have evorT/ incontive to eguip thensslves
rlitLr facilities
to
riyal the N.Z.B.C. and ilrey could.
possibl.y be stirnrl*a,tod.
to overcoae
so8c
of thc tLafocts of the N.Z.P.A. service.
Tluis hr,s sono typical wi::o aency shorbconings,
includ'ing
cI tend'oncy
to verbosity an6 the occasioncl
dso of stylistio
abonl-nations(espeoially
j.11
the ovcrr.sgc,s n&+,,eria1) like
lGoneral
l{o.rnvell Taylor waa reliab\r
l-earned
to havo suggested
thato..
|
-{inotherr
i-nconvenience
ls to be f or:ncl
jn
the
repotition
of scno itens fron one shif't to anot}or, though this nay be an
i:revi-table featune of nost wire services.
cortain-ly
one of the
a5-ms of thc'
N.z.pn*t. is tc provid"o nev leurJ.s and. fresheners
for both evenJng
and. noininr
papers so tirat they are not ob1i6e cL to use stereotlrped
reports
showin6
little iliff.orentj-ation
fbon flrose
published.
12 hours
pre'viously.
An
exanple of what soens
}ikc this kin'l of over-$enerc
rritlr
Leynond B, Njxon rurd, Robert Ir. Jones,
fThe
Content
of Non-ConpetLtlve
vsc ConpctS-tivo
Nouspapersr
, [qgp.*Llqo-9',
3323,
Sunner
1956t 299-314'
llestley F. \ilillou5hby,
r.rire
Two ConpetiryJ{sT:$ners
-Necessaril.y
lt,t!5l:
ttran orrlt,
[ogg}]i.ilg.3.,
lztz,
Sprirg
19t5,
-1974l0lr.See
also Stanley'K'
Bignan,itayrffianr,.!.Jean-li;e,'i":"FinNewSpaperorrrorship,and.
ixtr-.lviodla Conpetitionf
,
gg*g1}q}i.gAg:r l8:1,
irli:rter
1961r
-?14i
Gerarcl
i{'
Borstel,
tOgnershiprCuoiuTlliili
o!'Te'o*ent
Ln 20 SnaIL
Diillest
,
-Lg1gg:_"gg"
;
y
zZ'rlp"ii.S
1
956,
22U?25
;
Bryant Kearl,
I
Eftfe cts
of Newg-
peper Conpetitj-on
on Press Sorvie nesc,urcesr,
"Jigfpg}Itg'
,
35t1f
-.
.
T{l,rrtcr
1958,
J6-6ta;e,
Larick
.r.nc. B. Hartnen,
if't',u
-nnf
octs
of Conpglft!9n
on ong Daily Nowspaperts Coot"tttt,
Jgg;1g{Hg.9',
t*ltt+l /ulhrnn
1966]+59-
L6ji
Atex
S-. nasrsteirrrrContcn'b
or GG-iiffie
vs.Non4onpetitive
ancl
Chnin-Onne ri Nowspop
"t,
i, jn
BrSgE,
cE'E:
fl--i4$-
9-o.ryyJltqgti-q4t
Copenhagen
1966
'
27-28,
18lF
.i;o.,la:.ds
a:xelJs i'bci:',;as'bo bc r'ound. in the sail1-r1e in a series
of EIoBsaJCs
u5:!ch
Gavc
biogra.ohical d.ctails
abotr-b the a;:po5.nt:tent
of l;C-r."ari Cl-e'rk
.rs Unitcd. S'i;ates
anbassairor'co,"-us'bralia
ln L965' Son
noFts:la'Ders
used
-u::t
clf an inii;iaI 102-vlo rci no s sage
,
but o:rIy three us eA any'birSlg
of a
7Oo-wori.
amplifica'bion
that folIoire,f. in the next shi-ft,
and on\' one
.?c:{)\:r
UScir a lpOlgrrofi, repeat Of tllat f:193S8$O
neXt ;rofnin6' fhfCr
iios rlso
a.n irr.berestinS exanple
of i;he'beniency
to play C'onn
sof,ti\ Ca'bego::ics
cf asian ncss in the san*:le
na'berial.
0n'bhO
same day'
l:ajor Gcnoral l(osasih
ras aplroin'beci.
official
Inc"o:resian
adras:acl-or
to
.. rr licaLand- bu'b'bhis c'von'b rias covorcd
il a'rric'f ]9'words
ailc" l'eported'
jJr
only five
Papcrs
Ttre rc.Dc.-i;ition
a1c, cuplic;t:-on
of soclo itgrns 6L{r }o ovicl'cnco
f or
arguiag
'bha'b
thcre shouli. be a 6uoh nore critical
scrutirgr
of thc
intcrnati onal noT1s sen'b ou-b f 1m SydnCy
by thc
'ti.L'P'l-'
sorvic;
'
'lhc
bcsrc uay
-bo
up6rafu this rpuld bcl ^r,o
ai'rangs for
i'bs oo;rpiLa'i;ion
by
a s.ba.f,f of srrvur&l l{rii Zc,aland
journalis'bs socondcd.:ior
;hc purposg fr"o't
-tho
sub-od:ltorial cioslcs
o'i' cai\ papcrs in New Zoalanc. I'e'bhoilthan
by
ono Aus-braU.an
sub-odj-..orr
Pcrhaps
tho
j-rrf
orsati-on
ovorload.
problon
co'1l also bc tackl-rcL
a-b
''chis
poi:rt. If
J5
por co5i;.
of tbe irord'ago
of wha't is bain3 publisho cL
js
crr'! by thc
g1o$rs
r-1&Po1.B
"fiomsclvos
,
then
shar.por zub
-cc1-iting
at SydncS-,
'bb
point of ori;in, sc'ef,Is
callcd'
f or'
As agaS.insrl this,
'blec-
scnsitivit;'
of "c}1is
sctvrork
whln $omc evcnt of
nagn5.tuc.o is takinE shapc is
'o'b
'bo
b,.' dcnioi.,
and' nus'b b*' naiata:i'n$C'
A good. cxan.ilc of
-itris
occurcd.
l:h,n Ncrr Zoalolrd.
:las aboui to Cavalu.''
its
ell""onci in 1967. The
gJ'sttr.n
obtaj-nod
a' oarLy
eilnounconont
abotrt
tht'
ra-'cc of ciovaluation fron Tolryo
l.rhc.ro
irrforrustion
hac. Lealced' fron
In'borna'tional l'Jonotary
Fund' source's.
Thcsc
tro a fcw oi the obvioug
wrys iJI whifi
tho i'.il.P':'
sorvice
coulcr. bo iai:;'oVed., but fer greatcr inprovemernts
to the' sygtcn
as a
::holc coulcl bc, car^riod-
ou'b in i;he officos
of tho ncnbar
[t1]ISp'ipore
'lthr'.f,B
clvc,
g
.
2. gl.fr-.\Ets-P-4SS_
Thc perfornance of tho neirspapers urith the sanple of N.Z.PA
n'r,terJel suggests ttrat th'ey aro unsensational in stySe ancl hea,vlJlr
conoerned. r,r:ith thel-r . senrice f\rnct
j.ons.
The N.Z, P.A, itself
(
tJrough not
rrithout its tenclenci.es to cirrcunspection) for the nost part actecl Ln an
objective rray as o ccrrnon camier of i:fornation; t-he newspapers 5n1$sod.
their ortn controls on
yrhat
was published. Consequently, nany reeder.sl Ld.eas
of tho capab5-lities of tho N.Z.p.A. service nay be coloured by the
l:raesttsst
of the no'ilstrEpers, sof,ie of llhLch &lstort the
fattelrr
of news by
on:ission or suppress ion The t orrlng d"cnnr of sone sensati.orral Ltens, the
virtual sutrpressic,n of the /rusbralian Lrny
f
shooting {luoks
t
storXr, and the
blas exeirfud. a6a5nst itens cnitioal of the conduct of the VLetnan wa':r, aq
wolI as tlro lack of interest in rrews abotrt civtl lJbertJ.es or evon the
problons of press freod,on, 5nd.:icate that Aur:ir t.tre priod covered. by tluis
stardJl, the r''aj or part of the Nerv Zca]and. Aeily press r?as treating the nevs
ln accorcLance with a sot of oonsenrative rralues. The renedy for sme of
th, d.efoots clf the daily press night 1ie, therefore, lrr roor"e tlrorough ancl
sensltivo use of the content of the ertstirg N.Z.P.A. service rather
thart
in seniLi.ng nore corresporrC,,.onts eb:pad. ard attopting to
6reppl,e
rritb an
elren larger ne ss age fl-ow.
Blrer
'treatnent
of itens of a sensatjonal nature,
and. of itens oonoerrrj.ng
the VLetnan protest novenent, has ak'oady beon dlsoussocl. The:p nene also"
in the seriple a fev N.LP.4. storJ.es ooncerned.
with tlre subject
of tlre
fbeed,cn of ttre press. ten norrspq)ers out of
16 publisheat a staterneart of
Irord. Thonsonrs visvs on thLs subjeot,
anA 10 nen'spapors al.so usecl an lten
frcn tho annual neetdng of the Conr:onvea-Lth hess Urrion ln lronilon et
rrh-ich O.S. Ilintz, chai.nran of the N.Z.P.A. and. eclitor of lhs
NeTI__ZjlL]aDe
Ilgff+g
saidr he rrcuId. rc.ther se! rnyrspapers taken over by the ba:rons of
Lond.on or tJ:o hi6lmrynen of Sydney than work undor gorrar.nnent oontrol.
Ett on\y forrr neuspapers publishecl aqr d.eta{Ls of a scheule adnanced by a
conferonco of Britj.sh nineworkers for nationaHslng the Bd.ttsh
pttose,
and. onl;r one paper,
Tho_Da:LfJt-UglEg, ran an acoount of tlre Unttecl States
Suprene Canrb
judgnent
in the case
1 85.
of Bi1lie Sol [stes in rrir-i-ch a Texas trial verclict was reversr']d. on the
grotrnrls
th-it the televlsing of proceerJ.:ings had- preju&lcod. the C.efendantts
f:,ir trial. TLr-is vlas nattcr of nore tlurn acadomio intercst to newspspers
al-l ovcr tho rtorlcl, cncl presunab$'to
somo of thelr rearlors, but not in
Itlc;l ZoalancL. Thcre the papers r.iere ncre iltorestecL in the convicticn of
A
rJcnan
iJl a Nev Zealand. nagistrctels Court for stoaling newspapsrsr
ltrj-ne cf the papors in the s ir"n:ple ran th-is s alutary talo
.
Nor lvcre s one cf the ne.,Tspapers very sensitive to rLirect crtticLsn
of tircnselveso In the nornin6; shjft nev{s of Thursclay June 17 of the sanplc
veelc, the secr-rart&rXr of tl:e Moat Retailers
r
Federation (D.J.
$tre)
sairl
tl:at pork sales were nornal agoin but pig prod.ucers were bl,:utng the
press and. the l'linister of Agriculture for the unfavourab]e publioitSr
thcy haC roceived. as a result of an outbreak of trictrjnosi-s. This iten
TIas
p6.ppoduced
in one netropolitan nornirg paper, one netropolltan
evc:n5n6, all four provincial morn:i.ngs in the sanplee and. one provincial
everri.n6. In the c,fternoon
str:i-ft, J.J. Parsons, thc chairman of the
Pi6
Fboducerst
Connu'ulttee of Foierated. Farmers ( wtrich was then in conferoncc
jn
'ltrcllington)
cliroctly attackerL the press. He described. the pubDoS.ty as
I
CiLngerous
,
unwarrantcd. and. r:njustlfiecit nrrd said. it Lrad. aclverse\r
affected the irrdustrqtts narkets. Only two papers published. this. 8lp
iten rvas sqrpeated. iJr thc trbiday norni.:lg slr:lft raith a f\rrtlrer snd. f,rore
t'renchant statenent by Pcrsons thet
t
...
the pon is o Lothal. weapon 5-n
thc hand.s of peoplo who are not a$are of tho ljlcsly consoquencos of rrhat
thoy writor, Thi-sr of coursc, anountod. to a lectruro on tho social-
responsibillt;r of the pross. Horn' [id. tho press take it? The follovrlng
table shows hctt Parsonsr statenent rras rep:rodr:cccl by those papers thot
publi-shod. argrttrilg
further.
ITewspa::e r
ftft s.
:i ominion
guckland- $tar
-an-fiarlui
Chronicle
i'.iew Zealand. llerald
Southlanc"
ri.,neg
iivening
Fost
ilolson
Evening }Iail
.l-vera6e
score
r^vela3e
s core
187
Ilpt',j
f,
S:#{SSF. .o*. iir9. J'FpFj"itrS" -ry-
*S*$-$' -sf:*$'-'
sllsT,$'i
Prorninence
Score
-.-
J.t t .'
-
a.a
5lt-
r:esponsibilitY
'bex'g
text
Ie ading
artlole
FulI text
Fu1l
text and leacLing
article
Oni'bteC.
all criticlslo
39
A.
ILJ
1j
U
o
c)
o
Onitted
so ci-al
criti-cisrn
Frb
1is he d. f'ul1
Publishe
C. :iuI1
fulL tex'L and.
per
j-tem,
2O.5.
for all items in
.bhis
subject
d.ivlsion,
15.6.
rt can
be seen tha'b only readers
of '$tp-
Sgrtlg'qg
star' t'rc
[a4;anuj
i:-$:9,fr.i.-"1g,
ll-k.-it
y. Ze.al.and.
F9.".ql..i,
!.]F- F*o1}il*qftp^*tU'ns.
anG IIre
i*9P'+A
-{oS
I
1{el.e
given the fu1l f a ci;s .
In their combi-ned'
co lun--rs
'bhe
s.baternent roceived.
s116h-b1y
moi.e
thti' average
proninencer
'bhougb onlJ
g1l*J-E1;.gi-o11
*a
!!tg{:ti}.}1p3-F.fqg
6ave
it any subs'ban-bial
P"v'
A1.i5ou6h
a conslcerable
anoun'i; of i.r:terest
night
be
'llrou3lt
to lpve
a,ctaclreo.ro
the incid.entr-bhe
o-bher
pa.pers
ix the sar:ple ei'bhsr
consifurecl'
,che
af,farr not suffi,cieni;]y
novsworthy,
or aeciooc.
no'i;
'bo
pubrish for
i.easons be st knorm
'bo
i;hemselves,
As to the norits
of Pai'songl
argunen-b,
nrre ther or not
jn
the na.tionar
interest
ttre pi'e ss sbould'
iz'rve suppressecL
all ne\?s of 'che
outbreak,
it is A![f icul'b
t
j-f
:10'6
inpossible,
to say wi'bh any certaj't;r
rrhat the id'eal course
of action
srroufci have been. However,
-bha-b
the
r)ress
d.oes on occasion
1r:actise
so ciaL responsibill'r;y
in its treatmen'c
of national
nelTs
is
"7e11
knonn.
k!-ggiJlrg,,
for ins'bance,
tat 'i;he
requost
of
the nou'ce|
-
.5
rlid. no,c publish i.etails
of benb
.bhrects
rnacr.e at
''{elLi:rgton
airlrort
-TLp-J*ogi--ni-ggr
September
L.t 1968
,
1.
1BB.
and
$9-Qv.9gry16
Fp-g!
cut referenct:s to statenents about
nilltary
strategy fron its report of an annual
conference of tho Second. N.Z.E.F.
Association in lTellington et the reErest of tho then Pni.1xe 1[inister,
Poter Fraser.
'
In 1960,
thc daiJy press generally
soft-pedallerd all
d-iscussion
of the d.angers cf i.:nsc cticlde poisor:s aff octing Now ZealancL
noat oxporbs for nearly six nonths until quostions rsked in the Houss of
Representatives,
c,nd. publlcity in
N.dsg*!!
nad.e it a public isguo.
In 1965,
soao dailJ netlspapers
refusod to purchase a slmdicated. foatr.rre
story contai:uilg oxcerpts .froxr Flince Charles
f
&iarXr on the ground.s that
publlcation
would oonstltute a broach of X.oyal de coruf,r. Until 1965, when
discussions
in the House of Ilepresentatlvos drew open attention to its
actLvlties,
th dal\y newspapers naintained. an infonral agreenent not to
pttbllcise
even the oxigtonce of the New Zoa1and. Secrrriff Pollco.For
exanFle, rrhqn The Evenl+_Pog!,,
jx
its first e&i.tion
,
inaclverbent\r
dcscribed. an outbreak of fire ix a buildlng whioh usod. to house tfte
hoad.quarters of the SecurLty Polico i.n Courterray Place, ![efl
t
ngt6n,
instnrctions
vrere givon to the r:cc,ttaniocl staff to
tbasht
th stereo
pJate so that a referenco to the fire bri6ad.e be5lg^urable to gst iJr
beoauso of the loclcscl steol rloors rd:jch ttle Secrr^nlty Pollce.ha"d. insteJ.led
would-
not be d.eciptrorabIe lrr tho second. edition- Tlrj-s nas cl.one, but
inconlntent\r;
a f\rrther re'ferpnce
j.n
the second.
.
last
paragraph
of th
j.ten
was ovcrlooked... It stated.:
rA
police gua.trcl nas
placeil on tJu entrance to tlre Secrrrity PoHce heaclguartorgt.
Blro"
a
reproducti-on of this tten fror: the seconrl e&ltion of the nerspaper in
ch. rxr Appen&ix, soction
7,
t
se cr.rrity H.Q. Fire
t
.
)
In the
lresent
caso, both
btveHrrLlosj
arrd
I$l_lt_ry.Ig.gkqq
ilerald. r,lere sensitive
enough to publish lead.ing articles on the subjoct
of the trLclr-lnosis outbreak ancl Paraonst conplalxt. But nelther of these
artLcles
d-obated. the question
of responsibility in th lational interest
which is
trlplicit
tn
luls oritisisn. f._he__rySg-Zealanj.
lkl.3lq
arguod tlrat
the news coul*l not ho,ve beon hushed. up becmse runours would. have leokecl
7
S,vrab,
4t
July 1966, 2.
B
$S_$t3gp"g--&fj,,
Febmary 1 1960,
9.
1Bg .
out and- attempts to keep it secret v,'aulc1 have interfered. rryith the effort
to traclc d.ov,nr ancl control
the diseirse, r'rhile The EveninE Post stuck
to
the theory of
j-nstant
d.isclosure and. held- that the country
had- a ri6ht
to be iirformed. of this nelT problem
(tfre
outbreak) on.1 the press had- a
ciuty to publ-ish.y Neither of the viriters of these ari;icles
Save
any
serious consid.eration to the counter-argument
that in the clelicate
interests of New Zealairdrs export nreet tracle, all references
to the
positive d.iagnosi-s of trichinosis in Cn15r tloto animafs could- have been
conveniently onitted by the nelvs med.ia until
it was apparent
either thrrt
the d-isccse r{as uncler coltrol and. ha::rrlessr or that it lvas spreaclrng
anci
there lYas a national emergency.
That sone lrelrspapers are soc:-alIy re sponsible ivhen it suits
ihem,
and. omit or play t1elys itens at their convenience
is not surprising
because this kind of anbiguity illustrates the pelananent clilemma in vdricir
a free press find.s itself. On lvhet
gror-u':.ds should
it be prepared. to
publish regarclless of consequence: on rzhet occasions should
it practise
a self-censori-ng cliplomacy? Thet there seems to be no sharp cYlareness
of the rrature of thrs problen arnong some cf the d.ai1y nelrspapers of Nei'r
Zealand. suggests tirat their editors and mc.nagements
prefer rvhere
possible
to take a sinrple vier.r of themselves c.s recorclers of events rather than
initia'bors , Perhap s
,
in the trichinosi s cff air, if the Ninister of
Agriculture hed esked. the press to be silent
it wou1d. have obliged.; but
it probably rvould. have needed his pronpting.
7. COIIFETITI.ON ]it]$i TTIE EUECTRO.{IC IIEDIA
Sone nenspapers may be using very unsophlsticated.
methods to put
together a stereotyped selection from the nire nelTs each shift,
but they
are free to treat this moterial as they pleaser so mucl: sor
ihat any
small-town daily r,rrith only a little enterprise ancl ingenuity could.
turn
out a
product that l'/as as r:rell organised as any of the metropoU-tans
not only in its treatment of loca1 effeirs but also es far as covcrage
of'
national and. interna'bional net?s is concerne'J,
thougb possibly on a
red.uced. sccle ovring to the srnaller nunber of nelrs page s being caffied .
9
e New Zealand. Heral{, Jwre 19 1955, B; encl TLre Evenins
Post,
190.
Similarly, what i s d.i.soaslc{, at the sub-ed.itorial d.e sks of sone of the
metropoli-tans coufd- be used. by ar\y capable
journalist
as the core for
a publication r',ith a style radically ti.ifferent from anything else in ltlei'i
Zealand". Tre low-usage wire copy, for instance
,
could be rakecl over to
construct a tabloid. emphasislng human irrtere st and crine
,
though this
jr-s
not lihely to occur unless it is compelJ-eci.
by shrirrking circulations.
Tre most liliely so'dTce of such a d.lsturbance to conventicn
l-ies in the
electronic neCia. TLre li ,Z,B.C . has installed. microtrave network
facilities for the transnission of national news telecasts, ancl tiris
couIcl bring brcad.casting still more into competition
with the c-Laily papers
and. nj.th the 1'l oZ.P oA . narly in 1970, the
oorporation
took ad.vantage oi
the increased flexibiliff of prograrute content ivhich the nicrot?eve link
norv pennits by following its national television nei'rs bull-etins il-ith
brief' pro6rainmes of local nevs a.:rcl nagazine items compiled
by the four
maj or regional channels to suit their ot'rn re quirements . The further
likelihood of private broaclcasting stations operating regional anci locril
neirrs scrvice s has been ne
1fionei.l
in ad.d.ition,
the New Zealand
Pos t anc
Telegraph Departnent is constructing a station
to enabfe New Zealand. to
receive satellite
'bransrnissj-ons
by 1970. This rriay greatly extenrl the
entire I'{ew Zealan0 communications syter,r by provid.ing channels that are
alternative to those used. by the I{ .Z.P.A . It coulcL result in an even
more rapirl and voh:ninous d.e live
ry
of r';i::e copy to the I'l . Z .P .A . ne twork,
thus intensifying the informati-on overload
problem, but it could. also
result in radio and. television nelrs services
receiving a mgre rapid. ancl
up-to-d.ate worl-d. nelvs service,
How the daiiy press reacts to such d-evelopments clepends on circurn-
stance, but tirere are varicus options open to it. The dailies cou1d.
red"uce their present
coverage of internatj-onal nerTs and
j.ncrease
thelr
local coverage
;
they eould. relS' on the N,Z
"P.A
. for nore specialised
background.
cornmentary on the ner,'s, and they could-
possibly make better
use of the features and- supplementary naterials n.ith vhich they are
alread-y being supplied.. T?re I'I
"
Z,P,A, distribute s a good. deal of
background. naterlal each vreek and the dailies are not able to
191 .
find. space for all of it. One reason may be thst this material
is not
entirely suitable
for their need.s, otherwise some
of then would not
find it necessary
io buy the rights to reprint
gobbets of politioal
comnentary
from neris magazines like l{eyrsweek.
Some of the d'eficiencies
otr ttre N.Zop,A. senrice
night be comected.
when
the long-overclue
appoint-
ment of a full-time coruesponiLent
in the Uniteil States takes
place. Ihe
next
project cou}l rrelJ- be the opening of a bureau
in Tolgro.
It has also to be realised that there are difficulties
ln the
actual supply of feature material,
American
interpretative
featurest
especially if they are signed.p c1'
more expensive
to buy than British ones
because American
jor:rnali-sts
e:qiect higher paSment. Ste lrieTr Zealsnd'
Associated.
Press
(The
New zealand Herald,
@
and
@h4
Dailv Tj-nes) vrhich is a featr-rre-buying
netnvork,
obtains airrnoiL
clelivery
of a olipping service from i ts
'
special full-tirne correspond'ent
stationed.
in Lond.on. This, plus the tie-up of a regular service
from
the British papers tend.s to result in a greater flori' from British
than
frorn United. States sourcsr
lhis could.
be one explanation
for the
popularitSr of Anerican nel?s magazines like Tj.:ne and Nevrsweek
in Nerv
,tn
Zealand.,lu fhere is no d.oubt that ar{f attenpt
to cover
international
affairs rrith more seriousness arul detail on the part of the Nerv Zealand'
press rzoukl Cost a loi of money, e specially
if it lvere to aim at
complernenting
the activities of the broadcasting services
rather than
d.uplicating
thern or crud.ely courpeting
lrith them. The complementary
approach vrould. require a nuch finer and more selective
treatnent of
the world. nevs and rrould involve the filling-in
of gaps in areas Trhere
rea-dy-nad.e nerrs and. opinions are scarce.
Their New Zealand- reaclers ni6ht
be better sernred.
if sone of the larger papers tried. to d.evelop the
kind. of interests and areas of expertness vhich are so lacking
in New
Zealancl
journalism generally, Ttris lvould
involve allovring
the N.Z.P.A'
to cartXr out its basic task of supplying
a core of hard. news, but seeking
to nrnplify this with vrhatever talents and resources
were available
to
an ind.ivid.u^a1 paper. Certain items in the sa.mple shosed.
that ttrere
10 See ref. 19, Ch. I, fhe !\.rnctions of the New ZealanL
Nevrs Med.iat
f or d.etails cf circulations.
-r92
lias sof,lc wesrti(rcl energy in the rslationsh-ip between sone roetropolitan
ni:)'.'rspapers and the lrirc scrvice. i,[ost of 1fte mctropolitans omploy
full-ti-ne comespond.ents i-:n lTelli-ngton. fbey sent a nuabor of stories
bacir to their papers that hacL alreaqy boen ad.cquate\r covored by the
i.{
.2 . P.A.
Thus tho staf,f of Thg_-Ltlgg- Zcalend H,rald sont a 26?--rrord vorsion
of a statonent by a Cabilet }{i:uistor on hyd.ro-efec'bricity supply in
spito of the fact that thc N.Z.P.A. ind. aln:acly transnittecl a
t0O-vmrd.
account of tlils and. tlro
llqrgll
nan hacl nothjne to ad.d. Thc gane of
scooping the N.Z.P'A.
roachod. tho height of tho absurd irr ttxis nowspaport s
caso whcn on l{ay
U
it ran a
S
jnch
iten fron its Par}La.rrnentarSr
staf,f about plans for cclcb,ratj$g thc centenarXr of Parlla.montn on\r to
duplicato the itom on May 1l uith exact\r tho same storXr from tho
}'T.Z.P.A. Thq.-]Lu-gk-Lan4=&.
attribui;erd. an itena about l.and for a steel
tr1ill sito
'bo
its 'riell5rgton
corrcspond.ent whlch was also coverecl by tho
N.Z.P.A.
It also &.rplicatcd
-dre
coverage of a tTollington Arrzac Day
observance as well as en account of l{evr Zealancl plans io bulld a Chancery
i.:r lilashir:gtono
A variation of
r
scoop tho N.Z.P.A.
r
is even sinpLer.
It consi.sts of publishing
the N.Z.P.A. story r.rnd,er a false bylirte.
Thus,
The
Qtaeo-_Dg&__T_fgg
publishod. an itom about hyilro-electric porrer
supply under tho byllne
t'ffeIli.ngton
reporterr
,
but it i'tas a word.-for-word.
roproduction of a tcxt sent out by tho II.Z..'.A. from Uellinton.
Sevcra] rnertropolitans found. it no cessary to sond thejr or,n sports-
vriters to cover a Sprin,;bo}: tour of Australia in spito of the fact tlrat
the li.Z.P.A. had. dispatchcd one of its nost e,xporii.ncecl l:and"s who was
al-so Bn cxport football rrritcr.
b-Eggg
rr"s onc, of theso paporsr
but on thr-. occasion of thrr Nc;' South walcs gano
,
it rrli: about half of tlrc:
id.Z.P.A. cLotailocl coninontary
j:r
6 pt.
Wpo
bolov i-ts or,1: nanl s suf,lna^tryt,
tlrcroby making a reasonably full uso of the availablo rosourcesr
The NeE Zoalapcl Horal-A obtai-ned. 19 i-:rchos of nattor plus i-Ilustrations
from its orn rosourccs tJI Cl'ristchr:rch to covcr Bn intornational rargby
leaguc ga;xc i.rnsteacl of using the N.Z. P.A.
I
s guito conrpotont
500-rrord.
roport. Ox tho othcr hand.r'chis particul-ar ncrrspapor can, on oocasion,
bring skiJ-led. rcsources to boar on particular issues. It has been ono
of the fow da.ily ne\ilspapers in lrlev Zcslard. to publish conlntont criticisn
-193
of rccent Nc'r,r Zealarrd. Acad.eny of F!"Art exhibitions, md in L966 it
i'ieni to sone pains to cleal lrith eornplaints by Pc+ter Mclntyro, a popular
I,lew Zealand. painter, that Auckland. art critj-cs were
I
d.estnrctive
beyond
belief
r
. It thought his
trnrticular
paintings an an acad.er11' show
jn
;.ellington
l,yere
outstanding in an exhibition of work wh-i-ch rras, however,
11
by Auckland. stand.ard.s said. to be tjnid., r:norl5i.naI and. d.ovmright duIL.
Oxe of the best pie ces of interpretative reportage in the sanple
was an account in The_-Prejlg of the effects of creU,censrr4;* the fisirirlg of
crayfish i.rr the Akaroa *urr12 but it cnrst also be observed ttrat The
4gckland"
Star
ghowed nore soph:istication than any of the other papers ix
i.:ri;erpreting the nevrs. For instance, it cut a staternent by the Bri'tish
Prirae Minister about defence econonies flrcn
JOO
word.s to 27Ot but it
i.nterpreted, th:is naterial rritJ: cornnent attributed. to a Welli::gton
correspond.ent. It used. the same approach to statements about the
Vietnan war issuecl by K.J. llolyoake when he vras at the 1965 Coilmonvrealth
Pni-ne idj-:risters
t
Conf erence. The se were occasions vthen the
1:aper
I
s
parlianentary and iTeJ-lington bureau reporting staffs
y/ere
be5ng used.
jntelligently
to anplify the news and
6ive
it backgror:nd sigrdficancet
a skiil i-n which the l{ei; Zealand nelvs nnecLia systen is generally deficient.
S ilrilar\r, the
t
rTorld.t s Ttreekt and
r
Our Tleekr f eatures
publisherl on
Saturdays and vri-i;ten by the staff i:rere useful news backgroundors fihich
con-bai.ned an idornative d.iscussion of the woekts salient affairs.
Special articles frorn tj-ure to tjne illr.rninated. areas of pub15-c business
i.:e d.epttr; for instance, a 2OOO-r{orrl account of the activities of the
Rrblic trixtrnnditr.rre Conmittee of
'LJ:e
Hou se of Representa-tirr*r
1
5
and a
crj-tical d.iscussion of, the question of }laori representation
in
1
P,,r1ianerlt.
'4
It ls al.so significant that The. AuckLrUrA f-tg and
! ,
both published by Neri Zealand Netrstrntrnrs
Ltd.
t
are anong the only daily norrspapers in the country to have conslstently
givon strace for the pcesentation of Labour Party
views i.:r a regular
feature entlt].ed
rlabour
Point of Vielrt .
JJ The New Z@ Novenrber
12 1965,
3.
12 The Press, June
16 1965,
7.
13 FIGffi.na stgg
,
J,ane'Zl tglr, 24.
14 The Au qkland_ Star, June 23 L965
t
6.
-194-
The daily press and radio services could cme in'r:o sharper conflict
rrhen a seoond television channel is establishsd
in Nevr Zea1and..
Then it
nay be cxpected that evonts will'cenil to fol]olr the'Urrtted-
S'batos
oxporicnco wherc conpeti'ui-on
-,.i'th
telovision servicos
has sent both
ncirspatrrrs
and radio stations ssranbling
f or incroased.
local advcrti'i"g'
'''
This has not happenccl yct
j^n
l{cw Ze:aland. bccausc
advcrLiscrs
cannot
buy a1l thc i;inc thcy
-,.oukl
like on thr present singlc'-channel
s3rs tcn.
3u-b e seconcl ch.rnncl fj-nancr-d by ttr.-, salu of ad.vertlsing
tilre would'
clr-ngc all that . Thc' N .Z . B. C r @ n':Nr clal raoio
nt'tlrork
is alrc'ad;f
vigorously in pursuit of ad.vcrtis:ng rcvcnuc;
with rloro of that rcvcnuo
goirrg into tclovis ion and. with privato broarLcasting
stations
in conpotition
rrith it, it would hi:rvo to conpctc
nuclr norc stringcntly
rl'bh tho pross
f or nhat vicis lcft. ]ar\r in I9'a9 thcr i'i.2. B.C. ro-orG&niscd.
its top
nena6onr.rnt on a rc6ional basfu in
grcparation
for a strugglc
of tluis
lc5rri, ano it began to cxpand. its ncirs sorvioos'
illoarnrhilc,
s0Elc
notropolitan nci;spepcrs havo bcon buying chains of suburbans
in rcadjncss
for stiffor conpotition
fo r circulction
i:oc[ aclvcrtising.
If sorlo of
ilron l,;cro li conscd to operato bro adcas ting stations
,
thc conf llct would
bcconc norc intonsc.
"rf,hatcvcr
tha ovcntrho'.rcvor,
soclo dalIy ncTlspaporgt
evon if 'choy had t5c telcnt to nakc, a bettcr
iob
of hand.llng
tbc n'ationci
nolrs
rnight
bo lacking i,n firc ncnagerial
lncc'ntivo
to do so.Tfithout
sof,Io
conpetitivc dovclopncnts of thc ki-nd suggo stcd, tlris
jnccntivo
vrill not
autonatically bc suppliod by thc N .Z.B.C.
bocausc it has its orJn
i.::ad.oqgacics. As long as it controls rad.io
,end
tu'levision
nelvs sorvicos
it i8 not likcly to bo a vc,Tx sorious rival
in nany i-nrportant Do'lis-
gathoring ercas, for axanplo,
tho lau courts'
But
if son"' of tbe larger
norrspapors
erc allolrccL to oporate radio
stati-ons
thcy wiIL
bc ccrtajn
to
15 Noiispapc',r rc,vcnuo fron advcrtising
has
grg1r1 ln lTcir
Zoalanil
by an
avcrago of B.
J
p.,r ccnt. ovor thc'
pc r ioa
1955 to
1965
,though,
t4"
.
groirbh ,.ltrr hrs boon s]-aclceni::g
siicc
thc intr"oduction
of telovisi-on
L
f
961.Te1evision
hss ly1d. its biggcst
55pact on thc nctional
conponcnt of ad.vortj.sing
cgd. hes icnd'cd.
to
affoct tbo notrOpolitan
papcrs bof orc' thc p"otii.ials.
Scc
![o-Pqg${-of
{Sfs.p^r'1ft-!'+,ry'9+
zgglg4q, by thc contract
Resoarch
uiTf;?:ffiii;;
Z'oClitna rnstituto
of
Ilcononic R-csearch
(Inc.
) ,
''.to115ngton
1968'
195.
,supply news services thet will be in direct cornpetition with those of
the N.Z,B.C. This could lcad to a general sharpening of the news-
gathering practiccs throughout the cntire media system and c c.ruld bc
a val-uab1e reform. At a pinch, rather than lose circulationl the
daily press could venture into incren,scd sensationalisml by publishing
more news from the policc.
courts and giving greater attpntion to
human interest matt:ria1 at the expense of some of its sprvice functr''-ns
But if at the same tine some of its most powerful elemefrts are trying
to obtainr or to hold, broadcasting licenccs, they are
[ikely
to bi;
eoncerned to maintain their reputativns as sober, respofisible
t
chroniclers rather than exploiters of vulpqar sensation.
I
Competition
under a system of broadcast }icensing therefore may be
fore
nominal
than actual in some news-gathering areasr so that a daily equivalent
of The News of the Worldr or even of N.Z. Truth
r
semslunlikely.
The N.Z.B.C. itself could well afford to send its ofn reporting
teams abroad to earry out much morc investigative reporfing along the
lines pioneered by the Compass docurnentary t*o*.15
It
"J,rfa
elso
face up to the problem of reporting Parliamentary affai{s on televis-
ion, and commenting on them in depth and with critical
{nsight.
It
needs expert
Journalists
for this and it must either tr{in them, hirc
them from overseos, or come to terms with the newspaper
Jproprietors
in order to use theirs. One of the greatest drawbacks t4
journalism
in recent years hr.s bcen the refusal of many newspaper
flroprietors
to allow their employees to contribute as a matter of cQurse to
regular N.Z.B.C. broadcasts and public affairs progranmep, All too
often there has been a curtain c-if silenee between newspapers and the
N.Z.B.C. The consequence is that the N.Z.B.C. is sometimps hard
put
to it to find adequate people fcr assignments, while thel
journalists
themselves are unable to build up the kind of experiencel with the
handling of public affairs that they would get elsewhere
16 Complaints by the Prime MinisterrK.J. Holyoaket on r
the United States could
just
as weII have been made
N. Z,B. C. as against the N. Z.P.A. He criticised the f
New Zealand
journalist
was sent with himt although a
had been sc"nt by the N. Z.P.A.. to the Olympic Games i
the time.Reported in The Evening Post, November 21
turn from
ainst the
ct that no
reporter
Mexico at
958, 35.
The c,aily nofispapers are alreaciy apprehensivc of the possib
on tlreir ci.rcul,ati-ons of the buiId.-up i.:r N.Z.B,C. ne1?s services
196.
A
6roat
cleal. is expe cto d.
nust carry 1er6e quantities of
it is genorally acceptr:d. that
fron a Nori Zealernr] clailY
d.isplay snd classifii'O
this should bc conbinccl
effe cts
ancl thoy
lr.rve begr:n to explcre the
lossibj-l-ities
cf Sunday publicaticn
experir:ent cautiou sly r;itJr content in the ettcnpt to f lncl other
for cj.rculation oxpansion shou}] lt br:Corlo lreceescflo One
offoct of constantly lnprc,viits telecor:r:uniceti.ons, is that ttre' lstlng
opc:rotlons of thc N.Z.P.rl. syston coufd bc strr:;ined. by thc ultie s
of procossing an ovor-furcreasi.ng voLune of no];s r.nttor. But t
rearly a.nswer to ttuis problon, E*itorial troatnent of incordrg
casily enough bo institutcd. at the YlellirUton bnreicu so thr.t an
and selpctecl vorsion cc,uld- bo rclayed on punchecl tapc to r.ienber
circuit. There thc tapc couId. opcrate conputerlsod. t;posctt
*guipnont without the nc cessitlr f'or nuch tine-consuning sub-ed.i and.
selectirg. Spced. sncl econony cru1d be gained uith sone loss of
autonomy
j.:n
thc hand,Ling of naticnal and
jnternetlonal
nells.
of this kind. oro already in use irr Japan, aro cc'ntenplateCr ln
/.u
an0 aro bein[l operatod by thc Thonson organlsetion ix Itrlon,cl.
rascarch is also being directccl to the possib ility at nells egen
of substltutin6: conputer-programnedr
data pro cessing routi-nps f or
ti
r:er-con
sun5n6, .ur' c1 sone tir:res no chc"ni.ca]-, cd-itorial functlon its
l;hatover the outcono, such practices l-enc1 tirenselves to adaptat to
Nou Zcaland. cond.itions ond it is slgnificant
that a nunl-rer of ne po15.'ban
nerrs.Dapcrs il l{cr,r ZcalcnrJ r:olr have conputerised
Wpe
setting eq pnent
ialities, 'i;horrgh
thcy hcve nut yet attenpteC. to nakc f\rl1 use of its poten
lr. CONFIJCT ON. CONSTNSUS?
ti. to
cr oas
17 The proportion of arlvertlsin6 to other spacL., i-:r-bho'ca;jo of
notropolitan newspapers
jn
1955
',.ras
56.37
pct cent. tc
43.
nc tispaper
advcrrt
vi-th & se
oisa
lls cou^l-cl-
clitod.
in the
1o ccrl
chn:iquc s
tralie,
There,
level
th
lf.
It
17
*a
ction or'
per cent.
in 1967
io of
In 1966 this becanc
55.53
par cent. to lrlr,'lrT per cent.,
and
(vrhen
thcrc
'{.zas
a s1i6ht busincss recession)
it fel} to B. r
53.06
Inr
cont. to
45.94
por cent, Fron fhc OenqftAfor,Jiol
i.:r lrTow Zoaland by tho Contract Ltc,serlrctr_U1i!
of tr3-.T:" Zea:
fficcnolic Rosearch
(Inc.), Wellington
1958.
t
197.
ed"i-torial natter that ranges fron tlro repetition of trlvla
to the latest reports on inteirnatic,nal affalrs. Sone of the
dailies ain at being ne'.;spapers of reoord both
jrrsii,.e
tho
cor,uunities es velI as at the national level. The result is
concern thenselves irith a consid.erable
anount of unspectecu
ii.etailed. infornatio$. Sone 29 per cent. of the total i-tens
17ere concerned. with rro'rrs nhich w.'r,s local ln ortentation, w
Has nationalJry orit',ntated. and
31
tler
cent. l?as oblentated
Ii'iost of this local nerls is hundnrn, For instance, dono
nol:spapers still caruy long lis"bs of n:lnor offend.ers in the
anci also chroruicle a great nany oivil
procee*in6sr inolu&in
against dobtors, This futflls a nur:ber of purpososr It sat
ourio'$t$', supplies usoful infornation to Ioca1 trad'espooi:
and. it presunably reinforces tJre nora] web of tho comrrrnity
offend.ors, anrl
lfl
that setlso is vory nuch a part of the nec
irunishnont.
Porhaps tho rock botton in this kind of
howovor, was rt:ached. bV
3IS^.O-tago,
D_ai.ly.
-T.J+tp.s-
during tho s
it
i:ubllshocl
a llst of recent callors
at Nev ZeaJ.arrt Houso
with a report of a local Travcl Club neoting. [ho ponotrati
af?al-rs
ovon pernitted the no;spairors of the South to ind.u
old-feshionecl fine ';;riting.
lstecn
nay bo on its way outt
forn of tho stoan looonotive still has an aur& of poworr,
1a
p-YgjjL'*g*3p ln a f ront page d,tsplay .
''
tThe
cityr
s fine
friond.s, the Christchurch pigeons, are rapid.Ly runni.:rg out
9fl
;c'portea
p-It-u.
.C-hris;!ch;4p-qb
Star.
bv
tThe
i.nu:lnent
irrospo
ct
cLay and. ther cold.est frost this year have d.oner nothh6 to
q
buoyant sprlng fereling of an aprioot troe in Durhnr: street
h,xlf
-coverod
rdth f Iuffp: pink blossonsr
,
stated
L]tS,
Prepp,'
best;riocc. of vriting in tlre whole sirqrle \?as, horveverr to
it rras an obituary l,titten r''ith a brilliant
infmnality by
varti.r:e conrada of the local bi:.rber .
"
I']r1l.-N-eas.on .{V-u.t_lpA lv1.ol]
foetures, Entitled.
rKniht
rrith S ScLssors|,
It a]-so cleined. that a^s
partners for tho Otago
r?as an ilrcreaso of
JOO
Jr:rro 17 1965, 1 .
Jnrre 17 1965,
3.
a rcsult of a
Beneficiarie
s
per o;nt.
ill
rDaragraph
appeal
and- 01d. Folks noil
attend.arrce r
21 June
15 1965t
22 Juno
19 1965,
1-o oaL
goss S-p
best New Zealenl
that they
r but hig,hfy
the scnple
[0
per cc.nt,,
ternational;"
outh Island.
llolioo
oourts
thoso brough:;
les readersl
and. crotlitoi's
b;. exPosing
ry of
dete+*,
1o weok trlren
Irondonr
al-otr6
of local
iJr sorlo
t the hulk5.ng
l,sred The
thene d
ar)nlrers
|
,
the shorteqt
the
h is alroody
Perhaps
the
fornd in
forrner
for ru].e
danco
,
thero
1B
19
20
t tho Unitod.
Nations" Th-is is bccarse the papers generally re\y on ab lated. ve rs lons
1gB.
Nevertholoss, the scns cnthusi,astlc industry is not to
all se ctions of the d.aily press
. For exe.rupl-e, it ts ofben
find, out fron a I'low Zoal,:nd. nerlspeper the exact texts of
sj.loeches nad.o by Now Zoaland. rclresantatives overseea or
transnitte cL by tlre
yri-re
sorvico rather tlran obtaining sub
fron the Do;nrtnont of External r';ffalrs. trJhat is need.crd is
and. organiscr corc':ago of it
jrr
cl-o?tle. As for the nel{spapers
netropolLtc.ns pay aay special at'bcntion to foreign
affairs
rssourcos
arc 1-l'ro Jy to bo no noro than ihe cable sub-o d.:ito
an assistant
r
o5 nel-L as a leedcr iruitcr. 0:r sono pailers,
is givon to u.to aost
junj
^'.
gr-rh-oftirof
bnenuso
it is liko
oxpert$' unri.tten eogy .n'd, to rn quire ttro least'
sl
be found. in
fficult to
tie s or of
tanttve texts
oni
good nows-
ists who
noles
and
I aro noed.ocl"
servlee of
reportJng
fr on
e their
and. perhaps
1c natorLal
to bo the r.rost
iPpor
of reco::d rhich, like tlro
$-ry .Y-o--fE. I-lgpgr
wiIL pub authoz{tative
toxts, In the fieid of foroign c.ffaj-rs there is an urgent eecl- for o rnroh
f,1orrr-1 sophl-s-;i.ce'bcc1 exchange of violrs botlreon ttro Nelr Zoa
and. inti'rested. so6nc:'us
Tf
tho public, but th:is is not
Govornnctnt
1y
to teks
.:lace
un-]-ess tiro prsss oxplorcs tlds f ield. nore intont\r.
sorious i.nadequacios is tho lack of o corpc of i.nforned.
j
h,lvo an
jntjnato
oon'l;ac'b wi'ch politicians and. governnent icials
r
a
f
jne
awerene ss of 'che conplnxitj.o s of go vornnont businoss
,
tho oa1:aoitf
to lrrito inf orrsd. conr.rontcries . This is partJy a conso
qu of not
C. portJy a
onploying people who axe qualified to und.ortake such workt
consooruence oi d.ovoti-ng a large anount of spaoo to intornet onal. evonts,
but fiLl-jng ir., Iar3o-l,y fron rirc' sorvice and, synd.icated. f ro sourco s .
Too nuch pcliii,oal
j
ournalisnr in No',2 Zealand. talces ttro
oporadic warfare botrrcan govermont and. the publlc, uith th nerlspsper
so [his is too
nrrrning along
-;..:c
sjd.elj.ne:,. piclcing up naterjrrl for hcad.l
cnrdo a process"r,.{uch nore interaotion betneen
governnent a
journalistg
tl:enseliros ar.d. nuoh better vrire agoncy facllit
Tho N"Z.P.A. no.y no',; havo the rcsources to supply a quallty
baolcgrounci connont" It noed.s nore of its c'vrrr corresponclents
cvorsoas, and.
ire::iraps
I b ehould. ovon heve a toan of people(
N.Z.B.C.
tcheclrpoinb:
tca.n)';rho ca.n enalyso rihat is happo tn the nerrs
only the
diting.
I
t99.
I
I
The b5-ggest single clef est of the New Zealand
pre ss is
nfobably
its
fondrress for tho ninisterial hanclout which gi,ves an offi-cialf
f*iJrfutu
I
cxpl.,r,nat5-cn of an issuc that nay oftcn fal1 short of the whole tnrth and'
I
rrhi ch
j-s
usually designcd to avoid. considerations
that sre ufnleasant
-bo
ttro l.[inister concerned, Because ths Press Gallery and. P{rlianent
I
opcrate under pro s sur.)
,
t ho se hendout s aro alno st ilvaril,b
lX
lnrintea
uithort altoration or furthor i.nquiryr Dr a.re sinply abbrevi{tect-
but
no't comnented. upon. Thoro nay be c*xcept5-ons
to thls practide
(otd somo
of then havc beon noted in tluis study) but the erssontielly
passivc,
rrature of this approach to thc nerls naJ" bc tenrlinS to nake tho
$ournclist
l, ncutral agent of transnission
j:r
& nochanical transa'bt'ion
rtitUe*-ttan
en actlve infl-uence in a procoss of discussj-on
and. ned.:L-r.tion. fhs
prcss statenont is of
-ben
accolat r..rJ as thc last rathor thc.n ths first
str,p in a nowspaperr s chain of inqrriry. Sold.on is therro a foLlow-up
irtrich expand.s on thc i-tritial stetonorrb by elucidation or inquiry.
Ncvrspapers print lctters fron ci-bizons encl organisations
r
but thoso ore
tiablc, to be cut eaitoiialfyr iurcl what is published in sone casos is only
c! sefoction fron those that have boen vrrittcn. Occasional\r
+$e
press
,;rants
space to sonobody',r1:o uants to ccniluct a crusad.o, but only
jf
it
concorns an issue ivhich is fairly certai.::
to neet l'dth connun:ity
approval.
Such oxtrene vonturos into thc rolc c,f ',.'atchciog
of 1[.r pub]-ic welfare as
sot'r,ing up an extra-Iegal c,:urt of popular appoal to
t
tryt cases brought
?
to it by roeoers as rlas clone by
@r-J
i.s alnost unhsard' of
i-n New ZealonrJ.
journalisn.
Perhaps
the only exception
to this wou-l-d
be ths popuJar cnrsa&ing
of N.Z.
TrutL.
In splte of its sensationalisn,
tiris nel?spi)er is of r:niquc inportance in the IIeYr Zea1i-.nd' mass redia
syston bocauso it is crlnost tho only charurel-
fJrrough wh,-ich an individuu-1
ci-tizen uithcmt resources ni6ht be eble to express
a grievancc+ or onlist
i;he aia of e
journalis'b
to pursue furtber inquiries
on lrts berhali. It
also runs c 1ega1 ad.vice service for read.ers. Radio
and television
auc often subject to tire,sarrc.
linitations as the d.aily press and'
arc ilclined tc, be oven norc
jnldbited. jn
their bandljr6 of controverslal
suo
jccts.
The content of
tTelophone
Tir,et
r
a rad-:lo
progranno
jn
23 Doscrtbed. i.n George BlaiJrja, Renenber
Srrithts trvoe]4f,, Ad.ela;icLe
L966,
237-2\8.
20c..
rrhich listeners tel-ephone
questions to a persor:e1ity at the nlcr"ophone
in
tlre stud:io
,
i" cens or,.: d. wit h the aid. of a d.e 1ay i-:ng devi.ce
,
md its sub
j
e ct
nuitt or seens
puerile.
The C.ai1y press lns often beon criticised
for failing
to subiect
Nelt
Zealand.
j-nst
itutions to the sc{re sort of critical
ana\rsis
as is coniloll-
?T
plrce
jl
the pross of the United States
and tlrc Unite0 Kingdon. Reasor's
for its i.nability aJle to bc for:nc] ix the nonopolistic;u:d"
oorporativer
structure
of the industry, thcr fear of sanctions
against proprietors
anc-
journclists should. they vonture too far
i,i-th criticJ-sn,
the fear of
&efanatj-on
a4o contonpt
1:rocecd:ings
in the oourts,
anc,. tlte pesu}lar nfl'tu:"c'
of tJre po];iticol culture
vrh:ich iros evolvetL
sone subtle oonsansus-nakilj8
nachinery tlra.t olnrates
r,rith secrocy und C.iplonacy rathcr
than vith
publicity B.n(L open conflict.
A fo:rrer nenber of the Press Gallery
has oonnentod
revealiJl8ly
on thtr
Eorkingj of tlr:is ni:chi.r:ery .
25In
1963 there was
a controversy
over whethcr
or not the procee&i.ngs of tho Iruiecent fublicritions
Tribunal
( ott adsin-
istrrtive tribr:na1 vrtrj-ch tho governnont
lras setting up to d.eal
gith
1c6e1
problens arlsing out of the ir:portr-r.tion
and. publi cc"tion
of bookst
nagazines and. sor:nr1 recordings) shcnrld" be open to the press. A snall
6rDuI'
of,
j
ournalists in the. Pres s Gru1.J.ery ran
e cnrsad.e
oppos ing the secre cy
prcvislons wl::lch had boen vrritten i,nto tho BiIL.Thcre
$ere irured.:iate
onit
unfavourablo
roactions
B5,iong
Sovernnt:nt
nenbers,
ffid fron the point of
vleu of sof,tc. of the
po litical coilreslr ond.ents
,
&fo riBs
e riisaster
'
Thoy livo i.rn Farlianent build.ings
jn
o d.elicatcr synbiotlc
relation-
shi! vcith politicians upon whon they detrnnd for the nevrs that earns
their daily bresd..It
to.kes yea.rs of pati,ent work to bui-ld
a relation-
shlp of trrr-st vitlr Cabinet lotit iuters,
and, such srntroversies
wreck
th't relatj.onshi-p
overnight. Sono of the
1963 vrounds have not yet beeD
healad. and. contj.nue to ploy
"
part in rostricting
the fly of
?A
corrfidential
ilf ornation Uetrneen l,,tlnlsters
ancl Press Gallery,-
-u
24 See Ruth Butterworth,
N.Z. Statcsnsn,
M?y-1 958,
!;
afso^L'C1e'veJ'and''
fgow
r:rea
j-s
ttro lI,Z.
pr:ess?t
gpgrylrl
,
irT,
Iuprj{-t.vltl
19&t
39Yt
f
Hovr Inp.rtial
ls tJre I{.Z.mesilfi--C_"_qEg"!,
-6t1
,
0otober':I'loyep}ei
19&, r4-f O;
f
Hor,r Socuro
is tJeo N.Z.Pros's?
t
9ggggfr3,
J:1rDec'nber
1955
t
7-1O.
25BevanBurgoss,'ANocessaq/-Crrrsodolr@,21z1,Iilarch1967,91.
26
&*ci!.
2O1
"
Furthernoro, the so cia.l @nsequences of the exLstence of stg.tutorlr
restrictions on tlro froedon of the press in New Zealanci shotrld be
consideredr,.They are profound., but di-fficult to rnasure because of thqlr
fuxl:irectnoss"For exampLe, a convenient way to gag tJre New ZealanrL d.aily
press is oj-thcr to start litigation of scno sort
(:n v'trictr case
tlxe
ncwspapers will be likely to refm.i.rn fron firrtlre
attention to the subjec:
for fear of con'k>npt of cowt
tru:ocoorlings)
on to brlng e defanetion acti.-,tl
which wilL aCrievo tJre sene tbinE ancl
inssibly
causo the nowslnpor to drop
the zubjoct" jjr!'gg*Sbrfor instance, for o ti.rne softened critioisns of tire
aclnirrjstreuticrl of nental hospitals after domgos harL boon arratrdocl agailst
tt i:r 1957 i.n a ,lefanation action brought by a fo:rrer enployee
of ttro
nental hospitals servioe.Ihe saf,ro year it wr,s t'lrroatoned. wil*t contenpt
procoeilings by a Supr,ane Corrrb
Judge
tf lt published. argr f\uttror rof-
erences to tho hoani.ng
jn
chanbers of an application brarght trnclor section
85 of ttre iliental Defecti.rres Act conccrrn:ing
an aIleged. ;congfuL dsterrtion
of an inmate of PorLnra liental Hospital. In JuJy 1960 ths
lraper
coased.
to publ:lsh
sketches nad.o i.:e the TfoJlington courts by nouibors of its staff
vhon ttre prosicling judgee
d:ring tho hearing of a
cri.nirul caserordsrerl
e sot of drai:ri.r:gs narle by un artist in the mployrent of ttre newspoper to
be seized. and. fu stroyed, In a letter to the ttren e&ltor of NoZ-,
InSg
on Jul.y 28 1960, the rogistrar of the Wellington Suprene Court
quotod. tho vie;rs of tlro Chiof Jr,rstioe
(Sf"
Harold. Bamowclough) on this
incid.ent B,s f ollows :
. . o
it is proper to observe thrr.t the nokirg of sketches i:n court
rhow-
evor illscreet ancL accmplisher] the artist my bercorld be enbarassing
and. d.isturbilg to litlgants and their witnesses and. to counseL,
jr:rie
s arrcl
jud6e
s os we1.l as to prisoners in the d.o ck, and. to that
exbont coul-d. projud.J.ce the due acUninistrati-on of
justioe.[hat this
rrnd.esitbl-e rnesult could follow, and has in fsct occtlred, is shown
by the enactment in England in ssction [1
of ttre Cr{ninal Justico i'cl.,,
1925r of an expre ss parohibiti cn of the taking of phot ogrephs or the
aoJ<iJrS of portraits or sketches in any court.It
applies to eL1 oourts,
civil or crinjnal.it i"s the right and. &.rty of the prosiiling
iudSe
to
regulate and. control the conduct of tr:is court so that the atbention
cf those engaged. in lt sheD, not bo iLiverted or &istracted fbon their
tasks.In the ilischargo of that &rty a
Judgo
could.
proporly
SfTB
&
elrectio:r which rvou.ld Loavo the sa.ne result its the statrrtory
trtrohibition
roforsed. to.
?Q2.
In
1969 thc ed.:itor oni.l publi-sher of
Us&fg-t!
Ferr. oich fincd
$2m
anr-l ordcrcrd. to pay
$1m
costs by Mr Justicc Maa:rrttrur in [Ier11fug'Lon
Suprenc Cr-,,urt for contenp'b i;f court. Thc pnoceod-i.:rgs arose ou'E of articlur:
criticising nagistratest ,i r
ctislons by sayj-rU thrrt
I
ttro nagistratos
l-est
lrecrk thr:rrbed their nosos at the Neu Zealancl publict and a11eg5r:.g that onct
of thsr rLicL not tre*t
;eopIe
in arl s''qurll and inpartial way.Tlre court ht'lc'.
that the sc statenents over-steppeC. thc bouacri of whot it consid.ered.
to L;.r
tfa.ir
anc'l. ter:rlnrato cri-ticisnl
and- were thenef orc contenptuous.
27
On another occasir;n tho p[nase
t
coc]ctai1-party-lovin$
juC6esf was
onritted undor cd-ltorial &ircction frotr orl article criticising
iJreff icicn:l/
and. c1elay s i-n the c onduct of Suprene Court
ancl Court of Appeol bus
jriur,
,
tJ
This
-r?a5
d.r-..,ne on the ground.s that such connont
nig3ht be ccnsiclered.
conter'-'
ptuous anc1- tkrrt in any caso it wruld have bsen unirise tc antagonise
any
neril:er of the Benc]: p()rsorrrll3r ss the
irapr
coukl. conceirrably
f ind itself
on sone futr:ro occa.sion involvccl in litigation
ovor r;hich tlrc target for
its criticisn nas prosiding.
-ho
reLationshlp
betruccn the prQss
and' t'Lro
courts is aven nore seilsitivc ttrr.rr that bctrecn
joutnalists anc"
politicfuuis, ed lt i.s ilefinoc1. norc by suclr intlnetions
ancL &i-vi-nations
tha4 it is by oSnn co4flict
iurC C.iruct instnrcticn.Ar$r
atter.rpt to gauga
tlre freod.mr of ttre press in Ncl'r Zoalsued r.n:.st face up to tJ:e c1j-fficul-t
tr'-rl:
9A
of assessing such tenuous mci concoalod noolranisnsifonc'rallJ'
speaki'rr5,
e
$rdgestion or a roquest faonr tho Bonch or fron the
i:olicerrurdc
oither
f or:rr,:Ily or irrfornal\r, i.s suff iclent to porsuad.e nost nowspapors
to ad'ol': t.,
lrhat the courts consider
iL ,lesirablo ccurso of action.The intcraction
behroen cour-bs and nouspapers
js
for the cstabLishrront
anrL naintons'nco of
a working ccnsansus rather tlran for thc victory of one institution ovor
anothnrrbut in this rclationship
thc press cirsracteristically
find.s itsef
lI.Z.
Tqr+lh ,
Scptenbc.r
16 1969, 2-3.
tThc
prass in Nelv Zeolanci lras substantial
freedon to sireak out effoct-
ivcly on all tho inportant lssues of our tlnesr ancl
lso
far as I have
been able to ascu"Cin, thu press cloes not feeil that t!"
govornnent
serlously attonpts to
ito.*&
tho nevls" in New Zealanf-t.
(/!Iison
Qucntin-BarcterriF*
ecicn of tho Pross
t
in
Sggyi^-og llr4$p-+*flJl$-
(K.
J.
ieith
(
od.
) ) ,
f,uff :r.gton
1958)
.
The se assmons-
ara baseci partly ot1
hoarsay an,J-partry on ,n exanjni.ition
of the larvs a.ff octing
the
press
and thc c';egrgs o f' fneodon lqrpotheticalJy
avoilablo to the ner{strxlpors.
They fail lo tckc into consilurration
the existonce
of sensitive
zones
of calcul,rtion
gb
out ther off c cts of po ssible sanctions
ancl a variety
of so cierl corrtrclls
ancl inf ornal restraints
ttlat af,f ect content.
27
28
29
203.
playing a subord.inlte rn1e.
tuusr'r'feJ.li:rgton nc,irslnpers vrerc va.rnc,rl by the Inclecent Rrblicstlons
TribunLl that if
t
scr:setionalrsl-antcd. reporting contjnuedf
' '.
and if thc
press di-c} not
l5'Liy
the
6ii.a*r
ald- prpsent
SroporJy
balenced' rc;nrtst
rf,lor"'
of thc tribunalts businoss ',zc.ruld. bc taimn ln connLttcc
'.vhero
tho pross
coul0 not report it. In Soptonb,:t. 1955, i.'hen a ban'L of wonqn woro occu5;-
i.rrg pcrt of a C.:isusecl rail'ray Lino nea^:r Nelson.lith the culn of
trncventSl-:
tJre ntnning of dc-noli,';ion tri,.jns as G, pr:tost a6ainst govornnent poIic;,"
to shut donn al1 unocc.nonj-c br':nch 1ine,
k_J.91":g$go.+-ing-S*,trat
the
rugut:st of tho police,
';rith.dralT
c throe-collnn cisplay arJ.vertimraent in
vrhictr tire grcup of
"rromen
calfecl fc.rr voluntoers to
thelp
save the rallia;r
Iinet cven though thcre wer$ no lega1 neasures in fcrce whioh coulcl hsve
ccnpelled. the, nevsF"per tc d.o sor Such cirqrnstances rais ttre question oi'
lrhottror or not tho ccnflict nocieI of mass netlla rosponaibiliff
I's
eppllcable tc tho
.
,
Nsri ZoalanC. rrorrs neilta systen,
anri. to the daily
pr ss irl particular,
The d.:iffcrence betveen tlre conflict nodel and. the consensus-seekix8
nod.el is apporent 5n the i;ay diffcrent writers vi6':vr the activi'blos cf thi
Fress.
David Riosnan, for lnstanca, thlnks ttre press should.
tshapn
o,
prod.rctivo tensiont withjJr orrr tino"rSO but J. E&rard.
Gerald soes it 'aE
gencralJ;' confi-r"nir1g tlre statrrs guo rund. givin5 prSrcrity to i-nf orcratlot:
over load.erslrLp of opinionetrnrtly becauso of thr foct that it ha-s to seIL
advertising tc a hsrtt-hoad.ecr business con:runity
and rlo-;Is io
an entertajjrr'
ne[t-fond roaclership, ffid
i:artJy
boccusc of tlro sitr:,r'tion of noivspaper
nanagencnt
jn
the nuiddj-e class echolons of the conr-l-rnity.Jl0orrsoqr.rontly
lpassrve,
[o]1-iD.vo1y6,.51srnt in critical
prob1ensl is s*:id- to be ttra outsta"nd.-
5ng qua15.fir of
journaltsn, anc'l
...ltbe
pross fails to ru,ise substantLal
and. critical
ques'Lions becouse
i
t e,onnot be relied, upon to work for
c?rangos, evon rinor oncs, in the soclal. structurel. Other vriters oven
30
J$1i"lggllqg_Bggg1glgsg*,
Ch5.ca6o 19531 zo.Riesrnn a.rsues that the
notion that firofc nusFTfagrcenent on f\urdanentals in orclor that
denocratic po1it5-cs nay
60
on ls an illugion.
31
-
jg9f*L-@pgpp.J}ill^.3g-S{.. j{t-eIIH, Mirnosota
1963
t
13B.
2O)+.
consider that it is Snpossible
to defino functions for tJ:e press rrithout
lnerad':i-cab1o
cc,rrf\rsion, beca.rse argunents about
rosporuibility are likely
to be basod'
on what
sme particular
set of intorests
would. like nerrspapors
to bo :rather than what their
read,ers apparontly accopt.
52
Consoquontly to
treat the pross
;red.oninantly
as o f,rod.:iu-n of political
isfomation and
instruction
ancl a forun for the iliscussion of public affai-rs i-s saicL to bo
rrjsload.ing.Tluis
vicri favours
the rijrror thcory to thodfect that the
pres
s satisfies
reailers
t
wants
r
and what nos t of thcr.:
roquiro is arnrsonent
rather than ted.ious
i.r:stnrction.Tlr-i-s
r-p.y, or nay not bo the situation irl
Nerr Zea1and,
but even if it wcre, it still night not bo Lnovitable in
conditions
ln ',vhich
thoro is not an open narlcot for the *istribution ancL
sale of nass ned'ja output
and rrhore
the' mass ned.ia industry itself ag
oapablo of a consid.orabl-e
amount
of self-rogrlation
,,,-fhether the p61ioy
of disc1o$Ee,
an3 the vieri of governnent
a*e an authority
to be watched.
with
sone suspicion,
is the r:ost d.osirable
ono for thei news ned.l-a, to actoptr
or whethcr
thoy should see governnent
as a
constnrctivo forcer &r agoncJr
which is eng3god. not only in the C.issenination of usoful infornation
but
also
in the calarlatecl.
but
justifiable
influencing
of opinions, is very
nuch a matter of viowpoint which d.epond.s to some ertent on the rol-es thot
neirspaper
xranagenonts
and journalists
thenselves think they
should. be
pLl'yitt8
rather than on the sonetj^nes unrea]lstic
conplaints of cd.tios,
Certainly the syston outlined i-r: tluis stud.y is nassively
efficfunt at
tho businoss of ropror).uci-n6; inf ornation, but it seens onlJ norgina1$r and.
inclLrectly
jrterestei!,
in playing
the part cf w.r.tchd.o6 and critLc,
Journalists
vrho nay be &lscontontod.
-,rith
tluis state of affairs ancl. wittr
theIinitationsinposed.uponthencitherbytheirenp1oyersorbythe
jnstitutions
frotr whiclr they gcthcr
nevrsp c&rr; of course, always start
their own nore venturcsof,ro an0 liberal- publications; but nith thsir
extrenoly litr:i-tecL
resoLrroesr anrl the snaLlness of thc.
parkot
for qualisr
journalisn
in Ner'i Zoa1and., they are not ]:lkely to bo able to galn a
Bass circulation encL henccr cannot have rmch ctore than an inclirect
jnfluenco
on pub1:ic affairs
by inforrri-r:g and. possibly activati:rg a
32
Henry Moyer, f-,he
_@g:n_4.ug@U4,
Melbourne 19&t
5l+,
205.
nunber cf ,ri:inign
lead,ers and" othcr pooplc rrith spocialised interests.
Furttrcrmore, a,rr a.ntagoniseir enploycr could. very easi\r C.iscipline
a
nrbellious enploycc rho exlressod h:is fnrstrations in this rlay'
Consj-d.cri.n6 the voluno of rnaterial they are han&ling and. tJre wid.esprea.C'
covera.ge thoy ere giving tc both ncticnal and internntionel
a'ffairs as
i..;cIL os to local events, tlte oxisting daily nerrspapers
i.n Nelr Zealand
a"rc cioing ii substantial
job
vith conpetence
and on occasioneexcellorrce.
htt iJr scne areas of nerrs gathoring, the .role of neutral cotrveyer
anit
conscnsus*seoker is f ar fron adequate,Tho clally pross as a whole suff ers
fron a iack of crrriogXi;y. about whct is bohind. t,|e news.It neede to
allcri its
journnlists
nuch l:lore freeclon to speculote
and probe.It noede
to bring noro iltelligencc
cnd talont to boar in the scrrrttny
ot'g]btic
affairs.-Tor cxcnple, it is often
inpossible for an ord.i-nary rouder
of
tbe daIly prcss
jn
New Zoaland to conprohend.
the issues
and the develop-
lront of thc ergr:nont ix sof,re
quite inportant court sases
bccauso
of ttre
inarloquacies of reports.Son:tines
si6nifioant casss
are sinp$ not
coyorad.
at aI1 by smo
irapers;
at other tines ttre' stenographlc
and.
episoilic style in tihj.ch th,:y se.e i-rritton renclers then 5.ncceepretrensiblo.
tr\rrth<;rnors, rolrcrters
generally laclc the basic 1egaI trai.reing nood-e,l tc
nanage tho necessary intcrpol,etions a"nd. interprotctj-on which conplox
:
ns.ttrs often requ5ro, Thc \Tell5ngton
.J.aili-es,
for 5nstance, have beon
jsaccurato
in sone of their reports of court cesos
and" havo failld. to
give even ncn:inal covclrrgo to irr;:,ortant ciull-
procecrlings.
33
Other aroos of fnep,titude
erist in ttrs New ZeaLand dslJ.y
truness.The
.
cond.:ition of llterrry, drar;retic, musLcal
and.
Sropl::lc
arbs critiaisn
illgstratos the rlift"icul-tfus facod. by the press vrhon it vonttr:res on
an;rthing nore than c
'branscrip'uion
of ovents. A fow d tJ:e best papers
possess sts,ff ivith calrabi'lifjars
iJr one or tvro of theso field.sr ox olse
they manoge to obtain the servicss of capable contributors;
but nost
hevo no speoial conpetenco" In fact, only a fovr patrnrs regular\r
d'ovotc}
spa.ce. to the arts; thc najority either
iSnoro then or
6ive
a nininalt
ctursory
attentj-cn to thein. In the sanple scgre notable exceptions
to thls
37
J.A. lTidcs S.M", rePorted.
in
Z.
The Nevr Zealan-d f ognng.+ggrNovenber
1
i67 t
206.
ilisnal
irclicy
irore a coh:i:rr of ort news vrritton by a locding Now
Zoeilcnd. critic and
i:ublished.
in Ths
4ucklarl$
Storr a revie;r of
!{!!$i]gts
ccntonrai^rl
issue an3 e page of notcs concc.rning
nusic, art and- thoatre :::
,
nnd, a rcproduotion
of a contonporary
Novl Zealancl
painting i;ith a d:iscussic'n of its signtfi@nce
i"
kllgy-39-qlgt+.-E"r"1d
.
'
Tleir1g$1l'e$-ffor'
rhe 03tgo-D-qllv.^T:-!-99.
ani'
ni:,ny r:ther papers publisir boolc rcviolvsl but theso seld'on roach ttre
quaLlty iittcri.ned in
fbg._Eqq-"J,
vhich for nargr
years has featr:rod. o rseokly
litcrary
f,rago^A
subjoct-contont iten frequoncy count of O.52 por cent.
f or lj.terc.ture
,
1
.1!
por c;Dt. f or scrious nusic
and the dranatic
arts,
O.31 per cont. fcr filns and. 0.91+ per csnt. for the C.:iscusslon of radio
and. tcLevisicn wculd be ccnsidared
most inadeguato
in a
ilrcss
wittr anl'
pretens ions to qua1:it3r.
5,
gP-
PiLC*LigL-N--qB4gUlLq-
g.-{rupg
Thc developncnt crf sr critical sensibility
nct onl.y in tlre arts but
also in the f icldrs of econoni csrpolitlcs,
public adninistration,
l-aw end
ttro physical sciences is best attenpted.
at a universitJr,
but it is ono
of the wealoressos of
journnlisn
jn
New Zealpnd thet it d.oes not pJ,rce o
su.ff iciont prenlr.rn on univcrsit3r skLILs.Inrloocl,
the only preroquisito
for mploSrraont on the editoriel stof,f of nos t New ZoaJ-snA. da5lies has
tre.d.iticnal$ boen no nora'bhan abi,lity to road. and rrrite rrith averoo
SngilitJr.It has long boen consjdered.
that the best trairring for
jouznalisn
ccnsists c,f worki.n6 in the inclustry and learruinE its various
skills by o procoss of
jnj-tetion
and. ad.optai;icn rethcr
than by
theorotical insbnrction.Consequently, iournalisn
schools harre not
f'r ourished in New Zee1and.. An undcrgraduats
iLi-plona courso ilas offsrod
for s61xe ye&rs at the Universit5l of Canterbur'5r
but wcis general\r
considered to provLdo vory little that could. not be obtained flon an
orilinary arts dcgroo course, On narry datlios
t,tre oadot
Joun3al]ist
ctrstornrily
sorrred. a poriod
j:r
ths roading roon as a copy holdor before
graduating to tho roportin6 staff .
Ho rright be encouragerl to le.rnr
shorthond and. typilg as useflrl tru.dc skills, but ony aspirations he night
possoss to h56her learnlng 1i?ere not necessari$ supported
by hls
enplo;rer.Soree
newspnpars
are stlJ.l operating
thoir own internal tmini4
schenes
j.::
wh:ich cadets receive rogular
instruction fron exper4onced
honci's
I
207.
and. contributin6 experts.
tb-Neif
Ag-W
holds annual full-ti.atr
training
courses lasting throo weoks t wluich othcrr Do'ifspopors nay st n,l
cadots if they wish. In 1
964r
ho'.rover, tho Wellington PoSytechn:ic began
o carJ.et traini:r6 schexile c).esigned. to nset tlro general neod.s ctr tho in4.ustr;r,
and' nany enplcyers in the North
'Island.
now regard. tlr:is as usef\rl p3e-
entry training.
(")
I&Lvs,e*H*Ts.bs
ThB sanel yeerr
E.fJ. Barrett, then Dean of tho Gracluato School cf
Journalisn at
Colunbta. Unj-versity,
reported. on the possibllittres
for
l::igher education in the fiekL of Neir Zealand.
journali,sn.A
n" noted c.
lack of thorougturess and penetretion as wn1l as the initiativo to look
beneath
suzface announcenents ln the daily press.
'liith
this i'rent a
trestrmctfulr
attltr.rdo which coulL elso bo descrLbed as a
lnssion
for
reporting ttrer fornal, safo, spoken norcl.
jnstoarJ,
of the loronn happenin6:.
One reason for tb:is, ho thought, was
I
the pauci$r of ttrorough\y educetei:
and. &ts c5-pl
i n
sd nind.s rvithin
j
ourna lisgrt
.
TtJJls nas because too trany
journali
sts perhaps lackocl both tho urd.erstand.ing of conplex
issucs ond. tho $e}fl-corrfi.donce to ask ttro penetratins quostion or to
noport the sub-surfaco J.erreloprpnt. A few forner cad.ets hcrJ. actuiovecl
ronarkable self-odtrcatS-,.1n, but in goneral tho cur"rent systen appoerod. tc
n-l]-ttate against oducatoi nsn snd. Ercmon. Borrett also noted, the sa,ne
problon af,f.I:icttng the fast-Sovr.ing N.Z.B.C. nows sorvico wlrich was
drawlng its staff ai tha'u tjlre alnost entlroJy fron tJre carlot-tralnod.
ranks of rro',rspifpcrs
.
Io ovorccnCI
thoso d"ef iciencios, he reoonnonded. that a post-grarlueto
iournal5sn
prograrrno
shoul-d. bo intraduce.J. of tlro
UnivorsiW
of
Canterburlr lle adni.ttcrL that, at thCI tino, thero wes not 1ike3,3r to bo
nouch clonancl for such a course, but he suggested. a nunbcr of
yrays
in
which stand.ards could. bo raisod. ll the industrlT and. a noro
lrofessLonal
approach to
journalisn
trainins stj.nnuLatod.Theso includod. the o*f,:ring
of sccre sort of iuiid,.rrr^aduats r:nit for
journal:tsts
cls part of th
BachoLor of Arts degroe, tlro ostablishnont of fo11owsh5.ps for study
abroacl by pcmising gradtrates, the establishnont of a set of annual
cLts,ttons to
journalists
and. norrsps,prs for superl,or perfotlranco in
I;964,
2oB"
rrarious f iol-d.s (:-:rcfurfing investigctive rcporbing)
and. tho univorsity
encouragoraont of critiquoc
ly qual-ificd. acaclcnic staff nonbers app'aising
the perfornancs of
journalisn
i.n spec5fic fields"
FoJJ-owing Bar::e'b'b? s rsr;or.ri, ttro Now Zoaland. Newspaper
Proprietorss
lrssociiation, a nunbcr of fujJJ nerJspapors, the N.Z.B.C.
e
tho lasng,n P:-l1:
and
Paper
Conpany and. several othcr orgarrisatlons n:ld.o gonts to';;ard.s tlrc;
cost of starting & ono-jroar, post.-;.3:r:a&roto colrrso iJr
iournalisn
at tho
Un-lvorsit3r cf Canterbury. Ttuis course bogan 5-n 1969 uith ttre ain of
i
encouraging highor stand.crd.s in the Ner.i Z,oa1a;:d. press and in cument
affairs broad.casting by trajnlng univorsity gt'aduates for work in tho
'
nevs mod.:la. The enphasi-s
j-s
on thc roporting of political ond for"e5.gr
afTairsr or intcrpretative reportS.ng, feature writing and. leador trrittg"
it is too oar\r to cor:nent on thE succoss or otherwise of this venturo,
It w:iIL dopenc). large\r on the extent
to which nore universif
grarluatos."
or peoplo vrith a university baclcground.,
are absorbed lnto the inclustry
as a rcsult cf thj-s introrluction to it, but a nunbcr of dravfuacks
are
evidont. Firstly, tho oxistinl-; syston of grading and. pronotion in
accorrLanco rrith the concL:itj-ons
and. ratos of pay nogotiatecl in the Court
of /\rbitration doe s not l c cognise tho s ignif iconco of iuxy acarl'enio
qualifi ortions but ba ses arlracr.nccnent large$r ot""*uttority.Tho saEle
principle ap;:,lies to the I'tr. Z . B. C . ne',;s sc ction.'-Little progross wj.lL bo
ned.e nj.th schomos to inprovo tho qucrlificatj-ons and. stctus
of claily llci?'q -
paper;ournalj-sts r:ntj-I provi-sicn i-s nad.o i:r the inilustrial
alzards whioh
govern their or.rplo;rnent for thc rocog-pit5-on-of
universitSr arrcL other
.
qualif icatit-,n s &s arl od.jr:nct to pronotion.
'o
SoconcLly,
thore is no
35
N.Z,B.C. enploye.es cre rcguJ-atecl
jn
their onplo;ment
by conclitions
negotj.irtocL on thejs bchalf by tho Rrblic Se:nrice Associetion
and- arc
virhrcrlly on the sano terns nith their enploycr,
thc corporation,
cs
oriLi-no^rXr- public servants
aro vrith tho governnont.ConsoquentlJ thorc
are objcctions to uorkjng undor a syston of pronotj-on by length of
scrviceo Soo Ian Johnstono,
a f ornor IrI. Z.B.C.proclucor
:in fhg--&!1].,h
,
36
@:g*e
Dr:noclir
1968
t
32.
Opposition to such proposils can bo expected fron
journalJ-sts
thonselves oThus, tho l{anarra'cu branch of the N.Z"J.A. opposod
tany
novc to nake a uni-versiff d.egree in
journalisn.
conpu}glyt:
RepbrtecL in
T-lp-.NqifA"-"1-+-4--Lrygl#,
2926, Ausust
18- 1964, t+^
?@,
gueranteo that tho pc ople taking the po st-graduote @u:rsa st
1 1
in fact
bo enployod
jrr
the no,ss nedLo inilustry.ThirdJy, tho cou-rso has beon
establisheJ.
in the South IslnnC. whon it ooulcl
possibly have boon noro
usef\rl eithor in Auckland or in flellington wtrere large nunbers of poople
a-1rc,adgr onployocl in governnent os veIl as i.:r busjnoss aro engagerl irt
e vory iri-d.e verriety of comnr:nicetir:ns acti,vitios and' cculd put lnstruction
ln ths Jsrger
lnssibilities
of
journalisn
tc practical- use. Sono of thesc
objoctlons havo been overcone by the cstablishnent of undergra&rate
coursos in noss connunications at Victoria Un'ivcrsity of Wclli:rgton.These,
rr.l^e options in ttro Ste6o II and Stage III Politicol Sclence coursos and. are
intenclsd. to noct sone of the need.s of stud.ents of polltic3 an0 of pu'l;lic
adnjnistrr:,tion for an introrlucti-on to publ-ic opinion and nass connunicetiotrr'r
thoory os woli as for on &cquaintance nith tho orlteria of porfornanco u'f
nei?s nod:ia systms.
Nor shruld. tho nore ovoryd.ay noeds of tiro industrXr be overlooked..The
nost tnportant of theso is for norc acadenic trailing of eomi sort on thc'
psrt of its enployoes, Eflf orts should therefore bo mcl.o to oncourage
ncnagonent to gant tine off for univcrcity port-ti-cre stu$r and. to offr,ix
scholcrrslrips and. f ees bursaries for those r'tho night rrlch to undertake
ord.inary d.egreo courses.They shoulcl al.so be r.rrgerL to recnrit i.tr t.}ro
un:irrorsities by off ering br:rsar5.es to suitable applicants
ri.ncluding
lrononi
for vrhom thero are not neerly enough opporturnities to onter
professions 15
Now Zeal,x,nd.. Tho best kind. of oducction for
jcurnalists
cannot
be
cliscuss od. he ro, but it c,irta
jnly
could. usof\rlly i.ncluds sub
j
e cts lilce
econornics, 1c5n1 systen, constihrtima-l J.avr, p1itic.zl sociclogyr public
adrfn:lstrntion, govornnet, public opinion theory, nass cmnunicotLons
stuci:les and. a4y cf thc'ptrysioal sciencos. All thoso subiocts are being
tauglrt iJr convontional do6rno coursos in Nsw Zealand r.nivorsitlesr thereforo
part-tjrle unclorgrailuato stu{y bursarios wou}1. probabJy be nor(n
irrrnodiatoLy
useful than bursarios for pssf,-gsaduato studtr but sonething of this
kind. should. also bo
trrovid.ed.
for thoee grad.uates aI-roa{y oneployocl irl the
ihrdustSr who ni6ht be prepored. to r:ndortake nastersr degrees. The New
Zealand. r.urivorsitios nood not attenpt to toaoh ttre nrc!:bnonts of
iourrral-
istio proctioe a,s is d.ono in the Unitecl Statss schools; the New Zealand.
press l-tsclf can do thls far nore e,ff icLently.It
ls ono of ttre advanta6ies
of tho tra5.ning on a New Zealandr daily that lts pro&rots have Litt1e
210
"
Cjffj-culty in subscquentl-y
1:erforni-ng
nost of the basic, routine
tc,sks
irith creilit, But un5-vorsity study has the great ad.vantage of lntroducing
journi:lists
to an acqr"rintance with the spe cialisecl
}iterature
vrhich is
so necessalTr to thon ff tl:c;:r.:itc'bo bu evon
irT?aro cf thc, potentialitios
of B. subject, or
jf
they rrc
-bo
rrrito at nore than a peclestrjan lovel
ab out plitics, ocononics, s ciencs, neclic5-::o, 1aw, public afurinlstrotion
cnd. cny other of thc fielcls rjo
jn.lorteni
to governnent.It also has tho
ad,vantago of corrfemi-ng inprovcd. status on its rccipients
axrd. th:ls is en
ossontiei stop in any pro63ess towards
groater professi';n;lisation.
( t
)
Es^EgLF.!"-tu.'-
There is no swryoy infornaticn of any ki-:rr} availeblc about tho siatus
of
journalists
in Ncw Zocland.
t
or cbout thcir ovnr rolo cxlrectations
or
f\rlfiJ.lncnts. Resoarch in ttr:is &roo. is r:rgentiy required.
andt. shouldr Lf
necessarXr,
r:o
uncL rtaken by the industry itsolfl
jl
its oriln irtereste^ It
is significantrhouever,
-bhc'c
journalists shoultl. ber organfuecl as 3n
isrd.ustrinl association of vorkers ratlrer than as an institute or so[to
other ki.led of
i:rofessional
body, md it is djfficult to resLst
the
5nplicaticn that, for the r:ost part, thr:y nay
'bo
expectecl to behave
norc like process workors than pubI5-c personalities and. leaders of pub}lc
opinion. Tlre Bick cantr ovorsy C,.enons tratocl the fate of tlre cnrsa&i-ng
oxpositor in the ranks cf the N"Z.B.C; a, nelrspcpor
iournallst
involvoA ln
such
a.
oonflict
uith nanagoErcnt would. bo 1iko1y to lrave obteiJler1 oven
loss
ned:la
attention cnc]. uc]u:l-d h',il,c been &isciplinod
the irore convenjontly'
Tluis is not t o say tha'b c great nany lriew Zaaland
j
ournali.sts
d.o not
occupy po siticns of nodost crocl:it
j:r
the ir 1ocal. conmrnitie s and. anong
those with whon thoy errc ix Caily business contact
t
37
but if tho
ner?s ne4ia systen
j-s'uo
exert
j-ts
cor:trol
functions rith greator vigour
it requ
jros
that
journal-j.sts si:ouLcl. Ilavo r'.uch nore public p:ofessional
zn cognitic,n and. respons ib iJ-ityn Geralil
errgues that tho
I
sel'f-ri6ht5-ng
procoss
f
-gr,tt
is, thc provision for oqua.1
,enr3. opon onoounters
bo'tmeon
Jl
Whon tho oduca ti-onaL rounclsrnsn of p}g.-Lry- d,:iod., t'he Univorsity
Canterbury Council stood i-i1 silenca-a!
C-fark of respect
cnd. tho
ChancelJ-cr of thei Unlvorsity
praisecl hi-n on the grounds that
rhe
bertrayocl no copfidenco s and. broko nc agreonenf,s o . .
ho ils,s a norl.ol-
;oumalistic
integrity in all his ctealings with usr o Roported
iJl
Tho Press, Octobe
3A
1968s 12o
211
.
oi)iJosin6 pcints of vieirt
lB
is cl.cpcn.Je'nt on the
j
curnalist
t
s l'l.r ility tc
assure a fuir hearin6 for o,rch of thc inportant constituent
groups
jJI
national- anct- lnternc.tional so cicty.It i-s inpossibfe f or a public agonqf
to sulrcnriso this vrork; it. cir,ponrJs on
journalists
che cking
and. comectin;:
one anothar. This ltoclns thoy nrust construct
and. use a syston of sel-f-
govornncrt i:as e,'L cn prof ess icnal- ctltics and. in that s ensc tiroy arc in
the sCIxle situation cs larlyersrdoctors, aced.onics and. other professional
groups in thc conr.nurity.Any attonpt, honovere to adtrancc the professionel
statr.r of
journalists
rrilJ- re quire mechint sy of oxclusion cmd qualificcr.ti"
jons
for entry, as wcIL as othical coclcs irncL a noo[s for thoir enforco-
ncnt. So far thrr industry }rus sho'urn Little lnclinotion to novo in'i;ir:ls
rlLrection thou6h a cod.e of ethics vios drarrn up by tlro ccuncil of tho
}I.Z.J.A. in 1961 ancl a proposal to institr:to a. press council is now
r:ndcr investi6ation.
6. ccnlcrrJsry
Tbe criticisn that has energed.
jl
tlris stur\r lurs najnly drarvn
attenti-on to shortcon5ngs ix the sub-eilltorial troatment of sone N.Z.P.i.
nosseges by the &iily nerlspcpors rncL to inadequacLes in ttrein han&Ling
of sone a,reas of subjoct contcnt l-ike Science, Culttrro and. Polltics, irs
weIL as to the prevailine; uniforrrity with ruhich thc content of nost of
tlte d,:rily ner?spapors ix ttre sanple was
rnixod.r.
ft has boen arguerl tiat
the pross
ip
Beneral
should. show a norc
i:robing
attitud.o toward*s public
':tlfai.rs
and. should be r.rore sonccmed to canvass the backgrouncl to tbe
nelrs and to provi-d.e a fon:n for tbo expression of the vlelpoints of
j:rd.ividuals
and. n:jnorit
j.e
s, Yct
,
agai.nst tlris
,
it can be contonded that
the prcss cannot publish any nore political trevss end connontarSr ancl
any nore serious cul-hra.l a scicntific content rrithout risking the
displaasure of roa.clors.Therc, is litt l.c roliablo survcy i:rf ormation of on;'
conseguoncc avaiLab1.o a.bout pooplor s roadi.ng, listeruing
cnd vienSng
habits with tho nass r:red{n in New ZeaLand., but to sorxo oxbent tlro Now
Zealancl nei/s noclia nay bc in cu unique position to girro people what thoy
think is good. for then.Thoy r:ray be abJ.s to d:isregaa'cl audience tastos
38
Geralcl, op. cit.
167.
212 .
so long irs tlre entiro ncd.ia syston r-s
lrept
urvier its
i:resent
i:rtjficial
restreints
Ly vryious forns of govcrrulent interventiotr,
ancL cis fong as trr.:
corporative
p:ttcrn of organ:issti.on i-s substcntial\y retainei
in
broad.cilsti.n4;
-rnd. the co-operlrtivc. practi,ces of er:ifly nci;sl;apers
arc:
contjnucti.To
r
consid.crab 1o erxtent, Nor Zoalan] daiJy ne;spar)er
ncnagerrents
(ospecially
the 1ar6cr onos) *o
jn
the 1u:nrrious sitr-raticn :,"'
boing abLo to 5r,rposo thoir, o:'fil vr-iluos on the seJ.uctic',n
r.r.tt0 prr,rsantation
r
i'
ncns for road.crs ilho clrc not ablc to choose
any rr:.d.icc,,11y d.jfferent
olternetlvc produot,Consequontl;r the press can pursue s6nsqipts of
rCIsprmsibllity at its gileasuro 3 if an snnual conferonce of ncuspspar
proprictors rorc to clo ciC.c tonorrov to rcclucc still f\rrther tho etlount ;f
nows covcra6e of
r
salr Culture
arrd S cienco
r
or to
.crirrt
c cnics
jnstea'J.
of intcrmtiorral nelis, their roaders wluld have to accel:,t thc situa'i;ion.
Tha pross is froe to prociucc, no\rspapers
i;tr:j-ch supp\r a largc nunbor uf
usoful record:i.ng s ervicc's rrith a cons cientcus
,
inoffens ive nociiocrity;
but it is also freo, if it wishos, to pursuo tho cnrsailing role of
expositor
and., prescr.iber
'.;ith
as nuch zeal and talent us it can command.,
thoullh subject e}ruys to the rostraints inposed by the New Zealcnd
Iega1
and pcl litical- sys tens.
As s. rc,sult of the irlows Meclia Ownership
rtct and. the caref\rI
supervisir.:n of broaclc;.st5rrg anC. televj-sion
activities provid.c0 for undor
the lJro;ud.cesting Corporcr.tion J.ct and. the Bnoaclcasting
i\uthority Actrthe
Itrew Zealond. nclrs ned.ia systen may i-:e
t
systom cloni.:rantt
,39
noani:ng th:,b
its ccnditions of operati on &r e so s tab 1o that the inpact of
jnd.iviclual
beheviour on tho pcrt of enJr onc? of i,ts conponents
i-s likc\y to be
ncrgligiblo. Yet,
&ny one Now Zoafand. papor is aquaJJS' frec to break tite
pirtt,.,rn of content followcd. by its ring of rivals
iJI corrforcuity'Approx-
Snately l+9 per cent. of the od:itorial
itei:rs
jn
a typicaf New Zoeland-
ctaily pcper. consisb., of N.Z.P,A, nor?s llhich i.n nos-b cosos
ps"ys healy
attention to Eeononnic
rctiulty ancl to Sport, Tlrc total oclitoriel content
of thc avcrage doily paper has appror5-natoly
3,2
per ccrrrt. of its itons
d.ovotod. to
gorirs
about TIar and. tho Arned Servi@sr 9.6
pcr ccnt to
39
Soe l,{orton A.Kaplonr
lsysten
Theoqyt
lna\rsis
(Janos
C. Chc"rlcsirorth od.
) r
:n@3-q1g@
Now York
1967
r
160.
213.
Politics,
18.1 per cent. tc Huncn Interest ancl Social
affgirs, 13,1 pcr
cont. to Crjne, Disastc,r anil. RrLlic Sc.f oty,
?-2
.B
per cc-nt. to Econonic
Activity, 21 per cont, to Sport
t
4.9
per ccnt. to Sciencer
5.4
per cani.
to Culture
and EnterLainnont,
end. 1.9 per cent. to MisccJ.lanoous
i-tcns.
The d"c.iIy palprs of ti:e slnplc, showi,rcL
a hi6h d.cgrcc of sir:ilarity in
thoir p,-rtte,:rrs of subject contcnt solection, thou5h so!:n of tiro
irovincigls
nad.o njnor d.c.p,rturos in orde'r to publ:ish ;roro Local news.
Onry P
1rcr
ccnt. of tho <;cntcnt
(rieasurad by itccr froquancy) of tLL'
avorago ncrispepcr cf
'bhe
sar:pIo
'v'ras
i.nterprctativo\r ;ritton; onJy
3
pol
cent.$a.s rlevotodr to feeturos;
1 por cont. tc' ed:itorials,
l
pctr cent. to
oomcspondonca and. O.B
!c.r
ccnt. to rcvi.o';,ts
of bookse playsr nustcel
porf o:rrance s cnd. othcr cultrral- ovcnt s. /t ncrlspaper ettenpting to Snprovc,
its quality
coulcl
purhaps incrocso al-I those values at tho expense of tLe
5O per cc'n! of its itons cf contc,nt dcvot,:d to straight neits reportago
of onc sort or ar:o tl:.er. Rt1:Lhcrnore, only
[.
B por cont. of
'bhe'
Lver&$o
newspatr)er
t
s contont
,;rcs
prc'sontad iJr the f orn of ilJ-ustrations nateriel.
It would" be po ssible
(
fxr.r-bicular\r
for a publi cet ion us i-ng tiro off set
procoss) to neko a ilrarurtic Jolarturo fron the conventional ed.itorial
r,rix by greatly increasi.ng t?ris content
oncl col:rcspond.ingly
clecreasinS thc
volune of itr:ns
'1;p{f,1,6n
in ttrtr orCinc;ry wa}r
Ther r:naninity of agreonerrt in tlro
lroportions
of sub
j
ect :rattor
Sulilishcd
by the nerispepers
givos sup|qrt to the criticisn
that thoy a.re
fo,cking in varioty. Tholr sjniLaritios nay bci the pricei thoy are pay5ng
f or tho co-opef,ati-vo sbongth of thoir organisotion.Tlris
lends itself
rlell to thc pcrfcrnance of tho sorvico fr.rnction, not so well to the
-
ach:leverent of riort: rlenancLin5 activities. Tho onlJ Oofonce for the
r.rai.::teniaco of ths
oxisting stnrctr:re
of tho dflily nevspapers
inside c
coguf,on navs-shoring or$rurisation is to l.,c founrl
jJr
tho
argr'rnent that it
ls better for a rlenocratic socinty to hevc a large nr:rtber of
lnpors
becagso the chapco of tiron publishJng &Lff errent
vicr,points end' d.ifferrrnt
seloctions of nornrs is 1ike1y to be so nuch greatcr. But ifr in factt
thoy aro not d.oing ttuis partiarlarly wo'llr ths naixtcne..nco
of such
a
stnrcture boconcrs unnecessarl becauso the sorvice they 4tr8 proviiling
could. be obtainod
just os woIL fron one lnrgo neTrspapor chcjn
or fron
othcr types of orgonisation, For that natter,
there is no reason
wt5r
211+.
no\,'s-i.l.cp,-.rs coulcL not Lro ccrporatise d. arrd rul along lino e siniler to
scrlo of the big
irul1i3^corpurationsr
or'.?hy tlroy souJci not be' operatod
c,s public uti-litios .
*'
.f, lar,-:a nr:nbcr of pepor$ is trot na cessa,lri\r
nolc'
dc;:rocratlc or off
j-cicnt
tirr,ri ;t. snall-or be calusc tho only substantial
powcr the prr?ss has gr-,t is its
rrorT+r
to
j-nfluencc
thc oourse of events
b3' oxtrlosuro, arid. the perforrrilnoc of such Et service hec t:o rcrlati,:nship
to tho nrrnber of noirspepc.xsr Onc gc,,od papor could bo [toro CcsLrablo ttr,tr
a 1ot of nediocre cnes
o li;r is therc urytlij+j exccLrt
j.ncrtirr
to stop
eny lcy,-s r:otropolitan nc\?slx.por in Nev Zea,land fron turni.ng out trro vory
diff orent kind.s of nerrslraper', r.uin6 tbo sruro sta.ff nnd. iti:r,chineqr. It
wou}I Lro e slnplc enough cntcrprisc for onc fi-rn to publish a convent-
i'-rnaL norn5a6 norrspatr)er of record. id:ich paid serious attontion to sucb
nr-ittors as Culturo anJ Politicsr &s iiol1 as a cnrsoiling, sons:tiona1,
evon:i::g tabloid. f'ull of Crine, llur.r,an Interest ancl Sport,
cnd. written
with, sa3lr lq_iJ,f._ll11Tgl fluency. Such ente,,rprises could.
porhaps be
rrcro profitcble in the long nrn than dabblln6
''rith
o:ryensirrely-prcduced
Sundcy
i:u'clicc.tlons
or
r.rith
raCji, llroaC.castir:9.
Certain\y a norc aggrossivo approach to neils gathering and present-
ation vrould. be like\y to lrave corlsequcnces irithirr the political systen
cnd. thrrruglrout the enti-r,: field. of pul 1ic a.ff airs ,
This night have its
inconvenience s
,
but bocause
6ove
rnnont is ono cf the lergost nerrs*
6cnorat5.reg
sourcos for thcl ent
jre
Now Zoaland press, it oan be'bi6,tu,l #
that tho pross thoreforo has e. spocial rosponsibiliff
to scrutinise
governneurt actions and policies. Sor:e nerspsper nanaononts,
houevort
are cautious in thejJ ai)proc,ch to such sufijcstj-ons.
/r'ccorcling to tho
chajnrnn of d.iroctors of the
';relJington
Rrblishin6 Conparyr
th press
is noro ro cordcr and. sntortainor than .L'\cpos itor
and. prescribor.
t/.
nevlspeperts L,asic task is, of courso, to i-:nfcrn tho public
as object-
ively anO intorostingly as possiblct, arr annual necting
of shareholC,ors
t-l
iias t;Id.,
*'In
this the No',r Zoal:srLA r]eily press(anC tho nows ne&ia
syston
J+o Or by o ccnnlssion os has bocrn sucgcstod
j::
Austral-ia.
Seo Honry
It'tayor,
gp.:_-c-*.
"
251
o
Rrported,
jrr
!_bg,_D-og+ftt-q5r. ,
Docembor
19 1968,
3.
I+1
215,
in gencral) ney resenble sone units of the'
i.lnite'J. States connunity
press
rhicir 5:rs
,1 tendency to avoiil ccnf Llct in tire
j.ntcrests
of
'tJre
connuni-LJ'
anc,- t.; p:rotoct con:imit3r
jnsti'cLltic,ns
rathor
than 16r1'rort the fisnrpti'ro
aspc.cts cf public rife Thr-,
,)oricy
of the
inssivc
acssrdr'r
cf pu)lic
events ney bo o rclslronse
to 'rjie
stylo of po}lticel
activiW
jn
i'low
Zoalrncl
as
.,icIl-
es e charscteristic
of e nc;d.ic systoir
irhich
js
only
nc,ninally conlntitive
ano is
f)rG-occupicd.
with its sorvico
fr-rnctions.
Thc'
r]efoct of tLr:ls situeition
j-s
thr:ut
jf
tho pross trislrr-rs to asplro to aqy
protonsiorts of quali@, its fqnCgngnteJ-
neod is ig orSanise
rtself for
tho norc, i^nforr.rocl d,iscussion
of pu1:Iic cut'fairs and tho noro trcnchant
intorprctatiqn o11d criticisn
of poritical
actlvity. rt has tho pptentit}ilt'
to d.o this both in bread-th
and in J.ctail.
Quality
papers shoulcL
provide whet iras
'.rotrn
callod
a
t
continuLn5
educationt
for thcir roaclc,rs.
Tho hallnerk of the
qualiQr nerlspaper
is
its incJcpcndence
,
its s trong opi.:eions
ond its interirrotetive
capacitie
s
'
It slrr:uld. placo cxtrrl enpi:*sis
on tl:e fiekls
of poLitios,
jatcrn':tional
rolations,
ocononics,
social vc.'lfcre, culhrral
ondctavour,
eclucation
anrL
scionco. It shouL|"
also show & concorn
for
5ettin61
c'''QVoJ'oping
and
kceping
a',re11-educated. re,ld.ership
at hone and'
"'-T{
and' it shoull'
have
the cLersi^ro tc ipflucnm
opinion loarlers everxn-rhere.
LrJ
Quality
perlodic*
als and spocialised
journal-s a,re not plontif\rl
in I'lsw
Zealarrd.
because
the-v
ar,e cost\r
to pnoduce,
'bhc.y
[crve liniterl cjrcu]atj'onsr
md thors is not
always enough
talent
jn
tirs counbry
to fiIL
then rdth first-rate
contl:isutlons.Broad.cesting
e.nrL television,
for
all tiroir
irrned':iacy
ancl
clran'rti-crosourcesrc|rsrprinr:rilyr:rof:i-aofonterLainncnt'anc3'ini'lew
Zoaland. thoy terrl to bc fu]hibitod
in thc'ir oxecuticn
of the role of
riatchdog
and critic by thc restrL:ilts
of the
Bror''d'c':istilg
Cori:oration
Act anC tho sullicction
of thojJ nana6enont
to varying
clegtrees
of
governncnt
jJf
luence.For thosc roi).s'ns,
tho noed' fclr standards
of cluaiiqr
in tho d,iily
i)ros
s be concrs
tho nore aSinront. tr'UJcthen:lorc t
in viev o f
J.
Ticlrcnore
rThe
Conf lictf
r J.q!tlfqi.].i.qg-9.,
/rnelytical Discus sicnt,
J& Clariso i{. OlicnrGeorSe A. Donohuc
1nd. P}ui}iir
Core*rnity Sui,lc,rf s
pcwer
an'J. tkr
,Qopo;r'ting
of
4.5t2r'
Sur:nci
t96g
t
4+;-1252.
John C. iierril.l
,
tQuality
Dai3y JournafisnlAn
gg4$
,
15, 1969,
51-!8.
43
216.
thcr iscrcrasilg
iro-i;(..r
of Ceb
jnet
encl the stite sc't:rl5.ces, ana the
occoi.ipu.nyirg de cline of the controlUng
inf luenco of ihs Houso of
Repres entativo s
,
tlre
irross
nay f ild its elf by d.e,fault
jrr
tire situetion
of iihat ept{r1 SoSmour-Urc }r.r.s cr.scribecl
as an
tr:nofficial
optr)ositiont
l+
l.itlr tho power to proLre ai'rd. cxi:ose the affairs of gover"tllilcnt
at least
Ds
thorougtrJ;r ils tire politicc.l oppositiotr. He suggests
that it should'
5o
cvon f\gthcr than thct Ly closc.ly
analysing tho activitios
of
governncnt
ilcportnonts enc.l, their accori;n:rying structure
cf colr::lttoos
en(l' adirinistr-
ati,vo. b:ibuffr.lsr nMX of ';rluich for tho nost rl:lrt oilereto
in an atnosphcro
of scni-sccrocy, froo fron aLl but ttro briefest survoillanco
of Parlianent"
Such an und.crtaking rrouk-L requiro rad:ical ckraslgo"
jn
thtt conposition
cr,it,J.
Erali-fications
of ners ro;orting sta.ffs
as wsll as thc cnploSnrent 'lf
f,ioro spo cialiscd.
turri bettc r gualifj-cd. cotrespond,ents.
For
the da-ify
pross
to be fulJy effoctive
&s an agelpy of politioal
influonco
of this kj$A
it vouLL eilso }urvo to lcarn to uso its poiior riith
6:eoatcr
scop{e
snd
d.otc,rminati-on.lvlana6onen-b as ';,'e11
ils steff neod. to L'occne
jnbuod
nith a
groeitcr senso of profc:ssionilI responsibility if they aro to necsuro thoir
ll,,'rf
ornancc a6ainst intcnr,r'r;iona1 s t.'urclar'3s of qual-ity. The oas;r-go iJtg
assr:nirtii:n that r-iost ovonts rill nanate thonselves conven:iently onough
fron r3ay-f,e-d.ay iiithout the l;enofit of 1orr5 tonr plr:iJ-osophyror even
onorgetic public d.:lscussion, irill- L'' e insr:ff ici.ent for the clenand.s of an.
incroasjngty tocturol-oE;ical societSl geared to prodtrce nev proclucts for
"rcrlr1
rirarkets.In;ortent socinl changes are uncler rray itr Nevr Zealand. as
rcsourc('s are shjfterl cwey fror: traditional linos of ag;ricultr.rral
;:roduction
,:rnd.
Cr-ireicteC tov;ard.s nanufacturin6l and the rlevoJ.opnent of
inclustrles }ikc foro stry anC. tourisn,The pross shoulcl be i:rorr than a
1;l,ss
ivo egcncy facilitat5ng tl:c., a cconplj.shnent of these changes
,
it shoulC.
be tircir critic as ',ro11 as thei-r
lrronptcr,It
should l:e contirnously
active in d.ebatlnS funcler.rontal quo sti-ons concr'rni.ng the allocation of
t'i..solrnccs iurd.
lrioritios
for c'conoHic C.c've1o1:nont on a natj-onal scalo.
It should bc concorned. c.bout
such l-i:rcad cultural probla;:.s cs the nooci for
a balance bctweon tho scmnble for ireclustricl d.ovelo;.rncnt ancL tlre desire
for ccnsersation of thc nahrrc.l environnent.It should. a].so sclutiJri*so
)* Tl3l_s,g;p-
F_ofi_t-icrs-. .agl_t
jri'S
,$1*g,
Lpnclon 1968,
fr7
.
217 .
ttro dfectirroness of t,hc Statc in Nevr Zoslpnd. as tho chLef
trntron
of tho
arts, tho custodlan of nany aspoets of its popuLar sports and. reoreatiorrt
anrl. the prirncipbl guanillen of its stanciards of social vmlfare. In zuoh
fielcls of inquir;,', what ls necd.ed on tho port of thc press 5.s not so mrch
a
rolaxation of its tr.aditicnal rridiLle-oLass valuegr os o,n e:cpansion
of
its provincial horizons ancl a groater ser:sitivfff
to tho changtng naturo
of Now Zealand. socfuty, Remptivity to new irlsas, rearliness to e:qlerinent
with cortentr ilrd entlrusiasn for now field.s of d.isc{rssion are cBpobrl{tios
which tho New Zealand press should. cultirrate
if lt is to asplro to
qualiftr ancl if it is to p]ay an
lrfluentlal
part in the processes of
change
'ohich
aro now evident. As Now Zealand. grows noro techncloglcalJy
arlvanood. lt also bocmes nox^o r:rbaruised. Tfhether the
qualitles of tho
r.uba^n
culttge thot tokos shape wi I1 be any nore }lberal and. sti-rulating
to tho iJrd.ividual citizenr or ilhother they enorgo
as inpedinents to tn'o
d.isoovory and. clo'relotrueent of the cltizents
in&i\t:tfua1ity nay d.epencl to
a
very consi(l.erable extont on the rospoluro
of the inass modLa, alrd pactLo"
ularLy the pross, to accoLeratecl social changos. Incroased sensitLviW
toward.s socicll forces, and. aspjratlon towarcts international
stand.ards
of
quallty journelisn
need not result
in a loss of tlro speoial
antipod.ean
id.ontity of the l{ew Zealancl pross} but foJJlro to enJarge
its horizcns and. to intoract aore fnritftrJJy
with ttro centres
of poJ.ttical
and.
econonic power could. result in a filiil^aph of tho worst dofoots of
trrovincialifir.
/#PENDIX
1.
coNcoRDAt{cIt TE$I'
A cooff icient of concordanco r;as usod. for test5ag the fiegrecr of
agroenent oaronE tlie rank5ngs of ttrr. ei5ht subjerct cato6orios of eilitorjol
oc'atoDt in tenrs of tho five rrariablos of ecLltorial treefuuent.
Using tlro f ornuJ,e:
nhone
s
TI
- -----------'r'-E
1---;-,-;-T
-fr'k
'(u'
+t)
g
=
the suf,r of tho square$ of obsorrucc-'1. d.cvjntions fron
the neans of Rjr tlrat is
s=
(ai-.
+)z
k
=
the nurrbcr of sets of rankiags
N
=
tho nunbcr cf entities rankei
Rj
=
tho suns :rf tirer ranJrings assigned to each co}.rnn of
editorial voriables
=
the naxi.rrr.rn
.:ossiblo
surl of the squarocl devigtionpt
iro., the suns irhich would ocflrr wtth porfect
rr,greenotrb anong k rankS.ngs,
ttre Kcnclalt coefficiont of concordanco
troo"
caLcu}:tecL
for the values
shown ln TabLe 6, Ch.
1II, The
Perfomanoe
of thc Nowspaper Systen.
A high
v*lue of Tf
=
.BO
was o'bte5.:red., indieuting that there
l,res
a consi.Oerablo
oxtent rrf agreonent bob,roen the vaLues of the various eilltorl-aL variables.
Tho null- tgrpothosis is thnt thero rras no signifiai.nt relatj-onship
botrueon the variablcs of i,ton froquency, storXr inchage, il.hrstrations
5nchage, proninonce and. wordago.
Using tho fomulal
df
=
$-'l
f=
(w+t
)
h
u't wJ- u)
ancl
Pt-
ml
,
Ncw York 1956t 253l
219.
e value of 28 .32 wes obtained. Rc f eming to a table of chi seusru,
values
,
X2
:
24,2 rvith df=
?
.rnd
has a probability of occurrence
under Ho of p < .01. Consequentlyl the null hypothesis can be
rejected and it can be concluded with assurance that the agreement
among variables is higher than it cou1d. be by chance.
2, THE NORDIvIEYER-},IARSH.ALL
EXCHANGE
Nordmeyerr
s Statements
Approval of Holyoakers Statement
In Favour of Vietnam Diission
Cri tic i sm of l,larsha.ll
Support for battery-deferring decision
Further comments
%
Words
Cut
20'.9
o.o
18.8
J6.g
o.o
Me s sage
Usage
R.:rte
1j
1
7
3
1
Prominglocu
Scores
2?.1
11.0
3.1
25.'
40. o
Averrgc values
Average values
for this group of
me ssage s
for items in this
subJect division
15
.1
29.7
4.2
4.o
21 .4
15.5
Marshallr s Statement
Reply to Nordmeyer
3,O
27,7
tr'rom this it can be seen that when the nelrgpapers reproduced
the Nordmeyer strtements they imposed word cuts below the average for
the subject division and they gave substantielly more th:rn aver':rge
promlnence
to the Nordmeyer statements which werc reproduced in
slightly more than the average number of newspapers.Comparc.d with the
treatment given Marshallr s statement
rhoureve.rrNordrneyer
received bette.r
treatment by word eut percenta6e and nerilspaper usage, but scored rattr.rr
less in message prominence(on1y 21,4 compared with Mershallts score
of 27.7).
This sort of analysis would havu to be made a great many times and
would have to oe applied to n representative sample of messages enan-
ating from Labour leaders over a lengthy period of time to demonstrate
anyfhing conclusively, but herer at leastr was a situation in which
favourable treatment was given a series of statements(presumably on
their merits as news itens) Uy the newspaper system. If there is
systematic bias on the part of daily newspapers Ln dealing with New
Zealand Labour Party affairs, it was not demonstrated during the week
under analysis, in fact, the reverse seems to have been the case in
the treatment of the Nordmeyer-Marshal1 exchange in 16 daily papers.
43.,
*
5.
22O.
Tlm \rImNiiI{ PA.OIEST [,[O\IAMEN'I
Itons Gonerated by the hotest Movenent
Cantorbury sectlon of Rrblic Sortricc irssocieti,n
oppos e Viotne"n ilrvolvenent
VLoirs cf Bertrancl Russcrll Peccc, Found.:tion
iiollin6i'bon Connittee on Vietna,n rrc'lcones statonent
on Vietcong nogotiations
Univcrsity acad.onics protest at Victnsn policy
(
evening shif t nossq;e)
Univcrsity acc.denics
trrotest
"rt
Vietnan
;rolicy
(nornlng;
shift ne ss'%e
)
Effi6y of Uncle San brrriod. by i'ianile protestors
i'{ucLear Dj,sarnanont socrctalTf coi;tst(lnts
cn Holyoakel s
stotorcent
irluo].e Err Disofna.nqnt C i,iraittoc stater:ont on lrnoricen
Paeco
nlss iolt--bc;nbin6; cond'cnnecl
Avc:ra8o rrarues for this
Erouij
of itens
Avera6c values for itons fuI ttris subject
&ivision
Othi"ir Crlticisns of the Victnr:,n IIo.r
Vierrs
,-,f
U.DT. Ass ocisti on
Arrstrralian Le,bour trarty resolves against senii-ng
tro u-.rg
Peking nc-,isF:!!ersr apponl for lielp for Viotcong
Ind.isn hir:e Minjster does not c.greo wlth use of
troops in Vietnnn
Univorsitlr profcrssorrs speech on Vietnan
O:ford Union d.eb;tr., on Vletnon
Senator Fulbri6ht wouLil reeogniso
Vic'tcong
I{ationel Councl-]- of \,'oHenr s Yielis on Viotnan
Australian Liberal P;irtyf s vic;'rs on Vietno.n w$r
Nlsflrnah nsks Austrafi.a
rrnd. I{.2. to vrithdrcts trooPs
China says po ace talks s swln&Le
North Vietna.n hfuh connand congratul-atos
U.S. cir. forco
for shootirxg down its own fighters
Aver:a3e
value for this
Sroup
of itons
Newspaper
Usagos Pron.
6
10.5
2
33.5
3 5.3
2 7,5
'_
3'A
2
15'o
4
7.O
?.6
lr-. o
10.22
15.5
;
10.5
l+. o
2;o
26,.1
19'.7
25.5
L5.O
16.O
-
E
14.1
;
B
i
2
-
1
2
221 .
l+*
. $-..Z-.F'S*. .t'l-rli
rF, SI:XVIC
l!_
f,mi!i0}i0i{-D},
Tho f oJ-lcmSng are e solection of nc.norsnda tnaneoribod. fron tho f ilos
of the N. Z,B.C. ncus sorvioo during the
i-'''sriod
19|cf'47.
( o)
IlgppSgry_r.H.ty- .r{r. .B.ls.olr,1.
Unoated.
(Auckland to heac'. oificc no 1.8 supcrvS-sor) s Und.';rstand fron
rcliablc
j.nfornant
that at a neetjng of prison chapla5.ns
at idt. Crarrford
Prison, lTellin5ton, a resolution wes passed that honoseloraHf
in prisons
be condonod." Chaplains want legeslation on tlris.suggcst you contact Robson
or Hanan on th:i s orre r S oundrs like a goo d. st ory ,
Hoad. office to Auckland. : 3.osults ncgatLvo. trTo voulii not use tho story
jn
any ovento
(t')
&94i" It-+.qal.i
April 1!, 1966 (heaa office ne\rs to Auckland) : Reference Gapes
piratc rad-i.c, please sendr. ne aIL stories os available but use nothing
Ioca11y without ny clnaroncc-r. He is puttilg too neny non-storios
out
;r:re,ly
for publicity.
-
Air"i1 1b
,
1966 (
hoaa of fice nelrs e ditcr to i\uckLand.) : Tod'ayf s Gape s
story not strong enou6h. \{111 consider when
(a) he actueJ-ly
eo!s.
hls boat
(U)
iitr it oyt
(
c) g*tr df iala:. frequenoy or is refusod.
( a) starts
bro aC.crs tiry ( s
)
ge ts shlpwre ckecl .
October
31 ,
1g6e (he,:a
offlce nairs to .riuckf,.nd) : Urge'nt. Do not, repcat
not, use
j.tcn
about Rcilio HaurakL protest neotilg, Mr
---
[i's nr]ed ttrat
such neot5ngs be g5-von i']o prior publicity but nay be coverod.
on DcI'Is
rnluo, No neirs itens on pir,rte rad.io should bo usod until referred
to
sd.itor head. off ice ncl,rs. ,Te have a ness age sont erarllcr today conccrnllg
public s;rnpathy for thc crerr, publi-c zubscrtptions
for flrrers and
ipssiblc
nerrspapcr backing. I d.ont t knoir whother you have used. thi"s at all but it
nust be sonrbbecl Irn afraid. We have
just
beon te"lkilg to tlre oorporatlonr
s
soJ-lcitor and. ho says it cou}J bo construed.
as an atbonpt to influcnce ttrc
courb beforc tho conclusion of tho hearin6 and honco night be helcL as
contcnpt. \{e cannot indulgo in thesc sorts of tluings tiIL tlre oese is
c'Doltt de d"
(
")
$qr.ri
l,l. F.
Octobcr 10. 1966
(Auclilanc].
to hea i'. cff ico ne\is ed:!tor) : fie havo
a
rcquest to covoi r-oturri of-'ricteno, M.F. for Ecstem
lviaorie fron intor-
parlianentary cor:nitteo conferencc in Tehoran for national rnl?s. He arrirros
Aucklanci at
4
pn tod.ay. CorJd
Srou
advise lrhothcr a TV intcrvieu would be
iJr orfur?
222.
(a)
VLstnor
0ctober B, 1966(nuckland
to head. office rlov,,s zupervisor) : Bo heve
e statonent here fron ttro Auctcland chairff)n of thc Peace for VLotnan
Comlittec" I L,elir:vs wc, h,:vo to
6et
it cloared by tbe head offLce e&itor
if ue
tr/ropose
using any part
,:f
lt, It|s not very excitil8rbut it d.oes
includ.c th:is tittit...Presid.ent
Johnsonrs vislt can on\r nserr tlrat ho;:ni
his governnent
expe ct New Zealand to increase its m115-tnr.3r cor:nitnent tc
Viotnano How about using that?
Wolli:rgton to /ruckl,rnd.:
Ro thot story on Vietnonryou n&y use it if
ycLr lilte. It has been cliaareC..
(
o)
Tjrq.-Lo-ueru_r-
gegqle}
October 28
,
1966(/ruckland. to hcad office
)
: Ifo rrnd.erstirnd. the
Govornor Gencral
rmulcl not approciate being filned. during the sorvice et
St. Faithrs church, Ohinonrutrr, on Sunclay.Mrybo you had. botter teIL
---
to d.rop thct ass igrrnont
n
( f
)
lrygeps. _S-h$s*LegoJg
Febnrary 2811967 (Au*:.c,nd
to heacl offie neirs supor:visor):Sovoral
Japanese fishing vessols
..rero
sighted less than flye-snd-o-Ir,rlf niles
off ther southorn ond of Ninety Mile Boach at ton or clock this nornilg.
Thore were at least falr d.orios and. o nottror ship nearby.FolJ-owing rapori;s
fron shoro the Civil AvLation Departnent rooeived an accurc,te fix on
their positlon f ron an eircnft
vhich flew oor.Ploasc cloar for uscr.
5"
N. ZJ-g-A-._
Igfl$./+Xg
(
")
Ilp--y.lq-ttes-liq-q
Sytlney
(.fru:e 1J) :
tT{o
shoot first rrncL ask questions latort
,
an
Atrstralien sc:ldicr r.turnir6 frorn Vietnan sai-d. tod.ay.tTamant QffLcer
R.S. Sinpson
t
39r
of Perth, spont a yoer at Tako spocial forces ccnp,
/aO niles west of Da I'lang uir baso as a nenber of the Australian Arqy
trcining schenoo Vic'bcong
6uorillas
anbushed td*s nountajn patrol last
Soptenber nnd. shot hin cbove tho loreo, shattering a l:one.He spent the ne;:'c
eight nonths
j.r:
a U.S. nilitary hospital in Tolryo.He roturned. to Sytlnoy
frcn Tolgro tod.cy.
rTtroro
i.s no tray of telling whothor ttre VLetcong are
North Viotnanese or South Vie';na,noser, ho told. repor-bers at Sydney
JiSrport.
rln
nany cesos thoy are friendly South VLotnanese by day and.
Vietcong by nightr
"
I[arrant Cff icer Sinpson was nsked. whether ho had.
soen any atrocitios by either. siCc rl.uring tho w&ro
lIn
thi-s type of war
you vlou so',coJ.J-ed. atrocitios in a different kind. of lightl, he replied.,
tPoople
bJ.or up hotols end. k{lL civi}ions. In a norrnal war thi*s woulil bc
consid.ered. an crtroclty. I aa not seyS.ng vrc are all c).oing the sof,re th-lngs
as tlre VletcoryI-but vre can1d., quite casily. f
rn
all for it qyself
t.
trTarrant 0fflicer $inpson agreed. thst South Vietnanese troops sonetl-nos
lciJ-lod civilians by
tshootirrg
fi-rst and esk5rg questions latert.rThi.g
unfortunctely happens in ovety warr, h" said,
f
Once we didnltrOnce
a
trntrol
nct o youngrunarned. Vietrc&ese in the
jungle
ancL ei&tlt challengo
lrirr. Ho &-rcked. out of sight and. roatrlpeared. rrith a rlfle.He tdllod. tho
l,est non ln the patrolr.
223.
(tr)
Igastrglpg.Slu!
Singapore
(June 17). Tr;o wound.cd. Australirns triro took pcrt in tho
anbush of InrLorrcsians irr Bornco on Tucs d?":/, tod.ay C.oscrlbecl. thc action
cs
t
just
li]',o shootinll duckst o
tThoy
lrent over like ni.nepi.ns.Ifo couldnrt
niss thenr
r
rffi thcjr onthusiastj-c d.c,,sc:"iption of tlrc actj"on.Tho
Austra'lians crc botir ncnbcrs of thc Thircl. Battalion Royal /,lustraljnn
Regi':ent
--f-1611sr-'
Co4:':ral Jack Ezzyt, 24, singlc of I'orest llillsrQuecnslancl,
and" Privatc A1'by lrqylc
r2B,
nen.i.:Lr of Tov'nsville.Both TTcro in tho British
nilitary hospi1.l herc puffing ci?o.y at cigarottes lihon
jntervicwed..
Corlnral Ezzy vcs lrj.t i.:e thc. lrree by a bullet r.nd. had. his lerl 5-:r plastetr.
fuivato lgrJ.e was bit
jx
thc back of tho tlutgh lrith a pi.ece of shrapno1
fron an fnd.oneslan. nortar.
(
")
LWp. .C-onc-e-al_e5r.. _ig1-ry
Eono
(Jr:oo 15) : Aotross Ursulo.
Androws
shoots fron the brecst,
not frcn tho hlp, i-n ircr latcst filn.
''Jith
her
tkilLer
brassiergr
r
an
up-to-(Lo.tc vorsion of tho ol0 six gunrUrsulo bLrsts avlay fron the boson
;t an asseifant nho tnrps hor
jJr
a Nerv York nusoun. Shc rreirs a p.xtr
of
tscx
gunsr attacheii lo hr,r bressicrre in the fih
r
Tht' Seventh Victinr
nolr boing filne'l in Romc anrt co-starring
lvlarccllo
iiiastrioanni.
(
a) N&k-eg.
$s!_qepp_
Lond.on
(Juno 16) : A bceutiJU1 ectress pcsec'l nakcd
jn
front of a
Uni-tarlan ckngch parson toCrcy anc-L s,r.irl
IItr
s a bit of a gi551e isnl t itt
,
I!o-&l-dg.L$-v!,3*1lt'6. -N^ojlg
report,.-O. Thc .:ctrsss
,
21 yeer old' Josoph:inc
ffiCi"a aa-a-Jd^:*'tT-h-G is tlra first ti-no I hevc posed nakeri, end- then
itt s bcforc r! cli;rg,nrant. The g;.-rrson, tho Roverend. David Doel said.:
'lv[y
'ilj-fe
is ri;ht behind. not. H;
nc ctrt th":t lirs Doel had. agrood. irith hcr
husl:cnc1 thct hc cou}i tako bottqr picturos tlrcn thc nuclc stu&ios irhich
ei)pcarcC.
jn
iI recont issue of a
British
naga zista' &ir Dool hail. doscribod
ttti photograptrs as
ttoo
coyt. Thc na6czi.:rc cluJ.len6cf
tr-ir: to d-o bottor.
Thcfh:iroA
"itro""
Josophino F;itcharcl
for thc nodol-ts
iob.Both
i.:rsistodr
that thcr cancrc session shouli
'jJe
i.rr privato.
rltn
not tcking ny pa.nts
off lrith rr11 thcsc
...nopIo
horo?
e
I'{iss Pritcharc} sairL es }rfr Dool ushoreC.
thc visi bing prcssnon cut of thc roon.
tltr
s a bit onbarrassing
isntt
1tt,
thc clu-rgJrnnr agrce&. Tho pictures vlorllt bo soon until a l,etor issuo of
tho na6azino
(
"ds.
Kiftg) for ncn, But boforc' tho stud.io d.oor closod on l
the visitors, Mr Dool o4plaj-ncd. hoir ha co,rto
rr,o
Le beh:in'-1 tho e,tlnora.Ho
sai<I ho rzas nakS:rg e,..prdtoft ellainst socicrl prtrdory.
tI
vrroto to tho
nagaz5ne saying that'I tirorght thoir
ir5-ctures
wore coy anrl inhibitorlt
cspocially thcsc of actrsss Lcya Reki.Sho saicl ln an ortiole tiTct sho
beliovod children shoulcl l>c brought up on the breost.If this is sorthen
notlr:ing is nor notr:ral than to sltow thc' l'''reastsr but in every
blessoC
picturo sbc was covering thon lrj-th her hnndst. He at1d,od.:
f
this is ny
prote st against the arbificial. r:rid. hJtpo criti c.r1 attittld.e which is so
prcvalent in our society, particularly in the clurrch, toucrds sexf .Mr
DooL sei] that thc pecple of thc vill,rge of Hin&Ley near Tfigcn in
Ie.ncash:ire whcrc he-prcached nostly approvod of l:j-s stand', although there
had. bcen scgre criti"i"o. ThCI prusiclspt of the Cll:rch Council
had. warnec'.
hjn to
t
be rathcr carof\1lr. At ther school vihich hi-s elevon-5roar-o1d.
son attondod., tho pui:iIs had" grootec). the boy with cheors.
rI
inagine they
thought it l?as a blow for }ibc,rtyr, saicl lr{r DoeL
224.
(
"
)
hespjuLb_.
P_o]{csqo
qqg
New York
(,lt:ne 14)
: A wonen who clained, shc rlas forced. to to.ko
natornit3r leav'e af,tor boconjng pregnnnt on po}lco dopartnmt ortlors
suod. ttre Now York City tod.ay for
5r0ffi
doll.ars, the irssociatod. Press
roported.. Th(i nona^Ir, ldrs Jolranna
(r*lpeat Jolrenna)
tetrin
2
35t
tokl. tho
Brook\m Ci\xi-l Court sho lost tho
J'OOO
rlolJ.ers ir salery. ltrs Lsvin
saLcl sho becono prognent u[cl"-r ofTLcial Po]ico Departnent orclors antl
rtas takon fron tbo r:nifonnocl rolJ.s ch:ring six nonths of hor
Frognenoy.
Sho saidl she waa injurod in cn accirlont irt 19fi whilo assignad. to a
wononl s prlson. Af,tor tho accident she sufferoil contfuiuous
pa5.ns Ln hc,r
neok, hsad and. l-eft &rno
She sai(1, that treatnonts by various dootors
failod. to oasc tho patn and sh'a sought ttro advJ.ce of
trnLice
d.epartnont
surgoofft. Sho sal.d tlrreo poli.co surgeons told her prognancy rri6ht havo
a thorapeutlc effoct anui ease }ror pains. Shoruy e.ftortrsucls sho bocanc
pregrrant and boro her husband. e sorl flhile
lnegnont,
hovever, sho vas
forced. tn leave the ci.opa,rtnent payrolt und.er pollce regul,r.tions.hrr5ng
tho loycflf
r
she said, she lost
$Jr018,02
ln salaly.
(.\
$
\
t
u
\
\
6.
HULTTPLE
':l-t4o oa,2g
-:
gfot'f
-i
5-.4
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7.
22+
l.
Sacc/RtrY
h/,;,FlaE
Blade
Damages-
Brcadeaiting
Recor4
l,ihrarY
. Flremen
had
to clornbor
'rf,iourn
recond'rtoreY
n'lndqYa
uia uio bolt cuttan
to Fct
to th9
I* Jir-nrc
in thc Ncw Zoelatd
frooA"arttng
Scrt'lcc';
bulldltU
rtlcrnoon
iifti;l:6#$"b#i*:'tr
r
tf t
.
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r' ! lii,lt3t*f;
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frIn'ilil
ifriil'i'tiii
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lrrc
mcr9w-l$lc
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the r.ccord llbn-r7,
ocr
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t 6. {0p-m
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#*ir#'d'-r"rl*fl
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bcadQuartcrr.
-Eii--nrc'nen
ware ipiured..
to
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ilil'':l$-.'f.m,
" ti'
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itnrcr
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gESSB
x
BIBIJOGBIPHT
Ihe foJJowing l-s a biographlcal list of perio&lca,l
articlesrbooks
and panphlets
cmta5ning naterlal ussf\rl for the sturJy of the New
Zealand nass neilia s;rsten.l.{ost of tho references are of Anerican ori6in,,
Thls
is beczuso alnost all tlre serious acad.enic researcb il ttre press
and. tJ:e nass neclia general.ly has beon a:rrried. out iJr tlre Urultecl States,
oi-ttrer in ind.ustry or iJr ttro
journalisn
schools and. research organisatar l:
at the raajor univorsities. Consequently the nost inlnrtcnt sources for
reports cf relevarrt reseB,rch pro jo
cts arrd. rl.:is ctrssions
about resea,rch
nethorlolog and, the problerrs of nodla organisatlon, responslbilit1r
and
control are irr such publications as
fher
RrLll_c_Qglglilogr_Sggqt4ls&, and
fne__*
.idost
of the itens Ested. here are derived fro=
tlreso two
Jcurrrals,
but a nunber of other less
ini:ortant
souroes
(incUa:ng
sone EuropeanrBritish, New
Zealand. ana Austraf ian ones
)
have been drawrr upon. /,' varietSr of other reference lnrks have also been
listed in the section d.e,a].ing rvith bibliographic stud,'ies,
1. AIDT}rt{Cri RBSE/JLCiI
Philip Anast,
rAttifu(lc
Toirards the Press as a Ftrnction of Interestet,
torrqng].lF.r:.g.
,
fr:JrSunner
1961
t
176-380.
ffiiFni.iril} Detenaiixants of l,tais irledla heferenccs'
Jougg$-s11
9.
,
[J
:[riii.nter
1966
2729-738,
Bernard. Berelson,
tl'ftriFf
iirg Ttte Nerrsiiaper l,{eanst, ix il.Sctrronn,
Ibu-
&pgo
qs
anQ.-
We
c!e-o{
l{epp-
Co4
4unic;t-t-i.ol1 rUrbane
'E{i;i6:if,
G@'
Stanley K. Bi6pan
rRrbLic,
Reactions to the Death
J2
:
Jrsunner
1955
,
267-276,
of a Datlyt
r@gl+_.Pp-
Ioo Bogart,
tChgSArItJr.
N.e-rrs_
In!_efee_Ls_
ui,th
{eiqs__{e_d"iar , _$fr_Ogigi_g11:9.,
-
-
jz
:
+,1r-ii'fe,iilffi-
69
r'
i6!*ii i.
Janos E.BrintonrCh:ilton R. Bush ancl Thonas Il{, Nowerlr!_1to-I-e_Epgp_sg...gpg-]-t-.',
Rrblip
rlnstitute
for Connunications
Research,
et-
Departncnt of Comruni-cations and. Journalis:.rrStanfori
Urriversi t;r
(
undat eci) .
Rj.chard ii, Bud.CirMalcoln S. Mclean Jr. and.. /.rthur M.DarnosrlRegularities
in ttro Diffusion
r:f
Two Nows Events'rJ_o-r@$",
43
z?rsur.rrer
1
966
1221
-23o,
Chilton R. Bush,
rNotos
on a Nor,r Method. for
Deternrln:lng Newspaper Atr&iencc"'
Jouglli*sgg.
,
1)
zlarDacenber
19IC
J7t-37+.
t$ft-llotoiln
Tschnigues in ReadBr
Intorest Srrweyr?
,
{g1]Ill-*_li*sjl*9,
,
19
zZ, June
19tC, 197194.
:t
226.
Roy E. Carter Jr. an'J. Pcter ClarkertsuLrurbanj-tesrCity
Resit,ents
and. Locai
Neivsr
, {-oirgaa-1ipJ:'.
g.,
4O:[rAutr:nn
1963fLB-558.
Loy E. Cirrtsr Jr. and
p.G.'ICT"";
iifi
'frp;rir.rental-
SturJy of fwo
MetboCs
'-;
'
Gatheri.n6 Newspaper Readprship Datar
r
J-ogry*-1F-,-;..
r
I+521, Spring
1968, 118-122.
Largence K.li.Chang arrd.
Janes
B. Lenert,
tThe
Invigible Neirsn;n and- Othu-r
Factors i-re MeSa Conpetitiont
r[og55r-o.1is-r$.
,
4523,
Autunn
1968
t
l+36-llt4.
.Llex S, EcLelstein and. Joseph J. Contris,
tTb
Rrblic Vieu of the lToekly
t'Tevstrnpcrt s Lead.ership Rolor
, &tlg"r-f-+p*i 9.
r
43t1 ,
Spring
1966
,
17-24.
Sidney S. Gol-*ish,
tHoir
E&itors Uso Rescarch on thc liir,:reapolis Dai}lcs
I
,
Jo,HplFg-9
"
,
37
23, Sucraer
1960
t3f5'372,
Bradloy S. Grec.nberg,'frEffity fuess os
Perceived by its E&itors
ancl
Reaclerst
r JggL?-{gL$.,
[1
:JrSur.uier
1964r1+37-J+[0"
Jack B. Hoski.:ese
rPrc-Tosting
Editorial Itens c.nd. Icleras for Reader
Interesi
t
,
,ro.!ryrqr-ii{L
13. ,
37
:2, Spring
196o
}zL-23Q,
Hanroy K. Jacobson,
rlllass
l,Iodia .BeEiri.tlffi3A
Sf,uqy of Rcrccivor JudS:':c:,';
Journa'riqli-p4
,
)+6t'1
I
spling
1262, zC"lz3.
ilobeyb Lr Jonos ead, Leo*It6; A. IiaTAEi
tmetftodological
Inprovenents
in
Readersluip Data Gatherirlgr
r J99-r.p*g]-i.gg..'
3O:3,
Suirmer
1953,
J45-553.
Jack Lyle,
rsonantic
Djff erential
Scales for i"uclience Researchr,
[o-r]fq,alis:.-
9.
, 37
t4r Autr:nn
196o
r.
559-562.
Malcol13 S, Maclean Jr.,
tsone
Multivariato
Desins
for Co.r.:i-runications
Resear cht,
-Jgggli--stl.
Q.,
LQ 24, -{-uti-lmn
.1965,
61 l|-6?L
Ralph O. Naf zigerrl.{alcoln tviacl,ean ,Ir.
,
Ancl \Tarren Fngstronn,
tUsef\rl
Tools
-
for Interpretir6 lrlevrsp,apor Reariership Datar
r
'
'
.{ggg-+J-ijqt--9'
,
21 zt+rFa11
1951
,Mj-tr56r
Tiilbur Sctrrami ena ;,TorriC"td"G;
iff,e
\,'eekly I'ierrspaper ancl its Readers'
Journ-r1^isn,-Q..
,
27 23, Surr,rer
1951,JO1-r14
.
'iTilbur Schramn
tThe
llm;'oi-ii;*i, Jq"-4trg}*g*"*g,
r?6tj ,
June
1949,
259-269,
'.Ji1bur
Schrann anrL Davi(1. ld. i,bite,
t/erEfucaticnrEeononic
Statrrs:Factors
in Nelrspaper RoacLlngr
,
Jo-qr-+-+1.1-sA,g.
r
26z2rJr:ne
191::)
,
149-159,
Grrieo Ii. Stenpel III,
r/,
Factor /.na\rtic StuCy of Read.cr T-nterest
in
Nerrst
, @.
r
hLz?rsunnor
1967
J26-330.-
Charlas E. Srvanson,
t'rr1-rat
tlrey'neaA in-T:o DaSJy Newspairersr
r
4oJls}!g.i
Vcrling C. Troklahl,
Cliff ord. F.
'fieiglcrt
Bnr oe H. lTes tley cn a
Bnrcc H. l?cstley and.
Bnrco .H. I'Testl.oy and.
32
z1
,
FalJ-
1955
t
411 -tt21
.
tstudies
cf Consunption
of Mass irleclia Con'bentr
t
.Touin-alisq
,$.e
IPz;t Autrrnn
1965t
5964O5.
tfrr-.o:f?ffios
f or Suzveying Newspapor Roadorship
.Conpcrodt r ,Journslirqg
lq. r
1822,
jutro
191+1
,153-157,
Lionel C. nffiEiTrl;-Td
rnveitl6ation of News-
Seeking Behaviour'
r &ggg!!qg$. r
56
:4rFo11-
1959
t
431+38,
l,[ervin D' LSmchr
tlvlultiple
Factor l^nolysis of
Dichotomous Aurlionce Datar,
loytqgl*rytj.
2
39'.3t
Sur:er
1962
,
169-372.
lTerne.r J. Severj.:r
,
t
A profile of thc Dai$r Nerrspqper
Non-Readert
,
--J-9gtqg}i-glQ.,
41
21, Sumter
1964t
567-
371+.
227
"
ph:ir
iF C. Vfcror\ratt,
t/r
Test Conparison
of Two
Tectrniques
jlr
R.eadership
ResoarcLt
, Sl+g]itg-$.
,
1)'.2, June
19lC
t
1??:192
'
-
tOur
Datly hossr,
j5
Cons"q.'I_lISr-the
Consuner CouncilrllellSngton,
l,{arch
E{e
,'i7;
2
^
BIBIJOGB/'PHIC
SIUDII]S
E. Blun,
[oggpls.lSi-o4L_ir-q.t.e..L?.1.,f-.
.u.'F...
ultiy.qq*sit-is.q-i-
*-].i;1e-c*t1tge
Ill-iuois
1)6r,
Bgt slieqtq.g. .npg-Ee-
gg.k-J''lE:q
hie'liP-'
rrli::ois
1962'
D. Brown,
rRad.io
ana 6liv"i?iiii:-
iilrtiiloTr1i-c.
B{bli;siitprrvt
rJ-c!rrr4i*sg-,9.,
34t3,
Stuner
1951
,
378485"
B.Colo ancl A. I{lose,
ii.
S*lucterL Biblicgrtpt{y
on tho I{istory of
ero a,,Loast5.nsr,
ggg*.9i.]"^fgl9g9-"gt-t:*g,
7,
1953,
247-268,
.fr-lex S. EdelstoinrrBibliop3ropl1f
cf Resoarch on tlro Nowspaper
tr-oporter
in
rf.osearslr
Journalsr
,
in PglEEgcj+-Y-q.u-
-oJr-J4%sE
9og:gp-t3-iSg,
Copenhagen
1966, 66-6U.
F. Fearing zurd. G. RoColT
S;i;fficl ond. Annotated
BiLLiogreplry
in
Connun:icati'cns
Rasc;archr
r Sq
p."gf}-of]U.
."1 I.r]gJ-
Eg+S- .s-'i
-T-"-1p-G.lg"',
. .6'
1
9 51'
2B3F31
5'
Donal& A.
Ilanson an4 J. iier'i?iiC
p"r-t--rii''
-gfu--CiJg135t-i-q-+!i-oJt-:-A-Bggr-qfg$'
BreJ#,r151gbf,,
BcrkcleY'
1968
.
l{i^njfre6 B. Lergr
rA
DE|-cfraffi'rnan Boolci-on idass Connunicationf ,
Jqii#j+.1fg-9'
,
t+Oz3t Surrror
1963,
154-J61
'
Ralph E. McCoy,
Ery-qqg!3--tid.FF"S-"--lf'-;-*g"-t*.teQ-P:$Li-oeq+p*ry,'I11inoie
1968.
R. Meyer sohn, T-glsgle se{''-ggSggSh
i-- 4rl-Atggig&-q -9i]l+ospp]x,
C olr-rnbia
195]+.
T'I. Potcrson,
gegqp*e.*igtltr|plr]+.cg-t-iplS-
*tr$.
p.g."*"3.:+i9A
:+- -t!'-e--Ug-es'
--'r're,aia
or Coin!flqirjtgb,
Iona
1965,
li.Price,ryJ:i&r"$af"--"f.&!-*'fl$*-q:ff4{u'."-tPr-tsg..e}!}+psry!bv'
]ijrrne soto
1959
"
Ikthryn X.onnie,
[*,]'-3-gq]yp$
-.Ig4:-n-Lii:,-sgr-.
^
:S.9]9
gtive
Bibli-o41p"pJgr
Tie11 in6 t on r'iirrilrf' s tffi--_Lf968
-G'ni;tfrEsh-e
d n
"
s
victoria u'ive::sily
of 1{e11in6;ton
r:-brary)
G.H. s cholefie
1d.,
aJpgq"-qgFg+jg.e-
.qt ilpn-3^err3l},1^-tL?-HlPP-u-Ip-.-Elugoggti
---fi'-Fdf'Tic-.I,
f-*f i"e*-Ei!!3!-s.-q'f -!c-e-s*e;tJ'r
6?otfr;itTE;[er'l;e1]
: net on
1
9 38
"
L. iTolseley,
I!g-{uulq4ig.tlS--4o*o-r.fb-oll,
Nor'r York
1961
'
T. Yananoto,
tA
List of-frbfiJ-and
TttTd|o"
on Journag'sn
Hrl;1ishc6'
ln
-
Japanr,
.Q.qa"i-!g,
4,
1958,
197-198'
-_
J-W-Li-sAi.,
eArticieiio"*n'ii""
do,.*,,ttications
irl U'S'
ancl
ForeignJournals|,vols4o."i5;'rir!'ic]osonMass
Cor:ngnic*tion
in triea3azi-Ires
of the U.So
r
r
voI 59i
tArticlcgonMassCorurunicationjnAnoricart
Magazines
t
,
vols 2g-31t
I
Pross
and' Cor:nunicetions
:
An Anno'batod Bibliogralt\y
of Jor.irnalisn
Suhiects
an
Anerican
1la,gazino s
t
I
'tto
fl
7-2Bi
forei5n
articlo s
provious$isto d. und,cr
t
A Sefo cierl
Bib1iograpL5r-
{t''tt
Foreign Journaist
,
rrols 26-3gi
tA
Selectod
Bibliog-
raphv fron
British Jougra-lst
,
v61s
12-25;:A-
Soi"l 'r-l
-ii.u1i
r6r."-yl.iy r'rorn Eurni-ieon
Journals
r
,
voLs
3U32,
228.
BROJOC/"STING
B1nn1or,
rPcrlianent
,:nd
Politic:rl TVt
,
Sggo-Wt-t-qq,
Z9:]rMarcb
1967
,
3.
J:y
52-56.
R.S.C1ark,
tBro;:d.cestin5
cnd. Priwte Entt'rprise,r
, LhSr Jle-li*Z-g"1cnd-
Journal
r .
c.c ns (
".,
; ;;;;fl^+fu'm*g-g#-+g#;
ai
;3;fl::i-ff;,'
R. C or,se,
-
--Ilii
su pC"*g"ee-t+g-..J_A-q"gil_l,l.qppgo.Ur
London
1
95o.
T.S. Duclcrarrtonr*T?15-o--/,us-tnar-iC
dto*a""tT:rre. c;*ttss:rgnf
r-
-Iubltc
Adn+*i,*-4:Sg,
25 ?4, Do cenber
1956
r26fr{6:
I{. FeILous
,
I
Free aon*o?-ffif,iJsffi- on the lUr.
t
'
.qhg- .4pIri+.s-.qf - 9_Lq-*9i-:*.9S:
of Antir.ic:n Po1:itic.r,l
-an-d
S-o-oief
-Sc-i-on-cgt
3@t
1955,
1y19.
Robert Fraser,
rIncle,lrencl'.ent
television in
Brd-tuinr
r B{l
li c
&4p-!risltt+!lo.t=,
36,
Sunner
1958, 11Y121+.
R. Go1dnran,
tcongrss
crt tho Ajrl
,
EELr- 9g1-ioA9.
r
'i[:larYfinter 1951
t
7l+452'.
Ha^rnarr Gr{-scvood.,
tThe
BBC and. Po]-iticcl
lLoadca,sti:r j-n
Britainl
r_
Pg- r
1511, Tlintor
tg6242t
W5:
-
John S. Hamis,
ttotiTGi"n
"; "
-podti.o"r
Issuo in Britainr
r P-E-
qgp43-1t
sl-ry-{- .o-{ F.c-o-n-ogi. 5;p-
ga=Eq}i3i-q1.
.E
ci.q5r-qgr 21 z
J,
{*gt
"t
1955,
528-338.
R.J. Harison,
tTho
boaacasting Corinra.ti.on
Aotr
r sp,-{fqll
,
1622, Jr-rno
1962, 18F18J,
T[. HuIL,
f
Thc fultic Conirol cf lir:ooa"tstilg:
The
CaneiLlan end. Australiln
bcpc, ricncos
l,
TIrc
Canod-ian-
-Journal
of Econonics
cncL
P o lit i er.l s
"i=.,b?il
2',Tr-r?u ti,n'
"i
T
i
62
;
T t-f:fz {.
Ian
Jac ob s,
r
Tolevi"6ii
-fr*
ltr:c- fri!-:r"
-
sorvico
t,
Sllri*e-rists-tl*-sg*Bqg,
36,
lfiltcr
1958
,
311-318.
J.S.lrl.E.
r
tHeroos
snfl V{11aLns: the N.Z.B.C.
t
,
!Sg""-!'trB:1,
Dooenber
19561 8-10.
Dorur5.s T, Lowry,
tBroad.""rtingt
"
ilxpandi.ng Socicl Rolo ln MerLcot
r{,Ltt$j}ii*
0.,
4622-,
su:nor
1969,
J32436.
Coopor Marstroll,
?
Bril.Oces ting and
Tel;"il i6nt
,
-
itt A.H. McI,fuitoc{
-(
ed-
) ,
'
4g'$rg,"l6lgjJg-9t$r
z-og$*,ri?e].ltu5ton
1966'
2474fr.
I. McKay,
F-rgqlc-qp-L$gjg llg-?Sg]-.:*r9'rfellinston
1953.
R
'
g
r,orcr ttomanuFo-o?r-
ffiiffi-"f-'*.i-
FFq
t
r-9?Iry-o-re.,
th" "ri tish
Brocd.cast5-ng Gorporctionr
1)b).
B. Olr.lonojr,
rp&ltorial p1.actlcos
ir 1O7 Mirlwest ka,C.io Stationst,
J-oqrggligg-.,1}.
, 41:3,
Autunn
1965
|
5??'
Tc,renoe H.
Qualtor,
i-ri-iItilc"
-fra
Brcad.cestias:Case
Sturlics
of Polit"Lcal
Interference
jn
Netional Srocdocstirg
Systensl,
8l}g
Cc^nad.l,rnJotgnqlof E-c9rypjlsas.-:p*t"P-o-1ltjgpLF-c-l9p-gt
ffi;fw;EffiF*-
Ccl}i'rrSo3rnorrr-{Irc,lPer3J-anentaryPrivi1egoarrc}BroarJ.oasti.rrgl1M
-
AffS*g.,
16:1, AnArotn
1963,
411+18.
A.Sne.re,
t1h
Derrclop"un*-End hoblons
of Australi-a"n
Broedolstin6l
,
k.
- Jor:rnal ofrBroar).casting, 7,
1962, ZJ-J)1,
aLox Toogood.,
tHon
rm'ffi;e*;t-ffid.i
; &'o^c1c'sti.r:g
cortrnration?
t
'
&ggq-l+-qn.9',
46z1rspr5n-s
t959
t
105-113'
Ebe rhard Goorgo lTedd.o I1'"
EgI-GL+A elb3&]i-g--Fp&v,
lond'on
1
968'
229.
E.
-till,llis,
rsound.
Broad.casting i'r: Breat Britalnr
r Ilrp-
_qp-sti=rrg rB,
19&
t
fu1-349
t
r'--
t
$if.l,+g}.*Qbrle-ot-iv.os- .qf, N..3...9-e9-1-Hggryg1+{t6,
Thc New Zoal,end.
tsroCacCsdi:r6 b;rporat-iott, tfeltugtonq
1969;
'
'
.
'
---
&qg^f5g$-f-og ${v-e-rti.s-ig6_lliqt-oligg,
Tho Novi ZoalonrL Brocdcasting
Corporation, lTeJ-lilgt on 1968,
Journol of Broad.-
Lond,on
191+7.
5
z3
,
April-l{ay

rRadio
aniL Television Broarlcastingt . iJr The Neu Zoaland.
Year'!-p-oJ
,
wo1llrtton
tg?Ff,
i{A
Off icial
lr-, TIIE CO}iI'IIOL /X[D FISPOilISIEIIflIY 0F TTIE IvIASS MEDIA
B. Abu-Labanr
rFactors
i.n Social Control of the Press in tho Lebanonr,
Js-urpg+itp^
9-, r||:JrAutur:n
1966,
510-51
8.
lTlJ.lLoln [f. AIfieId, fr-"1,r-i---'Get*"ixg *tA tfre Riht to fravol Abroad.t
,
@gq3l-1;5g=1f,.,
36:4,
Fa}J,
1959,
Q345Q.
L, Banks,
rThe
Rolo of-Mor;on-J-ournallsn
j-:e
the Death of Joseirh Snitht,
lorUp-qB.pq-9. ,
2723, Sunner
1950, 268-281 .
E&ward L. Bernays,
rTFri-on
p-olTrar
Responsibility
of the i,nerican Presst,
-J-qrryLigp.
R.,
22 zi, Sc'ptonber
1945
t
255-262.
flamen Breed.,
tsociaffioJrTiof
in ttre Neisroont, Sooial Forcelr
3324,
May
1955,
326435.
W. C anros e,
hljlej.-Ngr?.sp^aAers*-q1c-.
t[e-i1-c.o-n!.r9.1]glg.'
Lr. Clevebd,
tHor','Fnee j-s
ttre N.Z. hess?t,
Q.pgp."pj,t
196tF,
36-trz.
John C oatnan,
I
The BEC
,
Govornnent and Po liti cs
I
r $4b^.. !p*g1t-ogt^ 9.
,
Surrrer
1951
,
287-298.
J;,.rre s D. Halloran, Control or C onsent? Lonrlon
1965.
H.
.llirl*is anrl P.
'ioip;
^iT#
rrliilHirrri" Behavi.our anrl. Rrbu.c opiniont
,
Brb--.--9;Ei+lo;:. -$.,
1 2 #r Strn;ru'r
1
948,
22C-l226.
J, Danio]. Hr-lss,
rAn
i"-q"fufEito'Tho Mccr.nin5 of
"Soclla].
Rosponsibi-HtJrtrf
t
Jquqngl.iisn
9.,
4322,
Su.nnerr
1966
e
325-327.
Ruth A. Ing1is,
ttlccE?cl"-fo-firn-{ary
Solf-Rogulation,
i
e 4II}-A+g,
Zfut 1947
,
155-159.
Thclna H. Ivlc0ornack,
f
CanaAats Roy+l Co:.t:ission
on Broir(loastjr6t,
&.
Qgi.r{gr-g.r
2321, Sprilg
1959,
)2-1CfJ.
G. Netthoin,
tHrblic
nrosac?Fting and Govornnontt
r
Sq.-4pp-ti:"ll*.+3Lql3gq1;,
35:1 ,
1963,
36-tP.
C. Recklick, ghl-&gr-pf-j-rrp"$g".r.-Sp9ig-:+-*E-o-q*+-t3.e-So."lS-ty,
Toxas 1961 ,
Herbort I. SchIl-l-er, Ma-ss
_Cor.u,unigations
and Anc:iqrn
SiZ!ry.r
Ns'r-t York
'fi6i: 's2:-
Trj-lbnr Schrana,
b-ryglu_irli$f
"+{}--I{gtr-
Cgrrr:.rg{-c-a;!4i-o-*F.
e
Nei; York 1957.
P. Tosauro,
rLe
Oi"oipUriC d;1f.^r n"eio; dcffa Televisiono no3-lrord.inanonto
degli Stati Uni o del Ca,nadar,
B5ggqJ$'t**gg-g+
S,rP-riga
,
16, 196t
,
61-729.
L.C. lTebb,
tlhe
Social Controf of Tclevisiont,
B&ftc*"4-d5gip:.-s.try.3"rpg
,
19
z3
t
$r'ptonber 1960, 193-214.
J.R. f{tggons,
lThe
Polrer and. Responsiblllty of the hessf
,
#tlr-ng,1i:sqg.
t
1721,
lTinter
196Ot 29-34.
F. lTLllions,
tessrPa{+gptrgJlj. -afi-a-
P--e-op^.1:6r London
1946,
r-
&91grt-
gm--":B9j*l]lesi-ffi-g
-op--!iru- ^Bee.g-l
2Ll*2.,
london
1949,
1J22,
210,
5.
.c_qFslg 4lALtrIs.
Arthur M. Barnes and PauI I, Iyness,
rHow
the Tflre' Services Rerportect the
Rutlefue tr{u:i.d.cr Trial: A Stucly ln faster,
.&g4qq1.i..tg
9. ,
27 22, Slrr!-ng 1951
,
161-178.
Chiltcn R. Bush,
tThe
Lraa$rsis of Political canpolgn Newst
rJor:rn-r1Ls.q
8..,
27:2, Spring 1951
,
250-252.
fA
Systen of Categories for Gerr,ertrl News Contentt,
&ttp.q:+.sAg. ,
3722,
spnrg 1960, 206-210.
lContcnt
c'nd
lrlriise
on Voleur" 3 Attention as .Affectl
,
Journali.srr
9.
,
Su.mrac.r
1960, l+35+37
.
Chilton R. Bush ana ffi?-r:1-k--'gullf ockr
tNane"
i" the News: /r Stnc)f, of
Two Doilies
|
, J-":+frgl+9ry- 9.
,
29
z2rSprin6
1952
,
1l4E-1
57 .
irorren Breed.,
tAnr\rs5.:rg
l{ews: Sone
Questions
for Researchl
, [o-qsgligr?.9.,
33
24, riutr.mn 1956,
L57-477.
Rlchrad ii. Bud-d,
rU.S.
News in
'i;Le
hess Down Unc.ert,
$r!.....o,p-i;{o-n 9.,
2821,
Sprin,5 196L,
3y56.
iticharcl If. Bu&l, Robert K. Thorp end. lorils Donohuei, Co.p.tpA!*1n-q]ysis-.o
9ongrylti"S.tto-ry-,
Now York, 1957
.
Roy E. Carter Jr.e and'. Roborb L. Jonos,
tsono
Proce,durcrs
for Estir:ating
Nenr Holo i,' conte''nt ilnal;'sisr
, &p-.-
-Op.j4gi_og
$.,
25tjt FaIL 't959t
j9g4Oj.
Ra-lph D. Casey anc Thonc"s H. Copeland. Jr.
e
rUso
of Forerign lrlews by 19
Iviin11osota Dei.iliost
r
Jotlgr3}!.s-q$.,
3521,
tr?inter
1958, B79.
L. CJ-eve1arrd.,
lHo'';r
Inpa::tial
ls tJr N.z. hess?t
*ggr:gsp! I
621
,
0ctober-
Nover:ber 1961+, 14-18.
I{. Coates and
S.Mu1kJr,
.!,
StuCy in Nor.rspapelr Sanplingt,
S-.*_OJA+Lo_JLe.,
1423,
FaIL 1950,
Dii-546.
Scott lvl. Cutltp,
fContent
anii FLo',r of /,? Nervs fron Trunk to ttS to Reed.erf
[941n-a-1is11
g.
, J1
:tep FaIL 1954t
4],44tr5.
lfcgrne DanLelson,
l0ontent
/,rulysis irr Connunication ilasearcht, l-n Ralph
O. Naf ziger and
D.ili. Ilhite (
ods,
) r
Igtgo{"ction
t_o
wa3me D anr.o ls o n anc ffst'il'3Hffit#'ft
'$j;ttffi#;":*l-Tlr",tl*il
Content 4iu3ysi"t
,
do,fi11la.}igg,g,., l&21, Tlinter
1965,
1 OB-1 1
O.
F.J. Davis and. L.lT. Turnerr
tsanple
E*ficiency in
QuantLtative
Newspaper
Content Analysi"t
,
&L:--@!gi*o.n_9.,
15:l+t FaIL 1951
,
762463.
llelvln I,. DeFler.rr,
f
Occnrpational Rolos as Portreyed. on Telavisionr,
&!.
paul
r. Deuts clmann,
ffiH-1r-3i!z"o:3ffifiriis-ifi.]!",
l,,"inan 1
s5e .
Chsrles
T. Drrncan,
ittiri^fri"
TilAk$-Fdd;cover;-Tl;?s- ofrl,ocal Goverrnnent;,
JournalgglQ,r 29t3, Sunnerr
19521 283-293.
J.S. Foster and. C,J.-F-rle-el"$n;''-tietters to the EcLj-tor a*s a }Ieans of
Ideasuring the Eflfectivoness of Propagand.rrt,
Sgggt"sq
Poll.ticaf
_S_cienqg_-S:i-eg
t
31
z1
,
FebnrarXr 1gl7
r-fi49,
George Gerbnor,
ton
FoiiFi*-"t'i"irilF$-ila^e'rliical
Rosearch in ltass
Connunicationsrr4gqi_q--Ji,g-g_ql_C-o_r:n11gicat-io:rteview,
6 z3
t
Sprin6 1958r
85----1-6-
-- -
David. Gold
Franklin T.
231,
Tlalter Gieber,
tDo
Newspapers OvorpJ.ey
I'Negativen
Nows?t
@rg.liug$*t
32
t3, Sumtor
1955
, 311-318,
cnd. Jerey L. Silrnons,
rNews
Sele ction Patterns Anong lowo.
Deili.ost,
Flu-.--gplglqll*9.
i923,
FaIL
1965t
h25-t$o.
Gosse'r ond. Jeroner EnGon,
-iNon-Fiction
Me,gczino /.rticIes:
A
content analysis studyt,
Jg]llJF+Llgg.r
3621e
WSnter
1959
t
ZJ-J)a.
R.J. Orqm,
tPolltical
Dlisent and thc Free Mecket Place of ltleas: An Eibt
Nation Studyt
,
ggrgltg
,
12
,
1966, 187-2Cf,.,
TIiJ-Liam A Hachten,
tThe
Changin6 U.S. Sund.ay Newspaperf
r @g9]S,g3.,
fr23,
Suronor
1961
,
281-288,
Jlxr
-4,,
Hart, The Flow of International Nelrs
jnto
Ohior,
@r;1r*q}fg-$.,
3Bl\ ,
inrtr.rrur 196t
r
fu1-fu3.
tThe
Floir of News Betvreen the United States and Canad.gf
,
Jo-u4gq$s-q
9.
,
lro: 1
,
W5nter
1963
t
7b74,
Eoffi6'N;;"
j-n
U.S. a.nd. Englistr D9JIJ Newspolnrs .
A Conparisont,
&gg4-tqg3.
t
432J,
Autunn
1966t t*1-4]+3'
Hcnno Hard.t and Michcel Yfhlte,
fFront
Page News Sinllarities in AII and. H"i
../
Papers
|
, Jg*+gqg$g-$.
,
4323,
Autunn 1966
t
5?'531+.
Jack B. Haskins,
lHeailljss-3nfl-lsae
Ecaming vs Wlrole-Iten-Re;id.ing
in
Neusprpor Content
r'rnalysis
r,
fogg1t11!5lt,
3..,
43
t2,
Sumner 1966,
3jj-335.
Paul- R. Hoopes,
tContent
,",na1ysis of News in Three ltrgentine Dall:iesr,
Jo,rg$gg$.,
4323,
Autunn
1966,
534-537.
Coorge .1r.. Van Horn, G;1;41;?? Lp Nevrs on Trrrnk and Tflsconsin State lTirest,
f,quq3*];u3g$.,
2924, Fa11
1952, tP6+32.
Brrrton L, Hotaling, ffi"*Effios in
Qurtntltative
lvleasurement of News-
papc.rsr, Jqfffr-qlt*l--Q..,
1822, Suraner
lg\1
,
164-169.
r.L. Janis,
tTb
neuntility ffi AneJysis Techn:iquer, Rr-b.opi'Ili[rr
Q..'
7
22, Sur:ner
1943, 296-295.
Roberb L. Jones, Verl.lrrg C. Trol-d.ahl. and J.I(. Hvlstend.ablr
rNsws
Selection
Patterns fron a
State
TIS 1'lire
t,
-LoggUFg-9.,
2813,
Surlnor
1961
t
-fr3-312.
Jacques Kayser,
9g-treSE1ell-9,,
unesco, Parls
1952.
Itartin rriesuerg@ix
ttre Now York Tinest,
$p=.-9!i!*gL$.
t
l}z;t
'frinter
1946,
5l+0-56+.
H.D. LassweJ.l,
tthe
Folitically Significnnt Content of the hess: Cocling
Procedurest,
@.,
1921, illarch 191P, 12'24.
Ibrahin Abu-Lughodr
tlnternationaf
Nerrs i.rr the Arabio Press: A Conporativc,
Content Analysis?,
Eb._.
Opl+ggq$.,
26ztn Tfi.roter
1962,
6cr,4t2.
Marvin D. Iynch arrd. Attiya Eff en,Lit
NerI_ I.orLkrt
I
Eclit orial Treatnent of InrilLa in
Journalisn
&r
t+1z3eSu.mter
1964t
\.v.
N. Maocobye F.0. Sa6bir end B. Cushing,
rMethod
for the Analysis of tlre
News Covere6e of Ind.ustrSrt
, $g.-:9-Pi9ilIL3.
r
1l+gl+t
lTlnter 1950t
75Y758.
Janes 1T. Marlclra.m,
lForoign
l{ews i-n the U.S. rxrd South Anerican_ ftessr
r
-
BL*-9&iItjlo-tt*,1[.,
2522, Sumtor
1961
t
2l+9'262.
HenrXr Mayer, Peter toveilay arra Peter Tfesterwily,
llmages
of Politlos:
An
Anarysis of' Letters to the Press on the Ricludson
Reportrt
LhgArag-Uqlirqn-.Ipqq1qll-ollg1.:itios-a4d-ltle-t1olry,16z2,
r"vffiFTg6ri-ii*Tta*
445-'4s'
Ttlq
I+3v
232,
Robert Edwsrd. Iliitchell,
rThs
Use of Content
/\nal.ysis for Exp1algtory
Stu,J.:ies
t
, BlL,--Qgil+-o-T3.
,
J1
t2, Sunner
1967
2,23b?+1
,
'tr'.L.
Ii{ott,
fTronds
in NevsrropeF-c-frG-ffi;Egb.t
219, 191C, 6M5.
Ui
r r
:nn
g.
S cott
,
f
ReliaUilib
of Content
l''nclyFis :Tho Case of Noninol
Scale Codin6;tr
-Eg.b--9g]Jlr-op-9.,
19t3, Fa11
1955t
321-.
325.
Ra;mond. F. SxrithrrOn the Stnrctrrrc' cf Forerign Norsr A Conparison
of
lhg
Ue:i*ygfp-+g*:,
nncL the Indian Yftuite Papersf
,
"t"ttnffi-
of Pei.clR-epg1ry[,
121
,
1969
t
2736.
Pau]. B. Snider,
tThem-"?
ft'6;-tione.1 llews to the Pnoss of
Itfghcriiistan through Baklrtar, the Afgban News Agency:
lr. f,Loir Stud,yt,
Eq-e.!tg,
1t*, 1968
t
37-53.
Guido H. Stenpel III,
rsanplo
Size for Classifying Subject Matter in
Daille s
r,
-J_ol]rnalEqQ,,
29 22, Strrtrror'
1
gfr
Q37334.
r
lncroasirlg RGliabififf in Content An.l$'stsr
r
JopISgHp.i:
9",
3224r
Fal] 1955t t+49+55.
tUniforrnity
of ?i.rc Content of Sjrc llichigan DaiJiesf
,
Journal-i-sn
$.,
36:1,
lT5.nter
19591
{4-{8.
Tfrtent
piTtenns
of SnaIL ana Uetropolltan DaiJ.iest,
J_oraa}tflLg., 3921,
Ifiater 1962, 8B-9O'
iEitlli6-wlf"!*rc
Use the Associated hess Aftenroon
A'rT5retp
Jg--qg!!gg.1}.
,
41
z3t Sunner
196lrt
58o-ry4"
Bernard Stern,
rHow
Local eovernnenU llewE is Handlod by Ttrree Dalliesf
,
lo:g:g*Liq93.,
2722, sprirg
195ot 149'156'
R.H.T. Thonpson,
tua.6E-lrff6ilFand.
tlre'New
zoala.ne.fuessr,
T!--{Eggg}-gf
tlro Polrme sian Soc i-e
W,
(
part
f
)
62 zL
r
Decanbe t
1953
,
766ryfi G-.trn)6i,
Marctr
19fut 1-16; (Part rII)
632
5
snd.
Lr
Soptenber-Decenber
1951+, 216422.
Elizabettr Ws.rburton,
tA
Study oi ths Presst, tandfgU-, Sz3rSeptenber
1951r,
167-202
"
G.C.Wj-lhoit and. I(.S. Shor3i11,
tlTj-re
Service VisibiUty of
-U.S.
Sonators
t
,
Jolagg-5g3",
t+521e Spring
1968r lQ'48,,
Wayne Yfolfe,
tlooes=6fl:iFe*tlffi"d.
Statos in the Latin Anerlcan hessr,
:T-g*Uo-LijIl-9"
,
41
z1
t
Wllter
1961+t7936.
J.L. Tloodnard. and R.-Fr-rnzer4-TA
Sfudy of Coiling
Rellabilityt,
B&sgP-lAioq.
9"11222,
Sunner
191+8, 255-257.
-E
M-teyS,
a StuQ;r by the'Intornaticrnal hoss Instifirte,
Ztrrictr 1953,
--
_&WSLt_
jlp_Fpy-+L!gl+fipp-i_o-n^
.o-n. !s_e-Ble
s
"-194L+2,
London
19t+9
.
6.
gqgqrs SNUD]3S
Ra1ph D. Casoy and. Thonas Ho CopeJ-ancl Jr.,
rCu.ment
|tl'ievs
Ho1ert PolJcies
of DelJy Nervspapers : A Srlrveyr
r [og1gr31]+-g-9.,
3)+22,
Spring
1957
^
175-186.
fbed. Cr.r:sj.or,
lEconomic
Theory antt its Application to Newspaperst
rlqlr{r.gligg
S.o,
57
t2, Spring 1960, 2554.60.
A.l,an S. Donnahoe,
tspace
Control by Newspapers: An Ar:alysis and, a Plxnr
t
-J-oirqlg[s-g9.",
33
z
3,
Sunner
1
956
t
279-286,
John R. Malono,
tnooilofr-itb:,ffirogica1
Bases for Newsoapeq q+vorsl,tyt,
{ory}ij[!.e
3T:]r Sururr f
95t, Tr-725.
Royal H. Roy,,
tnconoFfc*Tfr-6i;ias
Forces ln uai\y Neiistrnper Concentratlonr,
loqryl$*Q.r
2921, ilinter
1952t
31-/,42''
275.
Datlas Tf.
-
The
Srlytire
,
r
Ti.rne
rl,iarket
and Space Fac'bors
j,,r
Conn*nications
Econora:iosr
r [o1gn-a]-gn.9,
r
39tl,
ffiIter
1962t
TJLr.
D-engpd.
Lot$.evsBpi=nt
,!". fl.;ft.3:%frgpE
r-&
te-ooit
Irrepared
by t!"
Contract Researcfr
U"i{ of the Nev
Zealantl Instihrte
of Scononlc Research,
Tfellington
1968.
7.
THE MUCJJtICI{ OF' JOUISUU'ISTS
B. THE FRTEDOM OF T}trE FftESS
n- CaseYt
II. Cro ss
,
Norris G.
John Har"b
l{. Ernstt
Donald E.
Ali-son
Quentin-Baxter,
tThe
Freerdom of the Presst
rfu F.pp."y.!.if'--H
IFgf,r.te.,
I(.J. Kei-bh
(ecr.)r WeU-ington
19581
7O{''
Robert l,{, Bliss,
tDe;;iopire"t
of Fajr Conneni
as a Defonoe
to L5'bolt
t
1-gq4r-q!-i-s.ig-$
.
2W
z
4
e
Winte r 1967
t
627 437 .
H. Bnrckerr lteedoq
of
f4fo.rn9.-'c.i-o.g,
Lond.on
191+9.
Georse rurnsffff niet fo- I11t*ntl
gtrs=S.q3*qg.
-Ll.-s-te.ner'
r
t+3 21090r
Dean W. Banett,
gpg*-on J^o-urna1+:.n
-E-dg.c-qt^a-gg.q.!.
I&l-f.e.11ftn-
-
@qt-q"p.",g;g,
cyclostyled
r
llellin6ton
1
964'
JoSn Dodge,
tBritain
ne-,r-idJTts
Training
-schenet
, [o,prnrr$s$
9.
t
1&23, Sruu,er
1965, t+65+69.
Ti, Sprague ilo16en,
tArr"b.firt,
Systen of Cadet
Trai'nin8
for Jourtralistsr
,
J-ougna
f.i^sn
Q.- J6
z3
,
Surraer.
1959
,
326-331+'
ilanro Konoo,
tr""irr:-f,J'=io1^]orirfraris*-jo
Japanf
'
Cig*=!g,
.1311?6716145'
'
vilrlam E.
porter,
ailrraril F. carter,
Jay Jonsen and Thodore
Petersont
rJournal-isn
cor.irnrnications
and the I'\rture
of,
tlre
Dis cipljno
t,
J-ryI*lisq 9.,
[o:lrr
Auturu
1
963
t
58v591,
Arthur T. Robb.
r5du;ation
for Journalisn-{ns
of its hoblenst
,
Jou41ali-sn
.S,
,1$
31
,i{arah
1
9\'
,
3i-39.
G.H. Stowart,
t;o,11.rrfiiri gAiiC'aTion
i-n'Britai-n
nniers
a Period
of Cbanger
,
{gpl'rra-!!sn9'r'4!:1'Sprilg1968;19$-112'
Albert Alton Suttonr!il;'"t;.-"ir'-flgi.
Jou,1"*na-!!-sp
J+t
.t4r9-
Il.gle.a. F.t*3pp*frue
-
Sri^
p:eg,Ury!;1s".
3p- Jpltg;
.
New Yorlc
1
9t+5'
F- gF-
-T-r.ai.ni.rcg.
^ofl"ls'nfiSf{
a-t"9niii;,v1q"-.F-qg1'.ey.
.o,q-b!f1--T.r.q;=g15rg
.of
-'
^
Cru-o-rute
r-
!pi5tS. Jr-qti,"'
ntqdtgrunesco
rParis
1958'
JnJY 22
'|.960, 5.
tProfessi-onal-
trbeeclon
and. Re.spolulblltty
in the hesst
r
iJI
I[. S ohrarrr
(
ed.
)'
@;p-!up-4eg--Eoo!Cgr
Iilinols
19lFE
,
204-218.
$g-.glS.r,q
nis-ht
.tp. .{ftgV,New
York
1953.
ffi$I-;;;;riofr 6?
pi.f6.v:
e Study in Contradigllo.rot,
Joyrl+gllPR
g.
r
N
zz, si:ring
1953, 179-188':
ElJr
trri.a-l*b'f
lrJt"rF.p"r zurd. its curest,
&ggqlg,,
I'laroh
1967, BO-92r
-
!-he
Fir-s-t
-Fqg.ej.gn,
New York
191+6.
ffiJHF-;r;,;;-60
i.n hess systens
an,l the Reliqious
variablet,
Jo1g4g-!L-s11
9.
,3931
'
l:finter 1962, 1549,
ffinee lt."sinersus
Fair Trial: A llew Era?t
J-orllllultlsg$.,
{-l:1,
Yflrnter
19&t 2747'
oillnor
anilffi ?iEarr on,
Es-*-g111 -c
o-ry-egt-:+
$1.^
@r
safult Paulr Minnesot'a
1J62'
Donalcl I.,[.
231+.
f,'falter Gooc]rpn,
Sg-C-q5g.i-tlgg,
I'Ietr York
1969.
Bradley S. er"unEi]6*tAeliffiIonaf
Data on Varjablos Related to Press
Freed.onr, J-o.urp-a-1-i-s-+ Q. r
38:1,
Vlinter
1961
,
76-78,
\f.E. Hocking,
Ig*9$1--th",:3f9ry-'
Chica6c
19n
.
Jey \T. ;ensenr*tffi.-ff"a-ToTu-f{d[
of the
Problon of Freedon of the hessr,
J-o.gqfr?.]lggt- 9d.,
27 24, Fa11
1
95A
t
199-IFOB.
Id. Kenpers,
tFneeaonTE?ffiffiion
cr::c1 Criticisn
ln JugosLaviat,
@-et-tg,
13t 1967
t
3,-21,
md
317416,
Alfrecl Mctung Lee,
tvi;lations
of Press Freedon in Anerioar, f qunB-L+9n-g',
1J21, it[arc]r
1938, 19Q7,
J. Bon Liobernan,
rRestaiisg
the Concept
of the Freeclom
of the Hresst,
Journq-1i.s1:
Q.., 3021,
'lTinter
1953t 131-1J8.
!,.R. ltecken,
t
contonFtr'ff-c?u-rtr,
-TtE-Sur--&g-+glt*d.
lgw-Jg4ine]-,
15,
August
1968,
337-339.
-
N.V.K. I,ltrrtlgl,
tFreedoi
of the Press *te. f"ir
Trial
ln the U.-S.iL.l,
J-qtqg1llfg$., 3623t
Sui:ner
1959, 275406.
RaSmond. B. N5xon,
tp;;t-o;-;-folilfei
to Freed,on
in Nationc.l hess Systenst,
J-ouqlgli,l9.9' ,
5721 ,
wi-nter
1960' 13'28'
i}-nE*a-*t
i11-tfiu iTorJ-dts llresslA f'besh /rpprdlsal
rritb
Ne,.v Datur
r J^o-q#S-Q.
r
I&21, Tiinter
1992t
7:1tr,
Bnrce A Nord.,
rPress
Freedor,r anilpofrlIa.r Structurel,
@"
+3tit
Auturur 1966,
53t-534,
Don Penrbere
tPrirracy
anil the Pross: tho Defence
of Newsworthinessl,
Jotqlglrgp-^9.,
4521e
Spring
1968t 14Q4.
Ja,nes E. FoILard,
tJm;Ta].
5e-finitic;ns
cf the Nerv'spatrnrr
r @.
r
1823
t
Selr'benber
1940
t
424)+6,
I
Staiutozlr
D"rititiorm
of the Newspaperr
r&gggJiiL0.
t
16 :1
,
h{arch
194C
t
27-fr.
L. Pool,
rFree
Discussion etttl
--Fublic
T:,rster
e B.t-:--Qp-+3qI".$.,
2l+21; Spr5r:fi
1960, 19-Q3.
B. hice,,
tFreec).on
of th; kessrRad.io,
Screenf
,
-4+p-+lg,
2\,
1947
t
157-139^
Jan C. Itobbi.ns,
rThe
Parad.ox of Press Freedom:
A Shidy of British
ExperienceI
r JSSW" !.
2Wz3 t
Auturnn
1967
,IPB-
t+38,
Igr:ace Rothenbergr
'Oamg"s
for Nelrspaper
Libels in Great Britainr,
-/pgsol+PL$.
,
zbi, June
1943, 1\4-1?1?
Lucy bia;nrard. Salnonr@^egd
43r-Q9.-fl.;[,,
Nen
IotI
1923'
R. c. savase,
I
censoi,s[-$r:At-15**=*1
Jt
LEsgL"-
-1I'
llqs-Itj&ltb,
lTellington
1
968,
B9-105.
FreC. S. Stebert,
r1axes
on Rrblications
irl the Eighteenth_CenturXlf ,
Jorrrlq^qt}!111$.
,
2121, Iriarch
19/,+4t
'.:2J-1+'
Fredrich S. Siebertrffi or a Free Pressr,
[ogpg!$g$"
JZzl
,
lfinter
1965, 6-9.
Joirrr D. Stevens, Robert L. BaiJeyeJuclith F. I0nreger
rya {?F
M. liollwitz,
I
Cri-nina1 Libol as Seilittous Libel,
191645r
t
J*oy'!g$!.s,!r-.Q..
,
4321,
Sprin
F
1966,
1iT1l3.
Talter A. Steisl4x1anfi-fto.-o1-r;;*
the
praciicat
Jolcer: A Potenti'a]
Source
-':'
Libell
,
[qgg1g!!gg=9.
,
22 21
,
De
cenbe r
.191+5,
53|..;--1lJ+'
ldorton Steinberg,
ton\r
a free. Eresfffi'Enable
Denocracy
to tr\rnctiont,
&:gry}ig.$.,
23:1, i:larch
19l$t
:1:1?:
wi]jllan F. s.nntnal"rTs-ffffi't
mtar Developnents
re,rsting
to the Pressr,
lry;ryrg.ljSll$.,
1622, June
1939
t
161-164.
235.
ti{ewspaper
[ibe1 in Canada-A Note on Contrnrativs
Pness Lawr,
&q.ryLi":$j.,
21t1, idarch 'lg$., 2y36.
Ii. Taylor,
tfh
British
_Concept
c,f ttri-frec,don of tho hessf
r
Lqe$q.rlC,
1966, 1-J8.
Tfa-lter 1Ti1cox,
f
Riglit of RepJ.,y irr the Unj-ted Statesf
,
ggr_q4g,, 1taz1
,
1g68,
14.
Richard. D, Yoakan ancL Ronalcl T. Famar,
tT.lE-g+Sg
libel Case and.
Coii.nr.inicati-ons La.lrf
, J_of,IlgiigL9.,
l/zl+, Autr;nn 1955,
661463.
--
the._Lqg..qrrl1-.jb-e-Fegg, thre report of a
joint
working party of
ropresen-bativr.s of Justice and. of the British
$:nn:ittee
of the Inter.national hess Instihrte,
London 1965,
-nr
,
The Cornnission on Fme,J.mr of the Press,
Ctr:icago 1947.
.Er-
lu"Eq._gtt__t!g.--}gr
Tnrth (w.2.)
!td., l,Iellington 1955.
e.
gsrJlgrugw$,
Abraham Z. Bass,
rRefinjng
tlre
I'Gatekeepert'
Concept: A illi Ra&io Case
Studyf
,
f,gg.znq1_!sn_9.,
4621,
Spring
1969
t
69-72.
D.R. Bovers,
I
A Report on Activity by Hrblishers i.rr Dlrect5.ng Newsrooa
De ci-sions
|
,
tourylgl-t_sg.9.
,
Lt)+11, Spring 1967
,
43-152 .
h'&rf,en Breed,
lNelrsi:aper ttOpinion
Lead.ersfr ancL
fbo cesses of Stand.ard"isatio:rr
,
Journq,lisn
Q.
,
32
23, Srr.urmer
1955
,
ZTlt2\l+,
ffiffioFilrol in the I'tevsroonl
,
p-g*gl&ggg,g,2
33tL;1
I,iay 1955,
326-335.
Janos K. Buckalerv,
tA
Q-Attalysis
of Television News Editorst
Decisionsr,
Journa-g-qg1
Q
.
r
46
z'l
,
Spring 1969
,
135-137
.
Roy E. Carter Jr.
e
tSieliE"T{6ir
-onA
the lrlevrs: A Reglonal Conient Studyt,
to:::'g*,13sp.
9. ,
3l+:1,
1liinter 1957
t
3-19.
Tffdttp-Jp*r
Caietceep"r" and the Sources of the Newsr,
Blb*.- _9p3*-L,rl?:9, ,
22 22, Sunricrr 19fr
t
133-1hJ+.
Ralph D. Casey and. Thor:as Il. CopeJ.and. Jr.,
fUse
of Foreign News by 19
l,ifuurc+sota Dailiesr,
Mr1}ig99,,
35t1,
Tlinter 19frt
87-89.
Robert 1T. G\yd.e and. Jares iL Buckalern,
rlnter.-l[s&1e
Stewrd"ar&isatlon: A
Q-Ana\rsis
of Nsrvs Eclitorst,
_Jgr4qrplisn
lf.e 4622,
Sunner
196g
t
jt:9-i55.
Letiis Donohue,
lNewspa.per
Gatehecprs
tmd Forces in the Neus Channelr,
Eg'g=_p.gi1r"i.91r^9., J1
t1, Sprins
1967, 6148.
icJ:!--Galtrrng and Mari Hofu$oe Ruge,
tThe
Structure of tr'oreign Newsr, TIq
lqlH*L-qf=3-p@,
121
,
1965, 6541-
--
'
r ae 6To?Tcii1- F;;;ffi
-
po
liii cal
f en clenc ie s
Reportingt,
-4r-n"1_i$g'r-Q..,-
41
:l+, Auturn
1964t
f
Across the Dosk:-A-stridy b-f-15 Telegroph Eclitorsr
,
George Gerbner,
Tfalter Gieber,
J.n Ness
ug5-5a8.
Lo1grjJ!g$.,
33zt+,
Autrrnn
1956, t&H32,
rfiou
-tEe-gEekeepers
View Local Civtl Liberties Newsr,
W.
e3722,
spring
196ot 199'205.
rfwo
Conr,nunieators of the News: A Stuqy of the Roles
of Sources and
lbportersr,
@.i".l-F-og"Sgr
3921 ,
October 1960
t
75,31.
235.
tllorrs
is T'lurb lTci,sli*pernen l,lake itt
,
j-n
L.A. Dexter
rnd. D.M. ifldte,
!go!h*-S_o_c-|9._ty--qp-q |!a.srs--.C-o_glggic_a!i,-31s-,
B].encoer 1961r.
Daniel L., Grey,
lDecision-1,[akir:rj
by o Reportcr und.cr Pressurel,
.{gq;1g}J.sj1-
9.,
4323,
Auturu:
1966
t
419-t,2'8.
J.. Haski.ns,
tl,oca].
IlrocrLcastirrc lbactices i.n Honetorm Rarlio Stationsr,
John L.
Robert JucLiL,
rThe
Newspaper Ilrportor irl a ,Suburbarr Cityl
r Jg!LlIL*1iP3.'
3821,
T{inter 1961
,
jrdQ.
Jean Kemick anct Philip F. eniffin,
rBalanco
Stories ani, Ed.itorials
t
,
19&t 2A7-215.
J. Iree,
I
Intornational llews Florv in the Expctriate F,rrglish-Language Press
|
,
dggryolgq.3.., tQzLt Autr:rrn 1965,
6?433.
B. H, Liebes
,
rDeci-sicn-l''laki.n6
b.y Telegraph Ed:ltors
-!.P
or UPf
f
, &!L{rtP-Hg
log_rn_qf,lsn g., 29z4t FaIL 1952,
433-t+36,
treffin?-ffGil'ni"
in Nows Selectiotri
r Lo;1gg*+Sgg.,
3623,
Suprner
1959,
JlaS-)JQ.
9',
43:3,
Autunn 1966
,
Malcofui S. Mcleen Jr, and. Anne Li-an Fr,&o,
ancL WrLterf s Attitude in Nen's
{gW1S-.S,. r
If
22, sPring
43+-W.
IPi.ctr:re
Selection: An E&itoriol
)+O22, Spring
1963
r
2iO-232.
tr'low of Nevrs
t,
Ttre_lqqp*l_-glp.q.?."g
39-63,
Ganet,
{qr4in-' is.-t$.,
Ejrar Ostgaard.,
I
Factors Irrf luencing the
ii.esearch, 1t1
,
1965,
David. L. SancLers,
HL
S i't.s-F.t_ogr_{p$Lt_to_qgAls-eg
196t
,
gA
Js-e
gs11p3g.
I lu-"frS117^14p,
C in c inna t i
Paul B. Snid.er,
r
"Ioir
Getesrf llevisted.: .,i 1966 Vers
j-on
cf the 1g5t+ Gase
Studtt,
&qlgqligg1[.,
\4:3,
.r\utunn 1967, I*19-t+27.
D. Snlth,
|The
Selectors
of folevis.ic,nTrogrannest, TxrJr-;}l..+*gJ-gf,
-Baoqrl4:g*.jg,,
6, 196t
t
354\..
Guirl.o H. Stenpel llI;'i-U*n:foiffiy oi lti"" Content of Six l,,{ichigan Dai}iest,
J_ouq3g!-tg;aE.
t
3621
,
i,ijnter 1959, t,.5418o
W. Stepbenson,
tPrin;fpl;s
oT3Jfection of News Picturest,
-{og$r-g1isg-Q.r
37
21, Tlinter 1960
,
6148.
D.ili. I'Iluite,
t
"The
Gatokeopor'r : /r, Case Study i.rn the Selection of Novst,
Joryl*ryll-Q., 27z|t Autunn 195Ot
381490.
1 o.,^gsgo&Ig4l,_ jIgD_lgg
Robert B1ake,
tTh
Souttrt rn Cross : A Hostage to the Ca;oitalist Prese
r
r
-IgfL@,
4t2,
Jr:ne
195ot 105-116,
Ge orge Blai
k{
e
r 3E:E*U9I:. !gt-U
t--Iggklf,, l'ielbourne 1966.
Patricia lr{arxr Bu-rns, T[q.-$ggglqrctq.*.e{_t}S--Lleg_?-gqlgtrg
Fieg_ l_\Jffi9.,
Ph.D. thesis, Victori"-r University cf Tfellingtonr
1957.
l. CJ-eveland,,
lThe
Arurals of Jourrral-isn:Hastings anrl the N.Z. Bulletint
,
g_oqpgfij,
9:2,
AprS-l
1968t
23Q7,
TtTri-hrn"rr
or iournal:isn: Tit-Blts
t
,
Coggrerlt
r
9
zJ
,
Jr:ne'i968, 16-Qo.
fThe
Arnnauls of Journiilisn: The Yellow PeriLt
I
Co,Wn!,,
1 O; 1
,
De cenber
1968
,
29-31
.
R. CoupJ,a.nd. Herrd.:ing,
lRelics
of the First N.Z. Prosst, TE}4F_:-If.,?r__Inl!.,
32
t
1899
r
40o-l+0h
,
H. Hi1lr
tThe
Early Days t'f Frinting in N.Z., a Chapter of Intere-sting
Historyt,
3-S"r_
ILL-_Ig*., 3)
r.
1
9OO,
l+0'1426.
2:,7.
:
..'. no
"uo"'
r -n+;;rEgr11;frr:
tif;;-F-,+-#-.i:[--r"
ot
-_:
i:u:iigs of Litoratrue in N.2., Part II, the Erglish
Soction
-
gopspapersr
,
H".:_Nrj..*Jp:j.,
fur1ge1
,
99-111+.
Joi:n Hohonbers,
I-qfu*ff.
-Q.offSp::qpA;,p-q.e.j-
lb.q.._gryp!
l_ego-qte_1g-apg-Ilg::igiAej,
Nc'.,,' Yorl: 196t+"
Robg liydc,
{gg*Le-pg,
riuckkr.nd 193tr,
!a!
tawlor,
corrfessions
_9_f _a _Journa]js!,
\Tellington 19j5.
q. M.
ffain,
r@
$, :-
-;i_5y];"Egg,
/tu cf lan,t i Ag t,
Joseph J. Ittathews,
rllu
SenE-s-iJif
i,t"irsF;,-.
',ier,
'Ccrrc,si)r/r:1-encor,
Jour::L1i-s:::
I"
ipl.11 ,
_t?rgtgr_1
g5Z, j-17.
N. R. McDonald.,
Ihg$ffi
_t!'p--a-"-o_L}Spiqg-l2#-:([,,
M.A. thesis,
Victoria Univeusity of trilelLi-ngton 1955
C edric R. Mentiplay,
N,g.
Zeglp."A:*fj-9el*_$4g*5[_!Ie-
Igu"q--{_lleqgg
Elqtf**},
I''1.A. thesis, \rictorie University of 1{ellin6-
ton, 1940"
Ton L. MtILs,
rJournalistic
Jottjn6sr
r
N9g_t-e.glgg9*4q6qgry,
21 t2t
h[arch-April 191+2
,
Z1-ZZ
i
secr a3-so Zl 23, May.Jr:ne
191e, 1B-1!;
21 z5
t
Septennbcr.4ctober 191+2, 13-15i
22 21, Juru:ary-Febnrary 191+3, 1O-1 1 and 16; 22 z2
,
Mrrrch-April 1943t 2C-.21
3
?2:la, July-August 1943r23-21+i
23 22, illarch-ApriJ- 19l+4t
4A-42;
2jt6, I{ovonber-Decernrbey,
lgtAt 20.
R.B. OlNeill,
f
The ifew Zealenci
hess
I
jr
A.H. Mol,lntock
(
ecl.
) ,
Arl-Enoyolp-
gqg+g-qlltr:il&g'fgpg, vol. 2, Tle:-linston' igTffiff
57o
"
G.G. Robinson,
Ltp-gggJt-1f1S..PlepSrJgEA:J_Bg[,
I$_I{"--qpj_-D,e^a.th
gtg
Se*ry1fi!94-_Lq*L_N_e_gp3gg,r
M.i- thesis, Victo-ria
Un5-voi.sity of Tfell-ington, 1957.
G. H. SehoLefiold.,
[q:Ipgqjffits_*ul'N_o:L3"_q}Sgg,
Tfellin,Ston 1
gD}.
J.W.T.
r
rFth.et
a trIrLterrVIha'b a Figh'ter3
t
Neit ZeaLant
-qaga-z_f;qg,
1821
,
Octobor 19jg,
5-6o
:
'4"'-
C-'
Wl-LIian H. Thonas,
Ttre__I4hfJiu,,
Taunaranui 1960.
E
fb
&gs"*18gkjgg.,
Ttrc Clu'is'bchurch Press ConSnny, Christchurch
1963.
i1.
ruIp*I$_-$_r'gDls.g
John B. Adans, Janos J. MuILen ancl Harold M. T{ilson,
tDiffusj.on
of a
rtMinop'r
Foreign Affairs News Eventr
,
Jcurnalisn
$.
,
l+623,
Autrrnn 196?,
fu5-551 ,
'
6---'-@
Tho Anerican Society cf Nenspepgr Edjtors,
tThe
Canons of Journalisrr, in
1T. Schrar,ur
(
ed.
) r$gEg_lggggltl"S_o-qgr.
Urbana 1960,
6zT6z5,
Fred. C. Berrry JF.;
r/i
Study of Accuracy in Loeal Nevrs Stories of Thres
Dailiest
,
&tsgq!i;g$.,
Ihz3, .tl,utr.rnr:. 1967,
482.h9O.
Daniel J. Boorsti.n,
&.J_qtgg,,
New YorT
1962,
Lloyd. R. Bostian and John E, Ross,
f
frlncti-ons ancr Mean:ilgs of Mass Med"i-a
for tr{isconsin ?arn Wonent
r
JStqIqq,_1^ipJL_9{., lQz1, Sunner
1965
t
6g-76.
tr'famen Breed,
tMass
Cormunications ancl Socio-.Cultrrral Integrationl
,
Jqiqgq}"!E4$*r
3722,
December 19frt 10)-116.
Roy E, Carter Jr. p
tTm
Prrblic School Superintenclents in
Califonr5"a.r
,
M.,
J1
zZp Spring
19fut 175-185r
f
J. S.
rtr-lox
ALex
?fi.
Roy E. Carter Jr.1 cinr.l.
peter
CJ.arkc,
tVlhy
Suburb,rn
I'leirs Attracts Reader
Intercs.f
r
I J-o*i1l11-*Jrif.!*9.,
39zl+t
autur:n
.1962,
J22-J25.
Douglass Cater,
Ilg-3oy-qit]t.gq"Jt"it
SiS.":f--ry!,
Norr iork
1959'
1litchell V. Ctuirm;'f'prelinincury
f,ot-c:r- un
"3tu,V
of Nesspapor
Accuracyr,
-
fu:-q[*]i,.sp^ .?.-,
13'.3, Sc'pterrber
1955
t
391+-l+O1
'
Bornarcl c . c olrcn, p-S:"fli+-tilt'q"gfiIt-:.*lqy=e-New
Jcrsey
1963'
J.K. Cr:nn:inghan,
-
t'a-ifiierrsp,epers
tnn:.-t-tte
T957 Electionl
, Eq11gg
Scf".gg,
11
22,
Septenbc'r
1959, 25:31
:
-
fffi#i"f
cpinion
arrcr. the
1957 Electionf
, kg@t
12
22, June
1958
,
16)-174,.
Duncan,
rNerr
Zealancl Tovnrs
as Servlce
ientresr p
*fg,i.3e3!st-49
ggoig*!.!f
il,
1O22, Oc'bober
1955, 119-138.
S.
Edelstein,
&gg6-g|fgp.
ifr.
U*!e
".:-"fe+g.Sti=9,
Copen}ae:tt
1
966'
S.Ed.e1stej.narrc1J.erajieffi6'thffispaperts-Leaclershi;:
Rolo as Seon by Coiurunity
Loadersr
r Lo.!4$141S-9,.t
Lo:4,
Autunn
195i,
565-57+.
Al-ex S. Edelstein
ancl- Otio N. liurscn,
rThe
',,ieekry
PressI Contribution
to a Setrse of Urban Corr:r:nityt,
.J-gg5g1]$1g19',
37zl*t
l,utunn
1960,
489+98.
Jar,rcs Force,
lThe
Daily Press
in subr:rbia:Trenc-r-s
jn
1! l\{etropolitan
"reasl,
Journq"lisn
9.,
39t4,
Autunn
1962, l$7+61'
J. Ecluarcr. Gerala,
ffi*o1.;ts.:lsg-s+!i+iEi'-=@?
y:*"apolis
1
963'
E.C. Gray1flnd., ES-ru,
/urckland
1969.
Thonas H. Guback,
tfubg;
Issues
Pye5l.annes i:r Rcrciio
ancl Tclevision
t
1961r
,
.
J-onryLigl,.,
SgzSrSunner-
-1962,
373476'
John
Hardingiran
(
*a.
-ol
-J-ogqp-LS
t
'll7e115.:e6ton
1967.
Ji.rr A. Hart,
rElection
Canleri6n Coverrige
irr
gnglish
anc U.S. Dally
Nor;siral:e"i
t,
-Jggltg3.,
t*2,':21 Spring'1965
t
21
3-219,-
H.Tf.O.
e
f
The Neri Donirrionr
,
ggggE]!,
9r],
June
1968,
33
Jack B. Haskj.ns,
rTho
Editor$il,fix:One
Soluticn to a I'la6azino
Editorts
-
D5J-*"I
, J-,*rgigll"gi3.,
tgz4t .il'utlrnn
1965$57-562'
W. Sprague Hold.en, g+gt4ql_k*C.9-".r__t'_&L%"e_,
li5-chigan
1
961 .
-
-"t-ffi;iralToi';-S#T*C*#
Ccdet
Traini-r:g f or Journalistsr,
Jouryl*lga$., 3623t
Sunnel'
1959,
?6-334'
Neal D. Houl3hton,
trfrffi-ain-i-nTaiion
of 1961 and the U.S. Pnes-c ln
RetrcsposNTr
&**1gJi 9.,
Vz3,
Surrnor
1965t
V2-
l+32
'
Itobert V. Hui.son,
tTlrice-iTcy
Sh*r
i.igle
of Australian
lJecta
Revisteclf
t
Jcu@r+ .?.
,-
46,1
,
Spring
1969,
-121a-12J.
John A
Irvins (ed.)rElFJF.iljJt--c-"@,, Toronto
196?.
Keith Jacksoi,'
t groirlffJm-
#a*tft"--ff"ditiosr
r,
in R.M.Chapnanr
W.K.
Jackson,
frrlc-, rr.V. Illtchell
(
uds.
) ,
NeE-3"qf,glq
-P-olit+-"4
in
&,$g,
London
1962.
Ir{orris
Janoiritz, g}g,
-ryf.9+aq-g9iij+9,.chicago
1952_
lvta:xr A. Ko ehler
;
TF-"'";Trffi;T-eriJpaffi-:
nto?ffiC
-oF-I-nsight
r,
@
g.
1
)a621
,
SPr5ng
1969, 2)'J6,
Italph L. Lowensteinr-r16u
DaiJy-Press in israel:tn
Appraisal
a,fter Twenty
-yeere
I
r
gggul31g3 ,
e
ta6:2, Sturirlr
1969, 235-531 .
239.
}'IervLn D. L5mchrBrian Dr Kent anci Riclrarrl" P. CarisonrlThe Mearring of
Hrinan Interest :Four Di-nensions of Judgnentl
r4g1}ig4
0n ,
t+)+llt-t Tijnter 1967
t
5ll4l8i and 1+522, Sr.uurer
IgSa
2
226-2Jta,
Jack L,yIe,
lEilltors
Lecic
Consensus
jl
Vions on l{akeuplr[og.IE]3S-9'r
Vil+t
rlutrrn:r
1965: 6l+9-654.
L.C.
,
I
Srxrd.ay
Papers?
t
C cgt-c-tl,!
,
6:'2,
p.*'
1955, B-1Oo
Henrxl I'layer, The P{g,-:s@,
xleIb,:urne
1964.
Derek lr[cDougaqTt-h-e-6;s-ty-1.]ta; Pr*m Coverago of the Vletnan War i.rr
1965',
$l-s-t1q4-igggl|s}g]
ZOtJ2
Decenber 1966t
1A3*
31
O"
John C. MerriIL,
tttQualitytt
Daily Jcurnalisn: An AnalytLcaL Discussiont,
Gt1q!jg,, 15p 1969,
5t-58.
t1t5ffi""ss
enr-:- the Electiont, in lL.i'll. ChapnAnr
i,T.K.
Austin Mitche3Je
Jackson attcL .r\"V" ir{itcheIl
(
od".
) ,
llew Zealand Politirl
ge
5-n ric-ti-oq.n Loi:uon
1962, 123.135.
Shrart Nagel and. Robffiffilott,
tEr.i-i-i.rrri.r1
Reaction
to Supreme Court
Declsions on Church end Stater,
-EgJ:r-9giJ}l-o]L]Q."
JQzl+:
Tli.nter 1961+, 647*655
"
C. Iievrland.,
t
Press Covorage of ifr" Unitecl States Su1:rene Courtlt
Th-q.1fS:1b1'.:';1
por,r*tJglA.l]-qn*:.*b__"-f-1i:
,
17 2,1
,
Iiarch
1964t 1J-J5.
'ii.
Nichols,
tgd.itjneffi-'i5r-o6tt-r-ooo
-r'#iries'
; P,-qlil13}fg,
89
,
1960,
J+10+18"
Dan D. Nj-nno,
[g[gi,11$S.qeSEgllrft}!g1E;fqg, l{oT
York
195+.
I(aarLe ltrordensffi#;
-ttoi*Giib1TdilG-s-earch
irl ttre Unlted. Statos:
A
Critical
Perspe'ctizer,
gt,$g,,
1lr, 1968, 2074'15.
Clarice
N. Olien, Georgc A. Donohue ancr- PlfJ-ip J. Tichenor,
tThe
Connunity
Ecli.tor? s Povrer and the Reportir4
of corrf }lctf
e
[ggg5t-of-5;11.,]."
,
4522,
Sunrier
1968
s
21rJ452.
TiltLian L. Rivers,
TEC.E*i-qS--ittSLery,
Boston
1965.
ar
John
p.
Robi3sonr't?6-i1ilh:nir"-JTrrf-o":r,otion
and. I*iass
l'haia
Exposuret
r
[o-r-gg5{-ryg3,,
Wz1,
Spri.ng
1967
t
2J-J1 .
I.D. Robi.nson
encl A.F. aitrEir6til
iMoss
iorunrnicati-ou"s
cled the 1963 F.lecticn:
A
Prellninary'rrnport
t,
loJ*Ag"}^
.S*"*gft-g,
1
6'.2,
Scptenber
19O+t
1+2.
Brlyce V{. Rucker,
tNev,'s-sorvices
Crowcl
Reporting
i.rl tlro 1965 Presid.sntial
-
Caniraigstt
,
-&ltqq-g1-+:g
9.
,
37
zTe Sprin6
1960
t
^1
95-198.
col-in SeSnaour-Ure,
!]fq-
gq,-"-t
-F-"$:{t-"^qff:th"-=B$r1*,Lonclon
1968"
F.S. Siebert, To
PeTJrlon anci V',L Sctir-nrar
W-ofStlg-$Legt
Urbeura 1963.
track 7.. Sissors,
t
Sone Nr''n Concepts of l{elrspaper
IP t2, Sirring
1965
,236-21'2
"
Desi6ntrJ@.,
H' Taylor,
!&-
gfit-lsh
-Pre-s-n
;;j'.
-c,qi-t-i:g.a!
S31v-e[t
tonfol
Stig Thorenl-tThe RLow of Foreign l*lells into the Swed:ish
1961
,
hess
|
.Joumalisn
tr@-
.Q",
tr5,l3, l\utr-rnn 1968"
NlchoLa.s T\:rner,
@&.i-
+
s.qjrf.
.r."S."-i;ry lf'3p--!,te-]1r-u-tfq.--"
o'[.
q9$,gg-J3!gli'"1
g,3-tie-qr'ig,-9p-qgo:r.qlsJ-!."f"lb""tT6df
fr
-ffi'fiiffi-?f
5'
Serena T{ad,e anil l'JILbur Sc-fo.,rril-"'TnF
lvtas"
-Gata
es Sources of Rrb1ic
irfTalsg,
Science
ancl Health lteovrlod8o
I
r S!-.:.9!.lJt-Lq-4,3.
r
33
z2
,
Sumner
1969, 197*209.
Joseph O. tr[helan,
tTlre
Press and l{nrschevr s
itTfithCrawa]-tt'
fron the }'[oon
Race
t,
B&."*-Qggr:g;t9.,
32
22, Sunner
1
968
r23345O.
Jaaes RusseIL lTiggins,
tTheTG-fr.6ffi;?:r"t
Concern of' tl:e Preesr
r
Jouqq+i.slr-lg.
sZJz1 ,
I$arch
191+6, 2019.
21+O,
ry.
TIiJoy,
tTlre
Fr.rnotions of tho Newsi:aperf
e
Alpj*g,,
zlgt 1gtZ, 1)-2t,.
Franois Tiilaia.ns,
Dans".rc.r1s- E_s-tate: The anatffifg{li"o*lp.iplg._q-]londc,n
jg57.
Ralrurond. Iiiui;"ns,
5ffin
-iI--t["_ s;+!+p_r..gopgrrnE-6.-t1;:fr,Tone.on
1
962 .
Louis wirtbr
I
Consensus anri iti-aJiEbirnunibbli-on
-t;-
e9_r1fr-ql-i-r-"lr F=q-"ioi-
$-"-?-l
-tsg+gg,
1J21
,
Fobnrary 1948;l-;i5;'
G.E. Wood., gfg-jLq-q]f.l+.t^ip.,
[feIlin1;ton 196U,
r'-{
rc
or.inuruicetion ani' rnfornati.cnt,
.r-"&qgg[$l
.S_gg+gL@,.J..
-
rrhc lritish
*:li?; #fi'$'ffiL*ilfil";;;;'
.rrlce or
Inf or.nt:ti-cn,
London 1966.
-r
!g1ggj,ggic-?gf'41=gp_L.Ulp^
l :qsj_-geg+g,,
Une s co,
parl,s't
9
63,
12.
glg"*qlqguggrgg_
.cL
Stanley K. Bignan,
tRivals
in Conforrrityt,
J.gglggl!g;!..,
Z5zl, March
1948, 127-131
.
lvlLchael E. Bishop,
rAn
Analysis of Holv t_h_a_I{erf York TLms Gathcrrs ancl.
Dl,sseninates
h t.,"
,
13
11967 ,
537-31*7 .
Gerard H. BorsteL,
tctnnersh-ip,
Conpetition and. Connent in 20 .Snall
Dailies
t
, *J*gglq+liqq
-0.
,
j3
22, Si.i,ir6 1956
,
z2uez6,
D'R. Dowers,
t,ft
Report
by Rrbtlsh;rs ix
-Directirg
Novsroon Decisions
,
,
Jounrafi-sr-r jl.,
,
l&21, Spring 1957
,
t#F52.
Tffi.iffiirT"T=or
Centrari"ua-r"inting
on the Cornnuruity
hess
|
, Io-uSg]Hg-!. ,
4621,
Spring 1969, t+:-i46.
]litchel]. V. Chanrley,
rThe
iad"io Ne,rsroon: A Deseriirtive
Studtf
,
J_ournelis-gg.
,
28t2, Spring 1951
,
'|.69-195o
l. cleveland,
rllow
sffi;;-li'T}6 iT.z.
presit,
ggggg!,
7-zl
,
Deceinber
1165,
7_1Q,
Alex S. Ed.elsteln,
r0ontent
of Cor:petiti-ve vs Non-Cor,rpetitive and. Chsln-
Orme C, Novspapq{s
t
in
$rgggfivgp*
jrn
.Q.o1ry,ttg+-gs*,i.gg,
Colientur.gon 1
966,
27
-28.
tFotrces
of Starrdard:is:tion in Nerispaper Content,, iJl
lersge
ct5-ve.L.
:p- .G.-o1q.1irn_!c-a$,iq.,g,
C openhagen 1
9
66, Z9-p,
Bryant Kear1,
rEffects-lFlGripip"t'-
cbiir'-*ii.ti";;;
priss
sJnrice
Resourc(.s
I
r
lTil]
r
an A.
Ralmond B.
Cor:pet5.tiont,
9a-z_ej[@-,
14, 1968, 181-192.
RiiSmond. B. Nixon anC. Jean il'erd.,
tTrend.s
in Newspapcr O-rnership and. Iylter-
I,isr'lia Conpertitionr,
@,,
fB:1,
lTirrtst 1961
t
l-14.
RoJmond B. Nixon and Robe,rt I,. Jones,
lThe
Content of l{on-{onpetitive
vs Conpetitive Nevrspai.,ers
I
,
Journal
{,s!
-Q.
r
35t3
t
Sur:ner 1956, 299-314.
G.
Rariclc
and B. Hartnan,
tThe
Effects of Compotition on One Da5Jy Newi-
paporrs
Contentr,
.J-g!ggflgg9.,
I+32\ Autrrnn 1966t
459-
463.
TIILbur Schram,
rNeu'sirapers
of e State as a News Networkt
, &_!IlIrgbA!..,
3522,
Sprin6 1958, 1n-182,
THE MSLt
Jorrrr:;il-.isll3.r
3521,
lTiater 19frt
564U.
Mircdakr
tff'-Itl;i.sb;F;
Fublishers
suffer fron
"MarketJ.rrg
I',,yop5.atr?
t
[qg41e]_1i;g9.,
lP zj, Suxmc.r 1
965, 4].t-/'+l+2
.
Nixon,
lTrenes
in U.S, Neirspaper Ornersi:lip:Concontratlon with
U'.-1
,
Rodrrey
Stark,
tPolicy
"r'::cl
';hc
ii.ress:
/ln
O'ga[isationa]-
/.r:a\rsis of
a
l,{etropoll';an Nerrspaper
r
r Eggp}-ey- 1|ol11ry1l
p[
F-9-c.lS.Jt1fltt
7 ,
1962, 1141
.
Christoii[er H. Stor-l-i:5
,.
''--.. ,':t pap,r Ournersl--ip t-f Broallcast S-bations,
-
tg2C-l6}t
, igi*,qq$pJlg
.
e
46.2 2
Suqner
1-969
,22.7-236
"
ChorLes E.
Swenson,
rlvlid.ci.by
Dililtf-fhJllois
Staff
anc'l its
iieration tc
Controll
, .4q,lftlq#*g.9',
2621, I'Iargh
1949
t
l}a9.. .
tlii.dci"tiv"uJil}f'Tiie-itT.wspapr'.
rls it appearerd to bet
,
Logltg-l!:.q 3",
?-623, Sept:nbe::
19h'9
2
3OlvJ1O,
WostS,ey F. Tf{Lloughbt-"1/G;-
Tilo." Conpc,t5.:e6 Nelrspapers
Necetsscri-$r
Bette:-'
fha;r cno?
t
[gqg!,*g-|1.
,
i2t2,
si,ri:r5
-1955,
197-2a'1ft
--- Ne.T,q*Sffg1l-o.$:sa
j{fSiL p-tg*cj,up-q-@-oggq-ti-oJ5
!ne1co_
1953.
,rb-'
gSlrlfag to ttre
iiort
Zeal.antL ll_a:ket, Thg N"*'t_ Zeal^:nd. Neusqapor
'
""bTni*-o"?f
-
I3-u;li *ti ott, Tfollinst on
1
I
68 .
13,- PERSCNNET SIUDIES
RaSmond. A. Bauer,
tThe
Connqnicator
and. t5,: Aud.ioncet
e
jn
_Ir'A.DextE'r
andl
,Pg.gL", f
q-ql.ty
-q*g
!:{g.tp- 9gqpp:"
964v
125--,140,
D.M, l?h:l'be
(
"d"
"
) ,
Peogl:o,
f
q-ql.ty,
-a*g
!:{g.tp-
C-ggglp;
ations
"
I{eru Yorir-
1'g;W12f'Tt*o,
Leo Bogart,
rThe
oveF#ai'i{.tt",,ton:
a 1967 i+ofi.l-e
S'bucyr,
{gqffi$"
I+52?, Sr.'.i'errer
1
969,
2)J-JO6.
Roy E. Carter Jrol
tThe
il"u"r and Rrblic SchooL Superinten0ents
iJr
-
Cali:fo::r.,iat
, [og.;i,9]-il?-911'r
J1
:2, Spr5n6
19fut 175-
185,
sRaci.al
ld.eni;:-f:]-cnLi.,-':r Effects
Upon the ltTews Stoqr
Tfri te.'."t
r .Jpg$ug-$'
,
362J,
Sunner] 95%
284-4-90'
J.
Inr:rence DaXr
r1ho
La'';i' iiLrfran:,ioi,ira.1ist:A
Ten-i:atLrre
Prof5-3or;
Joury:3.lip.q
9'
,
43
23,
'{rtl';lr-na
1968
,
iO)-i1,r
Melv5n L, DeflLeqr,
,6["ipa'bi-onal
Eoies
as Portrayad.-9n_Te1ev:isiosf r SU'
.orjg|*.*$",
2B:1, SPrins
196\
57-7+'
Pau-L J. Deutschnan,
+"
n[&gan-
I{.qw-spgp'e-qp-q;r,, {ti!49"..t^S-f.ts+j-tr-e
$it;-,:
l.:*-*;-c,r
.ll-lignqfgg]ToJ$'_
Report No'
i',
C onsi';n{c"tionJ Res-earC}t Gnire
r
I'lichigan State
Ur:i;c,'rs ! by
,
Septonber
1958
,
t;li,eitict=e
Noivspaper
Staff Size fron Circulaticnr,
.Tourr-aHq.n g'
,
3623t
Sr:n:er
1959t
35v354-
Dr1l31g H. Erlandsosr
1ffi;ftfi:;:.6n
of SJiaries irith Nelrspap,er
I'Prestigert
Ranlct,
$r-u.ry-af-i-sy1-
9o,
l+Oz}e .qpring
1963t 22W'3O,
Alex S.
Ed.e1stei.n,
tThe
nof?*-aiiC* 3:itatiie of the
lleporte:rt
-9r
F*94p,"-t!v-oe
ix Ll.ass-
g-orrntr4-+ggt1lpp., C openhagen
1
966-,
_l+1
42',
ar111lrr
oaroiar
rA
st1fr;
'or
gr-ibffi'"i--"iia
attttudes of ca}ifotnJar s
Caii.irf Correspondents
t,
.Jou:n_q!!5gg
$" ;
Wt?rSurrrer
1967
t33U333"
T,Ialter GLeber and. Wa1ter Johr.son,
tThe
Citl' HaIt
'tBeattr
: A S'cttdy of
-
Ii.,aporLcr eurci Source Roiest
,
Joggr-a.Li-q-n*Q o
I
.3821,
$ur:u'rcr 196t
,
289-a97
'
8a.fael E.e{11,
rJoulnalists
in Isr.cue]': A Statistical
Portre.ittr
J=qt4lgl-i1-q.
9.,
36s1,
$ISnter
1959,
Tl4.
Braclley S. Groonberg-errd- Pet-ty H, Ta;rnenbaun,
r0onglunicator
Perfo:rra$oe
Ur:der cogn5-t:lve s'bress
r,
.J=wTrJipgJ|"
r
39
z?rSpring
,
,962, 1 69-178.
Brarll-ey S.
Sydney W.
ltobert V.
Robert L.
l.obert
L.
242.
Greenberg,
lThe
connr.mity
Press
&s Percei.veo by its E&Ltors
nni Read.ers
I
, J:g{1r-Af-tep.-3.,
41
3J,
Su.riuret
19&t
437dJhO,
i{ead.,
roan
a Journal-ist ila
'iiProf;;siunaltt
i-n
a DeveloplJrq
C o'n'biy
t,
.,lo-u-tqa.tijl-r:- !.,
lrO :4, Autrrrrr
1
9&, 594-598'
Hudson,
tA
Desc"ifrifiJ*Stud,y
;f
-Ore,gon
TV Nsrrsnent
, JWIip-g
g.
,
l&t1
,
SPring
1967, 1J6-137,
Jones,
t/i
flre.clictive
anr] Conpc.rative
Sturly of Journalisn
Porsorurelr
,
$1at4]-a1g!.
,
3]
z2r- Sryiog
19fut 201-214"
Jones a,nd. Charles E.
-SfiEiTfrn-r'T-SffiLi
City Daily Nerispaperf,Iens
their Abil
i
ties cund. Inteirosts
r
, Sqn-ol$-f}.
,
J1
z1
,
T{jntcrr
195\.-t
38-55
"
Robert P. Jur}i,
tThe
Ne',ispaper
R*porter
in a Subrrrban Ci@l
r
-J-ogtflqiltieg
9.,
38',1,
'r5nter
1961
t
35Je2'.
Joan lfu33ick ana fnilip f. Gi'5ffin,
tArl.vanttr,ges
and. Disaorrantages
of
rTeeii\y Neuspapor vTorkr
, {,g@gf.-$,,
33z1t
fiinter
19611
79-Bt
.
Theoclore E. KnrgJak,
igo""*rpond.ents
of U.S. &[ed:ia in the United- King&onr,
[ogryrp]:.rrr_!".,
31
t3t Surner
1951+t
32t+436.
HonrSr Laciclsnith
.uC. tanet l0tat;
rThe
Noetlers: Our Journalistio
Satiristsf
,
Journel,isn
$.
,
39
23, Sunrrer
1962
,
jOi-J16
.
Donald A,
Ienbert,
tF-o"L-{f,n*
bodorponclcnts Covering
-tlre
UnileA States
|
,
lou'nC:rf.sj1.!*.
2
33
z3
t
Sunner
1956
t._349_-356.
E. Ie,rrabee,
tJourrrefrsiiFo-.,.i'"ra'-
the Definition of a
frofessionl
r
S4igg
in- RrbJ:ic Cornnr:n-i-c-etion
,
3,
1961
t
21-26.
Crispin ltaslog,
t
Rnoffi*iF^t-he
ptifferriorT
Conrnrnity Newsllper
and
^
Erlj.tprr
,
W.,
tr6z2, Sururer.1999
fi37'31a2.
^
Joseph J. l,iatJreils,
rThe
Profeffion iT i;tar Corresponclencel
, J-o-lrlrrg-1i-t?p
Q-' ,
33
21, Tfi:rter
1956
t
23-24.
Jack Mcl,eod and Sear1e E: Hawley Jr,
e-
rfirofessionalisation
r\mgn8 Newsnenf
t
Jop1n;rlisn
rJ.,
il
zt+, Autunn
19&,
529-5J8.
Jack Mo..bod. arra nanifil*nl-=H-uiif,
iProfossionaLisaticn
of l^atln Anerican
anc]. U. S
r
Jourrralist s
t,
JWg-gli-"-q 9.,
l+6 z5e
/iutulrtr
1969,
583-59O.
Neil V. Ido0[a11,
tThe
llashington Correspondents:
\Thy
-Do
Sono Drop Orrt?
t
Journalisn
Q.,
l+322, Sunner
1966'
George Mond an6. R. nffi't^u-i-r*tit-ffters
emd Jounraliste:
il Pressure
Group
Jn Easl l\rropean Politios
t
I [gq*"liqg$.
t
I+321
t
Spring 1966
2
95-106.
Daric, Menenteau-Hortal
r.Ftofosstiogo}lsn'
of Journe,U-sts
in
-Sanltggl
d.e c'htle
|
, .{*q-I!g}-4,1"g3:
,
tA-zLt i{inter
-1967
115F7?+'
Itbiel
de Sol.a Fool arrcl I Sturinff-"ti,t?iffi-en:t"
FantasLesrAuclionces
anc
Newsritjrlgt,
$p-'*!$P-TL9,.,
ZSz?rSurrrer
1959
t
14y158.
Ireo C. Rosten,
Thel, Jfqs.h-tn11b-o-n-
Com.e53on-i.e-n-ts,
Nel',' York
1917.
R.r. Rubin,
tfi;Tl.lr.
rirh-"n""iion of?iGc-r"!rc-t-Le,,
14t 1968t 2?ry5.9.
e"'d';
saui-*e,' oresil*5-$ffi.T";3:T:'*t"mT,'wn*oristics
I,
l,lorrit l Sanuolson,
t,f
stir,n-o.ar,IiJe.r Tost to ldeasure Jolr Satlsfaction
in
the Norvsroont,
J!]uq1t]*s.!i-S.
r
39lt3t
Sunner
1962,
285,.291'.
Itlan Scott ancl lla;naond fi'est,
lPersonnc+l
f,ogIfr*+1-i-qn
9.
,
JZrZ
Tr.unover on Texas SnaIL DaiJlesl,
,
Sirring
1955, 1BY1B9.
2l+3
'
JOhn Caneron
Sb,
lC,.,,i,itltf,nlty
Nevispaper
Leac.ership:l{orc'
Real
than
/rpparentr p
fo.qrq;Iis3.
?' ,
H+i?,
Sumer
1967, 276-280'
C. Sprague,
rTho
UAttort s Job-T6-aJyt"r'
Jg*-1.1p4-fi,
r
2923, Sgnner
1952,
265-270
'
Rod.pey Stark,
lOre6ot
ne:.torial I'frltefs: /, Study
of Characteristios
I
e
-l-q!@1Aqi.,
?821, \rinter
1951
,
69'73.
1:falter
A. StelglenanJyrt66ll'1t*
.laong E&itorlal
tilorkers on Dai\y
l{ewspaperst
, logpgttpg=S.
,
27 221 Sprin6
1950
t
127-
133
'
Guiclo H. Stenpel III alrd. PauJ- H. [ra6ner,
t4l
Ana\rsis
of Newspaper
Ed.itorial Pay z-
t95i*46t
, J.W*l*sIl^9.
,
lr6r2rSr"uner
1969, 281-286.
HarolcL Stone,
tAn
Chjective Persor:nel Study of Metroirolitan
N-ewspaperttenr ,
[o-u1grg-{sn
g.
,
3oz4'
A].rtunn
t953t t+B+67.
Gharles E. Swanson, ffid;iTt.b'"Ify:
the Neris Staff
euri, its Relatlons to
'
Coi,trtl1
, Lo-@-q-$.,
26i, l''larch
19t+9, zg-g.B'
rAgitaticn*ttGough
-tbo
hess:
r:. Sfirdy of the Personi
alities of Rrblicists
|,
BA.&1+-19"J4',
ZQz?rSunner
't956
t
ur14.55.
J. Wjjlhelrr,
tThe,
neappeari.n8 i,'orei8tl CoresponCrent:
A IIorIC,. Srrrveyr
t
-rlo-qgplisF.
g.
e
taQz}, Sprin5
1963
t
147-163,
C. Edrrard 'rilJson,
tTfili-t*anairr,rn
Neolsnen Ioave thejr Paperst,
JgUgp-#F...S',
t+3z[t lTinter
1966
t
767-772.
1t.
wli
J. Edva^rtl
Sora1d.,
tTlic
Briti-sh Pross CouncLl I
A Sunnary
and an Ewluatiolt;,
lpgfpplig-!-., 16:2,
Sunner
1959, 295-106'
H,P. tevy, The Pr:essEtiicfl
!fp^-t-ogyir-o-qq,Lrfte..9q,l
!g89gr-London
1967,
Janos T{. }1ailffi,f," ii;-fir6'8"6-6irffin-fETwtn'd
i[,- iTiaurE bnil .1. Edward
Gerlta,
lJournallsn
Ecluor',tors
errd. tlre Press Counci3
I4ear
i S,*posi'nr,
g*og]_i.qll.t
Spring
1968t
7.7-35.
jidward.
Ivl. Mtdlra,
tThe
Fleess Council
Uipenie;t;t
in
Tritainf
r Loillglisg.
i*, ,
-
l+521
t
Spring
1968r BO-8J'
J.p. UrJ,:iJr,
t
Rrblishers
and. i.lewsrren uilate Conposition
of tlre Br"itish
kess Counoilr
, &t3g1];pg-?.
,
29 21, Y{lnter
1952,
55-58.
1
5.
iwl$gr-qF-g$t
^qp]Til$49flr-
L. /Cex;.p.der,
lspace
Fltght News: N/i,SAts Press
Relations *6 16uft1;:
'
Reaciion'
, Jg*-q4gl-1r=.qjd.
,
45:lrrifjntel
1
966
1722428..
Jack E. B;cker,
tThe
Prestige'fi6si
arld news Managonent t?^tho Cuban
-
crisist
, {-oglg++p.F;}.,
ta1 22, Sprins
196t+I?149?:
A. Barth,
tPositicn
of tlre f\6ss'irr:a l'ffiu Societytr
AJI}3Ifu
25Qt 191rtt
82'*91.
tSociology
of hesic"ential
TV Pross Co{er919e8t
r bc-{gl%T.
.P:lf.-e-"-iq.l &egq*
,
46,
1962, 181'65!
I
Gove,r-rir-eliT
and. rfl:o ne s s : a C onparative
Ana$rs
5-s
t
rlqgg]-i-9"',
E. Bogrurdus,
Srvind
Bmttt
9',
2123, SePtenber
191+lvt 18Y199
o
lseiruity
*rC tfru News in Liberal Corurtriest
1 &gqggBeB
9,.,
S}ztn
Autr-rsur
1961
,
t85-496.
Carter R.
Bryan,
ZUr'
lTaltor BungorRober*,
V, Hud.son
and Chr:ng
lfoo S9|r,
rJohnsonts
Inforuatlon
Strategy
for Vietnin
:An E\raluetlonr
,
-J-o-qrp-a'1-ijr-!L-iL.
t
t+5t3r,-Autunn
1968
,
l*19-/q22'.
B. Brrrgess,
'A
Necessary'C-,rt"a"'
; Ig{tgqlt,
21 :1
,
}iiarch
1961
e96-1oo'
Roneld. Butt,
rThe
fub1i;
r'.elations oTF"rfiasentr
in The Power of
Ber]ta-?I.-e;fg,
Lon-.loi-\ Xl, 377 +o1f]**
T, cd1,
r
rnt'rde1nnc.on"?-iTTrr"
ftess
ancL Goverra.rrent
t,
Mli*c-ll{ffiep.el,t-t
t+6
,
1)64, 156-159
,
Douslass
C ater,
IkAqqS!
e"-qqd1^elqry9ryqg3,
Boston
1959'
Zechnrr.ah cn"r""*Flr^:gilv"-rl,pe".{}.f,fidis!].o_q!rra-1c^a.t-1o-qgr
ch'icaso
19t+7.
H. chase
end. /i Lernan
("-a;:Ti-i@itr-:4:dg'-?l$J"T,u-"*nork
1966.
L. c1eve1and.,
tl,[ed.:ia
and. the'rtirjffi*re,ncy
irl N.?J;
L,e+g
zea]'and
-
JournaL
-e{-Rrb-l+-q-t-,rtiltt+FJqq-tilgr5rlTSFddffi1968'
1T8i:
J. Coatns.n,
tTb
BBC, Governnent
anrl Po15-'b5-csr,
BLb-.---og1So*L3',
1it2,
Stuner
1951
,
287-299.
Elner E. Cornwe1l,
rTi]-son
and- l:-is Presid'encyr,
S!*-gpiqgg-q9',
2Jt'2'
Sunner
1959, 189'202.
t
Rresid.'.rtio1
lilews : ths Dcpa.nd'ing
Ptrblic Inage
|
,
-J-o,l*"eli:p.9.
,
3623 t
Sunner
1959, 27H,83,.
%- E"ia""tial
Press Conference
3
a
Stuay in
Institr:ticnalisationr,
!-4t:Ii&re-st-
J-oupal
of Folitical
.[e{s1*"s,
e
ilzt+t
nouu"r'u;
1566-:;1firti,'
''G+s'*''
'--
Tdh?
ff*"" conferenoes
of Tfoodrow'{Il-lsotrtr
JglgqE
9'
,
39'.J,
Su'nne r
1962
,
292-iw
'
Trr*
Johnson Pnoss Relations Style
r,
[o1$.nq]'\F-Ilitr.r
l,rJz1, Spri:rg
1956
t
3-9.
D. Fitzpatrick,
rRrb]jic
i:rforootion Activitic,s
of Governnont
Agenciesr,
Rrb,r,
-Cp-1gr-i.o.q
Q.
r
11
24, lYi-nter
19n,
53C-539'
TM"C;#inS
CoTu"*ent
Rrblicity:Vo}:ne
.
of hess
ReJ-ecsettl
Lo-r+ng1l.:,gg*li.
,
2621
,
March
1949t
\5-5O'
Edwarcl M. Gli ck,
I
11'e ss
-Gov"rnnFnTTul?frli-nttr:ips
: State
and- H-E-W
u"p*"t*;;;;
i
, Je*gqliS..F*g.
,
a3zl,
-
si'rrrts
19-66
r49-J6'
David L. Grey,
I
Intervier;lng
at'tfF?AiliillEJr.*@.3. r
Jl
:2,
Sunner
1967
,
285-289,
r h". jt+pl,pllq-*c-",l+f!--qgL
ltre-Igg+Jgq,
Evan s t oo
r
l ?
68'
Tfi_llian
A. Hachten, ffiu-*ffGJ-al C;p;ffi-oT
eovernnentr,
-&-*qlxlriFp.
g.
r [o:1,
liinter
1963,
12-18'
Neal D. Houghton,
tTfi-ttlub-;n
Invasion
of
1961 and the U.S.hees
ix
Retrospectt
, {gqgt#$.,
V"3,
Sunner
1965t
Ip21+32.
Earl R, Hutchison,
liennedy
ancl tho Press:
the First Six Monthst
r,J-p-Wa-liqg
9,.
,
3?:Ly'utunn
1961
,
l+5H+59
'
Gcrald J. IiejJ,
tgovfrnnent
Rrblic
Relati-ons
and the hess
jx
l\iichiganf
,
- -
'
Jg,lf*.+l:.qE.
e
43t3 t
/r'uturur
1966,
551452'
J. Kraf,t',$.-of-i-le-g
-jgF;li&I--rf
-.Etertittet-en
I-nS-@t1
New York
196t+'
s
.
Krau s
t
"ffE-e,3,qeslT-+:q1$j
r
"ffuii?i
-t
fff
:
tThe polltlcal-
Use of Televisionf
, .:&,1ryt-"l$.J@;
cas-!1g6,
B, 19&, 219-22E.
T .
F . Loncl.say,
Egr.}*EEF-.Eq
iit-".
-Bf"-qf*-e-+-lfPI5t,
Lonclon
I
16!'
A.r,. I,orenz- J;TCfr;;.ri-"n,1
th; n?"i--i-or6runcor r /ggp-a.$.sg;['r
43zbr
irTinter
1965
,
57t479,
\
I
Joseph II. I,lcud.er,
Delbert McGuire,
2\5
'
I
Governnent Press Bureau:c and. Reporting of Rrlilic
l,ff ai.rs
t
,
{ol#11e_!iqg$.
,
1)
t?rJune
191+3
t172-178.
r'
Domcracyt s Cgnfrontati-on: the PresiC.entiel Press
Corrference
t
,
*o-qqL#:g !,
,
t&zLt lTi-nter
1967,
618-
6\4, and
45itl
s-pr'n"s
t1ea,
31-Ll .
G.Ii. Meiklejohn, nef]"V-
9-o::f-1_ic.ts _"t_k9L.1rg5|.8g-v-eglgqq,t-,
/'uokland. 1955.
A.E. Musson,
rParDanent
and. the Pressr,
$1*tgguqt*?9=gfg3,gg,,
9z2t
Spring 1956
,
151
-159
.
V.O
t
S.
,
I
Opir:iont
, Qo_ggo-e$- ,
523,
"f'pri1-lvlay
1954t 1,-2.
Janos Po11ar.,1,
f
Franklin
-D.
Roosevelt
and. the kesef
r
22 23, Septe'rrber 1945
t
197-206,
lPresident
Trrrsran and the hessr,
rqg:'gli:s9,,
Journalisn
Q. ,
5,g
27 t1+, Fall 1951
,
l+51+58.
tTrtu.tan
and. tho Press: Final Phase
t
1951-531
,
Jor:rn-ali-sn-t.
,
30-35,
Sunneir
1953, 273-286'
rnisl-nho1t-";-"rtcl.
the fuess
t,,I-qqgPr;rsiq9.,
52
23,
Sunner 1955, 285-5w.
tThe
Kennociy r.t-r:inj-strat
j-on
and the Presg
t
r&q$n1.*4
1.
, \1
211 Spriag
1964t
3-14.
Tgisenhovrer
rrnd. the kess: the Partial. News Vacuunr
,
1-q-urne,*I'i-sn
ia.,
1321,
vTintor
lg?6,
fr.
_
Nornan Robson,
tThe
ffiTrfu-* ]Tur:nJlist-a Defi.nifionr
, *g.F.q*-liSit3.
,
1J22,
Juna
1938, 159-166.
F.E. Rourko,
Su-q1e-cy. ,+g+. .$$_Li._.c-ity,:.
p-fJ-enn-ars-pf Der:i.o-c.ra.cg, I{ew York
1961.
Robert A. RutGnh,
1Fi"-esiaenf
bi-senhowor
and tuis hess Seoretarlrr,
J.gqgpli_s.q J.
t ltrzLr
Fall 1957,
4fl456.
il,.O.S.
Sarkar,
lPrivileges
of Pness ancl Parlianentt,
S,-Jp.q#1.qt.gq
C o_n-g! i.tu-t-i.on_q1-
-P-arLiqgn5:ntggg
$-lutlfurg
,
1
z1
,
Jarru'=:';ir-March 1957
t
L&48.
Gic'.oon Seynour,
lThe
Relationship of the Pre.ss to Govorruent ancL to the
Peopler
r
lo]!ry_Ijf.gJ.,
l9zt
rMarch
19h2t
51-57.
Colj.n Seynour-{Jre,
rPar1i-anenterXl
Privilego anO Broad.cestfngl,
-P-arlinn,
e.n-tSg1jgq-g, 1 6 zl+
2
Auhrmn
1
963,
)*11
+1
E.
John H. Sul-livan,
tTFo-E-e;;-
a;d P.,IiTf in Indonesiaf
,
{gqg?-4$ljt3.,
l*21, Spring 1967
t
99-1Q6.
Charles E' Swanson, J, Jenkl$s and. Robert L. Jones,
rhesiclent
Tnrnan
Speaks: a Study of ld.eas vs Med:iaf
, Jgq{ry-B-"93.t
2723, Sunmer
195Ot 251-262.
Luther T{. Sanders,
t&
Content Analysis of hesid.ent Kenne$rrs Ftrst Slx
Pness Corrferen@st,
[gq31gg$gg.r
lP:1, Ifinter
rhe, B"s#f;; #t;ll?i.or,"r,t"ry Reporti',6 in Newspapers
1768-
1n;t,
&r_ Fpglirslr-His_-toli.q1l _Re-qleg,
74,
1959,
g2z43g.
Verl,ing C. TroLdsh-lrRobert Van Dan and.. George B. Robeck,
rRrbl-ic
;lffairs
Inf or;nation-Seieking fron Dcpert Institutionrlise'l
Sourcosr,
J.gqry.lg1g-$,
,
t4z3, Sunner
1965t
4O3Fl+12.
John F, VaILee.u,
rOregon
lc8islfiirre neporttng3 tire Nervsrlgn
and. thelr
-
M;thoclsi,
&Jilnlqll-+ji.,
29t2, Spring
1952
r158-17O.
2l+6.
16. SPACE COl,{i,iIlNICilI0t{S
17'-
rEI4l[IlI_al
Nc.il P. Hurley,
tA
Cast StuEy of Technologyr s Inpact on_Polilfglir
EA"-
&qvie3-
of. P.cr.Irllicg, fr:2 r-
April-l 968,
170'1
90.
Leonarcl Ja.fee'
g oqg,*{C!-L","-ti:.iii:
Flg;g'
Nevr York
1966.
G. E. Mue ILer
"nffiR"
SptrteTutr-
@y*ll,!39-qs-"p3.te,.tl-
.i-te-s-
rNew
York
1965,
Lloyd D. Musolf
(ed.).,
-Conn'ur:;ic-a-t-i1ms-
Eq-b-gfll-i9-s
tn Folitio**9g!!!t
c.ui6#ff=-Tt6g-.*
--
lCr-.nrunicaticns
Satcllites: a l{ow Institutional
Settingr,
Pgp"-!i"g
of iitonic Scientists,
April
1967
t
l+ and Jrure
1967
t
T54i; rrarii 9-de'lGzt
'
-
tlltorkl.
Televisionr
,
,l,
"uii"ro
i.n Au&it Visug). Corrnuf--ca.t-fqqp,*&-YlgIt
sprine
1g6t
,
1?zfrt4:
@^
--
gpggg-gog;g1gip."-!io-41-q,.n,.ii
trqq Mo.q;-liea.ie,
Unesoo' Paris
1963'
Gordon Blck,
IJ}a.g.o-ol-qgS- -r]1lS,
Christchurch
1968'
JayG.B1r.rn]-er,|Par1.i''e;T6dTV',W}g,28z3tlt*{lg67,5?.l6.
Jay G. Bhrnler enc Denis lr{cQuail,
g-+-e."E}lgo-Hir^".t-:
l?tAon
1968'
Huglr Erliott,
rThe
Three-\fay stnresfJ-of'-erJs]lffdi"
-aiia
w i-n Austro']iat,
rq"-q+-*ii-"gg .l- 37
,z
,
Sprins
1960, 267*7!'
Robert Fraser,
rrncie;fifi;iif
GGvision
in Britoin'
rEpirl.+*".399ry*p-B-b.togr
36,
Suncrer
19fit 115-124.
John S. Hamis,
tTelevisj.on
as r^u Political Issue in Britainf
r
T"?
c ana.d.i.an J ournal of E c,:-rp!q!o siIrA
P-q-let4-991 [$LW,
ttil-a"e;{'ffi5
;
iztfiffi-
at r
--
"'4-:
\ri.K. Jackson,
tTelevision
anci. Deno"ro"yi,
s5r1!pp
1t+z3t Septenber
196Ct
2B'l-Q93.
Ien Jacob,
tTelevision
in the Prrblic Sorvicer,
$p$!o--{rl4$1i-s*tgg!ige
36t
1958t
311-318.
Ian Johnstono,
!.h5i-
-Rig.ht"*C-lpppe-1p
Dune ili-n
1
968,
John H. Kesseir*'iTJ6 r;tuterv
an-0. the l.{anufacfirre
of Newst
rHl*+-upi-g$f
{gggge.,
1623e 196i, 29}-3cD.
Kurt Lan,b ancl Gladys
rrrt?T[qlu-g]*q3.g],-g}l}"-pSli"3$"e,'
-cll91eo
1
958'
-
tChe-teGr{Ji-on p'iGJnaEty
in Politios:
Sone
Considera'bions
r,
B$j-9J-1p-iS-q-g:
r
-1956
t
1O?1 12'-
Rolf Meyersohn,
rTelevisir.rn
ani tho P.6;f-of
'Gisurer
r RLr
gfii+-i.o*tl9.
r
32,1
2
SPr5n5
1958, 1Q'-112,
Tfi-Bia^sr
pickles,
tpoiltii"f-/,ttitud.es
in tle Television
Aget,
E9ltllg
-
gg1;[eJJ[r}o,
1959t
54-56'
J. Roucek
,
r1he
Inffiffi;;f
iui"vieion on American PolitLcsr,
S
&-llit-co-,
28'.1, t'[arch 1963,
121+'1341
-
n-r---^ r
R, Sala.nt,
rThe
Televigion
Debates,
L Rrvolution
that Deserves
a tr\rturel,
@1.r
2523r^Fall
1962t
315-350'
Co1jnSe3neorrr-{Ire,'ffiorth;'Proposa1toretevisePar.L!anent'r
-
Parlfgrent-qy--{Sf-qj;qg ,
1J-22, Sprin6
19-64t
.1J2-18':o.
'
Dallas $uyttre,
tneari-f-#FrGifdE:-JriToruvisionr,
B&r9!^rlt3-o-tj.,
18:2'
Sunmer
19fut 153-155'-
R. Stern,
l1elerrlsion
in the tfrjrtieu:-E
"tging
Pattorns
of Iechn:ica1
Development
;
Inflush:lel
Contiol
anrl Gov,:rrrr:ent
Concornr ,
Tho ,.ncrican Jou:nal
of lcononjc
F*o.gig1*-o-ryt
2i
t
19&r;-f1o$:ig'.
'-
?47.
Nonran Swallow,
Eggg++LTS
lq$S_ipp,
L,ond.on 1
966,
Gortrart D, Wfebe, I[-NelrtlrralrsTon in Journalignr,
{gl4gg}ig$.,
31tl+,
Fa1I 19j/q.t
411JP0r
R. ffiJllans,
rTelovision
in Brltaht,
Eb@ F-o.g-l*-I3ggt
18, 19622 5-15.