Chapter 10: Symmetrical Components and

Unbalanced Faults, Part II

10.4 Sequence Networks of a Loaded Generator

In the figure to the right is a generator supplying a
three-phase load with neutral connected through
impedance
n
Z to ground. The generator generates
three-phase balanced voltages defined as:

2
1
abc
a
E a E
a
_

,

The terminal voltage of the generator is found
using Kirchoff's voltage law:

a a s a n n
b b s b n n
c c s c n n
V E Z I Z I
V E Z I Z I
V E Z I Z I




And since
n a b c
I I I I + + , we have:

a a s n n n a
b b n s n n b
c c n n s n c
V E Z Z Z Z I
V E Z Z Z Z I
V E Z Z Z Z I
+
_ _ _ _

+


+
, , , ,

Or in compact form:
abc abc abc abc
V E Z I . This equation can be transformed to the
"012" or symmetrical component form thus:

012 012 012 abc
a a a
AV AE Z AI
Multiplying by
1
A

we have:

012 012 1 012
012 012 012
abc
a a a
a a
V E A Z AI
E Z I

Where

012 1
2 2
2 2
1 1 1 1 1 1
1
1 1
3
1 1
abc
s n n n
n s n n
n n s n
Z A Z A
Z Z Z Z
a a Z Z Z Z a a
a a Z Z Z Z a a

+
_ _ _

+


+
, , ,

Performing the above matrix multiplication we have:

0
012 1
2
3 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
s n
s
s
Z Z Z
Z Z Z
Z Z
_ +
_







,
,

E
a
E
b
E
c
Z
s
Z
s
Z
s
Z
n
I
a
I
b
I
c
I
n
+
+
+
-
- -
V
a
V
c
V
b
2
It is important to note that the matrices above are diagonal, and the equations are
completely decoupled. Expanding into three voltage equations we have:

0 0 0
1 1 1
2 2 2
0
( )
0
a a
a a a
a a
V Z I
V E Z I
V Z I

++


These equations
represent three separate
circuits as shown to the
right, one for the
positive-sequence, one
for the negative-
sequence, and one for
the zero-sequence
networks.

The following important observations are made:

The three sequences are independent.
The positive-sequence network is the same one used in the one-line diagram for
studying balanced three-phase currents and voltages.
Only the positive sequence-network has a voltage source. Thus the positive-
sequence voltage will generate only positive-sequence currents.
There is no voltage source in the negative- and zero-sequence networks.
Negative- and zero-sequence currents cause only negative- and zero-sequence
voltages.
The neutral of the system is the reference point for the positive- and negative-
sequence networks. The ground is the reference point for the zero-sequence;
hence the zero-sequence current cannot flow unless there is a connection to
ground.
The grounding impedance is reflected in the zero sequence network as 3
n
Z .
Each of the three sequence networks can be solved separately on a per phase
basis. The phase currents and voltages can then be found by superposition, by
adding their symmetrical components of current and voltage respectively.

10.5 Single Line-To-Ground Fault

This is the most common fault on a three-phase system. It is illustrated using the
following simple network:
E
a
+
-
V
1
a
+
-
V
2
a
+
-
V
0
a
+
-
I
1
a
Z
1
I
2
a
Z
2
I
0
a
Z
0
Positive-sequence Negative-sequence Zero-sequence
3
Here the fault occurs between line "a" and ground
through a fault impedance
f
Z . Assuming the
generator was initially at no load, the boundary
conditions at the fault are:
0
a f a
b c
V Z I
I I

Using t-he second equation in the symmetrical
components of currents we have:

0
1 2
2 2
1 1 1
1
1 0
3
1 0
a a
a
a
I I
I a a
I a a
_
_ _

, ,
,

Therefore
0 1 2
1
3
a a a a
I I I I . Thus the three symmetrical components are equal and
each is equal to one-third phase "a" current.

Phase "a" voltage in terms of symmetrical components is:

0 1 2
a a a a
V V V V + +
Using equation ++ last page, and the fact the three symmetrical components of current
are
0 1 2
1
3
a a a a
I I I I we have:

( )
0 1 2 0
a a a
V E Z Z Z I + +
Where
0
3
s n
Z Z Z + and
1 2
s
Z Z Z . Recall that
a f a
V Z I and that
0
3
a a
I I , the
above equation becomes:

( )
0 1 2 0 0
3
f a a a
Z I E Z Z Z I + +
Or:

0
1 2 0
( )
3
a
a
f
E
I
Z Z Z Z
+
+ + +

And the fault current is:

0
1 2 0
3
3
3
a
a a
f
E
I I
Z Z Z Z

+ + +

Using the symmetrical components of current in equation ++ the symmetrical
components of voltage are found, hence by transformation, the voltages during the fault.

Observing the equations
+ and ++ we notice that
the sequence networks
derived earlier may be
connected as shown here
which satisfies these two
equations.
E
a
E
b
E
c
Z
s
Z
s
Z
s
Z
n
I
a
I
b
=0
I
c
=0
I
n
+
+
+
-
- -
V
a
V
c
V
b
Z
f
E
a
+
-
V
1
a
+
-
V
2
a
+
-
V
0
a
+
-
I
1
a
Z
1
I
2
a
Z
2
I
0
a
Z
0
3Z
f
4
If the generator neutral is grounded, then 0
n
Z and
0 s
Z Z , and for a bolted fault
0
f
Z .


10.6 Line-To-Line Fault

This fault is shown in the figure to the right. Note the
neutral is not grounded. The fault is shown between
phases b and c. It is assumed the generator is initially on
no-load. The boundary conditions at the fault point are:
0
0
b c f b
b c
a
V V Z I
I I
I

+

Using 0
a
I and
c b
I I , the symmetrical components
of currents become:

0
1 2
2 2
1 1 1 0
1
1
3
1
a
a b
a b
I
I a a I
I a a I
_
_ _

, ,
,

Expanding the matrix equation we have:

( ) ( )
( )
0
1 2
2 2
0
1
3
1
3
a
a b
a b
I
I a a I x
I a a I

Note that
1 2
a a
I I from (x) above. From the equations for phase voltages (reproduced
below) we have:

0 1 2
0 2 1 2
0 1 2 2
a a a a
b a a a
c a a a
V V V V
V V a V aV
V V aV a V
+ +
+ +
+ +

Hence

( )( )
2 1 2
b c a a
f b
V V a a V V
Z I

Using the values of
1
a
V and
2
a
V from ++, and note that
2 1
a a
I I , we have:

( ) ( )
2 1 2 1
a a f b
a a E Z Z I Z I
1
+
]

And substituting for
b
I from (x) above we have:
E
a
E
b
E
c
Z
s
Z
s
Z
s
I
a
=0
I
b
I
c
+
+
+
-
- -
V
a
V
c
V
b
Z
f
5

( )
( ) ( )
1
1 2 1
2 2
3
a
a a f
I
E Z Z I Z
a a a a
+


Since
( ) ( )
2 2
3 a a a a , solving for
1
a
I we have:

1
1 2
a
a
f
E
I
Z Z Z

+ +

The phase currents are:

2 1
2 1
1 1 1 0
1
1
a
b a
c a
I
I a a I
I a a I
_ _ _

, , ,

The fault current is:

( )
2 1
1
3
b c a
a
I I a a I
j I



Using the symmetrical components of currents in equation ++, the symmetrical
components of voltage (hence phase voltages by transformation,) at the fault point are
obtained.

Note that
0
0
a
I and
2 1
a a
I I , hence from
xx above we see that the sequence network
for the line-to-line fault is as shown on the
right.



10.7 Double Line-To-Ground
Fault

This fault is not as common as the previous two,
but more likely than the symmetrical fault (all
lines bolted, or connected through a fault to the
neutral.) The double line-to-ground fault is
illustrated on the right. The fault is a short
between lines b and c, which are grounded
through fault impedance
f
Z . Again, the
generator is assumed initially at no-load. The
boundary conditions at the fault point are:
(0.1)
( )
0 1 2
0
b c f b c
a a a a
V V Z I I
I I I I
+
+ +


We know that the voltages
b
V and
c
V are given by:

E
a
+
-
V
1
a
+
-
V
2
a
+
-
I
1
a
Z
1
I
2
a
Z
2
Z
f
E
a
E
b
E
c
Z
s
Z
s
Z
s
I
a
=0
I
b
I
c
+
+
+
- - -
V
a
V
c
V
b
Z
f
Z
n
6
(0.2)
0 2 1 2
0 1 2 2
b a a a
c a a a
V V a V aV
V V aV a V
+ +
+ +


And since
b c
V V , we have:
(0.3)
1 2
a a
V V
Substituting "012" for the "abc" currents in (0.1) we have:
(0.4)
( )
( )
0 2 1 2 0 1 2 2
0 1 2
0
2
3
b f a a a a a a
f a a a
f a
V Z I a I aI I aI a I
Z I I I
Z I
+ + + + +

Using (0.4) and (0.3) in the top equation of (0.2) we have:
(0.5)
( )
0 0 2 1
0 1
3
f a a a
a a
Z I V a a V
V V
+ +


Using (++) for the symmetrical components of voltage in the equation above, and solving
for
0
a
I we have:
(0.6)
1 1
0
0
3
a a
a
f
E Z I
I
Z Z

+

Using the equation (++) in (0.3) we have:
(0.7)
1 1
2
2
a a
a
E Z I
I
Z

Now using the above two equations in the second equation of (0.1) we have (after some
algebra:)
(0.8)
( )
1
2 0
1
2 0
3
3
a
a
f
f
E
I
Z Z Z
Z
Z Z Z

+
+
+ +

Note that
a
E drives the current
1
a
I , hence the impedance seen by
a
E is:
( )
2 0
1
2 0
3
3
f
f
Z Z Z
Z
Z Z Z
+
+
+ +
. Clearly,
this is the impendence
1
Z in
series with the parallel
combination of
2
Z and
0
3
f
Z Z + . Thus the sequence
networks can be connected as
shown in the circuit on the
right. Once the sequence
currents are found from (0.8),
(0.7) and (0.6) [in that order,] the phase currents are found using the transformation
matrix A. Finally the fault current is found from:
(0.9)
0
3
f b c a
I I I I +
E
a
+
-
V
1
a
+
-
V
2
a
+
-
V
0
a
+
-
I
1
a
Z
1
I
2
a
Z
2 I
0
a Z
0
3Z
f
7
[This is seen from the equation ( )
0
1
3
a a b c
I I I I + + and knowing in this case 0
a
I .]

Example 10.5

The one-line diagram of a simple power
system is shown to the right. The neutral
of each generator is grounded through a
current-limiting reactor of 0.25/3 per unit n
a 100-MVA base. The system data
expressed in per unit on a common 100-
MVA base is tabulated below. The
generators are running on no-load at their
rated voltage and rated frequency with their
emfs in phase.

Determine the fault current for the
following faults:

(a) A balanced three-phase fault at bus
3 through fault impedance
0.1
f
Z j per unit.
(b) A single line-to-ground fault at bus 3 through fault impedance 0.1
f
Z j per unit.
(c) A line-to-line fault at bus 3 through fault impedance 0.1
f
Z j per unit.
(d) A double line-to-ground fault at bus 3 through fault impedance 0.1
f
Z j per
unit.
Item Base MVA Voltage rating
1
X
2
X
0
X
1
G
100 20 kV 0.15 0.15 0.05
2
G
100 20 kV 0.15 0.15 0.05
1
T
100 20/220 kV 0.1 0.1 0.1
2
T
100 20/220 kV 0.1 0.1 0.1
12
L
100 220 kV 0.125 0.125 0.3
13
L
100 220 kV 0.15 0.15 0.35
23
L
100 220 kV 0.25 0.25 0.7125

Preliminary calculations:

First we find the Thevenin impedance viewed from bus 3, the faulted bus. First the delta
is changed to a Y as can be seen in the figure below on the right. Now the Y-impedances
are calculated thus:
1 2
3
G
1 G
2
T
1
T
2
8
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )( )
1
2
3
0.125 0.15
0.0357143
0.525
0.125 0.25
0.0595238
0.525
0.15 0.25
0.0714286
0.525
S
S
S
j j
Z j
j
j j
Z j
j
j j
Z j
j





Combining parallel branches, and
adding the series branch, the positive-
sequence Thevenin impedance is:




( ) ( )
1
33
0.2857143 0.3095238
0.0714286
0.5952381
0.22
j j
Z j
j
j
+

The positive- and negative-sequence networks
are shown to the right. The only difference
between them in this case is that the source is
missing in the negative-sequence network.
Hence we have:
2 1
33 33
0.22 Z Z j
Now, the zero-sequence
network is constructed
based on the transformer
connections and is shown
in the figures to the right.
Note that the delta is
reduced to its equivalent Y
first, and then the
impedances are combined
to find the equivalent zero-
sequence circuit. The
result is the simple circuit
shown below.
Zero-sequence
j0.35


j0.25
j0.15
j0.25
j0.125
1
2
3
j0.25
1
2
3
j0.25 j0.25
j0.035714 j0.059524
j0.071428
S
j0.25
j0.35
j0.7125
j0.3
1 2
3
j0.25
j0.05
j0.05
j0.1
j0.1
j0.25
j0.25
j0.05
j0.05
j0.1
j0.1
1
2
3
S
j0.183026
j0.156881
j0.077064
E
a
+
-
j0.22
Positive-sequence Negative-sequence
j0.22
9
Now we are ready to solve the problem!
(a) Balanced three-phase fault at bus 3.

We assume the generators at no-load have a voltage of 1.0 per unit, hence the fault
current is:

( )
3
3 1
33
0 1.0
3.125 pu
0.22 0.1
=820.1 90 V
a
a
f
V
I j
Z Z j j

+ +

o


(b) Single line-to-groud fault at bus 3.

We know the sequence currents are the same and given by:

( )
0 1 2 3
3 3 3 1 2 0
33 33 33
0
3
1.0
0.22 0.22 0.35 3 0.1
0.9174 pu
a
f
V
I I I
Z Z Z Z
j j j j
j

+ + +

+ + +


And using the matrix A we have:

0 0
3 3 3
2 0
3 3
2 0
3 3
1 1 1 3 2.7523
1 0 0 pu
1 0 0
a
b
c
I I I j
I a a I
I a a I
_ _ _
_ _







, ,
, , ,


(c) Line-to-line fault at bus 3.

The zero-sequence component of current is zero, i.e.
0
3
0 I . Also from the analysis of
the line-to-line done previously we have:

( )
1 2 3
3 3
1 2
33 33
0
1
1.8519 pu
0.22 0.22 0.1
a
f
V
I I j
Z Z Z j j j

+ + + +


The fault current is:

3
2
3
2
3
1 1 1 0 0
1 1.8519 3.2075 pu
1 1.8519 3.2075
a
b
c
I
I a a j
I a a j
_
_ _ _







, , ,
,


(d) Double line-to-ground fault at bus 3.

From the equations developed earlier for the sequence currents of this fault we have:
10

( )
( )
( )
1 3
3
2 0
33 33
1
33 2 0
33 33
0
1
2.6017 pu
0.22 0.35 0.3
3
0.22
0.22 0.35 0.3
3
a
f
f
V
I j
j j j
Z Z Z
j
Z
j j j
Z Z Z

+
+
+
+
+ +
+ +


( ) ( ) ( )
1 1
2 3 33 3
3
2
33
0 1 0.22 2.6017
1.9438
0.22
a
V Z I j j
I j
Z j


( ) ( )( )
1 1
0 3 33 3
3
0
33
0 1 0.22 2.6017
0.6579
3 0.35 0.3
a
f
V Z I j j
I j
Z Z j j


+ +

And using the A matrix we have the phase currents:

3
2
3
2
3
1 1 1 0.6579 0
1 2.6017 4.058 165.93 pu
1 1.9438 4.058 14.07
a
b
c
I j
I a a j
I a a j
_
_ _ _








, , ,
,
o
o

The fault current is:
( )
3 3 3
1.9732 90
b c
I F I I +
o
.