HSC Physics Core Module 1 Space

1. Many factors have to be taken into account to achieve a successful rocket launch,
maintain a stable orbit and return to Earth.
escribe the tra!ectory of an ob!ect under"oin" pro!ectile motion #ithin the Earth$s
"ravitational field in terms of hori%ontal and vertical components.
A pro!ectile is any object that is launched into the air. Projectiles are projected into the air and then
left to complete their unpowered flight.
Throughout the flight the projectile is subject to only one force - the force of gravity and just one
acceleration acceleration due to gravity. This rate of acceleration applies to all objects large or
small.
The tra!ectory of a projectile is the path that it follows during its flight. In the absence of air
resistance, the path to the flight of a projectile will trace out the shape of a parabola.
To understand and analyse this motion we must mae a very important observation! &he motion of
a pro!ectile can be re"ulated as t#o separate independent motions superimposed on each
other. &he first is a vertical motion #hich is sub!ect to acceleration due to "ravity, and the
second is a hori%ontal motion, #hich e'periences no acceleration.
"ecause the two motions are perpendicular, therefore independent, we can treat them separately
and analyse them.
# Acceleration $%uations!
&'
('
)'
#'
The *ertical +otion
,hen a ball is thrown directly up, it is accelerated due to gravity directly down. As a result it will rise
up, slow to a halt in the air and then fall bac to the $arth. As it falls it will speed up until, when bac
at its starting point, it is going as fast as it was when thrown. -urthermore, the time taen to fall
from its pea height to the ground is e.actly the same as the time taen to rise to the pea height.
/ote! In this scenario up is taen to be the positive direction but this may not always be the case.
In adapting the acceleration e%uations for the vertical motion we need to note the following
variables!
0ence our three e%uations become!
The 0ori1ontal +otion
If a ball is pushed hori1ontally, ideally, once it is under way, it e.periences no acceleration at all in its
direction of movement. If no acceleration is e.perienced then the ball will travel at a uniform,
unchanging velocity.
This is also the nature of the hori1ontal portion of a projectile2s motion. 3nce free of the ground,
there is no frictional force 4air resistance is negligible at this point', so the ball will travel uniformly in
the hori1ontal direction.
In adapting the acceleration e%uations for the hori1ontal motion we need to note the following
variables!
0ence our three e%uations become!
escribe (alileo$s analysis of pro!ectile motion
All objects are accelerated towards the $arth at the same rate. This was first realised by 5alileo
5alilei.
5alileo postulated that all masses, whether large or small, fall at the same rate, and he conducted
e.periments to prove just that. 0owever, air resistance gets in the way of such e.periments and
made the job %uite difficult. 0e eventually overcame this difficult by rolling balls down highly polished
inclines instead of simply dropping them, thereby reducing the effective acceleration. This lower rate
of acceleration was less affected by air resistance and was easier to measure.
5alileo was also able to brea down motion into hori1ontal and vertical components. 0e reasoned
that motion could be thought of as the sum of a constant hori1ontal velocity 46.' and a vertical
motion 46y' which is accelerating due to the influence of gravity.
5alilean Theory of 7elativity
8 The law of mechanics applies e%ually in all inertial frames of reference 9
An inertial frame of reference is one which is at rest or travelling with a constant velocity.
37
)*n inertial frame of reference is one in #hich +e#ton$s first la# holds,

A non-inertial frame of reference is one that is accelerating.
5alilean Theory of 7elativity led to the understanding of projectile motion.
8Projectile motion consists of two independent motions, namely that of the hori1ontal and the vertical
components. The hori1ontal motion is a uniform velocity motion whereas the vertical is an
accelerating motion.
Air 7esistance
In all e.amples we have previously seen, we have ignored the effect of air resistance on the motion
of the projectile. &he reason for this is that it is simply too difficult for us to account for,
since it depends on numerous factors such as shape, te.ture, surface air, velocity and so on.
In the real world, air resistance acts as a retarding force in both the vertical and hori1ontal
directions. As a result, the path of the projectile is distorted away from a perfect parabola as shown
in the figure below!
E'plain the concept of escape velocity in terms of the.
i. (ravitational Constant
ii. Mass and /adius of the planet
Escape 0elocity is the minimum velocity re%uired for an object to escape a gravitational field and
go to infinity.
:onsider the following!
1utline +e#ton$s concept of escape velocity
Isaac /ewton wrote that it should be possible to launch a projectile fast enough so that it achieved
an orbit around the $arth.
0e hypothesised this by observing the projectile of a stone thrown from a tall tower. 0e noticed that
as the stone is thrown faster, it will travel further before stopping. 0e hypothesised that if the stone
was thrown fast enough then, as the stone falls, the $arths surface will curve away so that the falling
stone never actually lands on the ground and thus orbits the $arth.
0e had no way of testing this hypothesis, but it led to the important concept that at any given
altitude, there is a specific velocity re%uired for any object to achieve a stable orbit.
Consider the follo#in".
If instead of throwing the stone hori1ontally to the $arth surface, rather it was thrown directly
perpendicular. As the stone is thrown faster it will reach a greater height. Thus the conclusion can be
made, that if the stone is thrown fast enough it will continue to rise and continue to slow down but
never fall bac down thus escaping the $arth2s gravitational field. &he initial velocity re2uired to
achieve this is kno#n as escape velocity.
As previously stated!
"y considering the inetic and 5P$ of a projectile, it can be shown that the escape velocity of a
planet depends only upon the universal gravitational constant, the mass and the radius of the planet.
+ote. The mass of an object has no influence on the escape velocity. This means that a rocet and a
tennis ball need the same escape velocity to escape any gravitational field.
3dentify #hy the term 4" forces$ is used to e'plain the forces actin" on an astronaut
durin" launch
Apparent weight for a person standing on the surface of the $arth is e%ual to the sum of the forces
that are resisting your true weight.
The term ;g force2 is used to e.press a person2s apparent weight as a multiple of his<her normal
true weight 4that is the weight when they are standing on the surface of the $arth'.
0ence!
g force = 4apparent weight' < 4normal true weight'
The figure shows the forces that are acting upon an astronaut
during a launch. The astronauts body is e.erting a downward
weight force on the floor and the floor meets this with an
upward reaction force. In addition, the floor is e.erting an
upward acceleration force 4m . a'.
&herefore the astronaut feels an apparent #ei"ht 5 m" 6 ma
&herefore " force 5 7m" 6 ma8 9 :.;m
*nd hence, " force 5 7" 6 a8 9 :.;
,here
g = acceleration due to gravity at altitude 4 '
m = mass of the astronaut.
analyse the chan"in" acceleration of a rocket durin" launch in terms of the.
1 <a# of Conservation of Momentum
= forces e'perienced by astronauts
Projectiles receive an initial velocity and are then left to fall through a trajectory, rocets receive a
force called thrust from their engine4s' for a significant portion of their upwards flight and become
more conventional projectiles only after their engines are e.hausted.
7ocets
A rocet engine is different from most other engines in that it carries with it both its fuel and its
o.ygen supply. Any fuel needs o.ygen to burn and most engines obtain the necessary o.ygen from
the air around them. 0owever, in space there is no air or other atmosphere, which maes a rocet
engine the natural choice.
+odern rocets either use solid or li%uid propellants. >olid rocet propellants are manufactured with
a mi.ture of fuel and o.idi1er. The dry solid propellant is paced into an insulated cylindrical vessel,
usually with a hollow core 4which isn2t necessary', but increases surface area available for burning
and thus the thrust will increase. 3nce ignition starts, hot gases are produced at an e.treme rate
and forced out through the no11le.
?i%uid propellant rocets eep both the li%uid fuel and the o.idi1er in separate storage tans. There
are pipes which lead both these substances to the ignition points where the hot gases will again be
forced out through the no11le.
The forward motion of the rocet can be described using the <a# of conservation of momentum.
This law states that during any interaction in a closed system the total momentum of the system
remains unchanged.
This means that during the launch, the momentum of the gases shooting out of the rear of the
rocet must be e%ual to the forward momentum of the rocet itself.
This means that during any one-second time interval!
Total change in momentum = @
,here
= change in momentum 4 '
= mass 4g'
= velocity 4 '
This means that the bacward momentum of the gases 4 ' is e.actly e%ual in magnitude to the
forward momentum of the rocet 4 ', thus the rocet will have forward velocity.
+ote. the mass of the gases is considerably less than the rocet, but their velocity is much greater,
so their momenta are e%ual but opposite.
,here
- = -orce 4/'
t = time 4s'
so that
-4-t'5ases = 4-t'7ocet
or for any one second interval,
- - 5ases = - 7ocet
This is /ewtons Third ?aw of +otion. The rocet is forcing a large volume of gasses bacward behind
it, and the gases in return force the rocet forward 4as shown below'. Although the two forces are
e%ual and opposite, the rocet e.periences just one of them the thrust.
Thrust and Acceleration
As a rocet is a mass it is subject to several forces, and thus it will accelerate according to /ewtons
second ?aw.
&he /ocket is sub!ect to the follo#in" forces.
- Its weight force directed downwards
- Its thrust directed upwards
- The reaction force of the ground on the rocet 4e%ual to the difference
between the weight and the thrust while the rocet is still on the ground' directed upward.
- Air resistance directed downward against the motion of the rocet once it has
left the ground. This air resistance force can become significant as the speed of the rocet builds,
but at the relatively low speeds of early lift-off its effect can be ignored.
+ote.
A rocet2s acceleration will not be constant, however, because fuel constitutes up to A@B of the mass
of a typical rocet. As the fuel is burnt, the mass of the rocet decreases but the thrust remains the
same. Additionally the gravitational field vector, g, reduces slightly with increasing altitude. The
result is that a rocets rate of acceleration will increase and its velocity will increase too
:onse%uently, the acceleration e%uation of a rocet will only be at an instant, provided that the mass
and the thrust are nown at that instant.
*nalyse the forces involved in uniform circular motion for a ran"e of ob!ects,
includin" satellites orbitin" the Earth
>niform Circular Motion is motion with a uniform orbital velocity.
A force is re%uired to eep a spacecraft in orbit around the earth, or any object in circular motion
some force is needed to eep it there, and that force is directed bac towards the centre of the
circle. In the case of the spacecraft, it the gravitational attraction between the $arth and the
spacecraft that acts to maintain the circular motion, nown as an centripetal force, can be
determined using the following e%uation!
where
-c = centripetal force 4/'
m = mass of the object in motion 4g'
v = instantaneous or orbital velocity of the mass 4m<s'
r = radius of circular motion 4m'
/ewton2s >econd ?aw stares that wherever there is a net force acting on an object there is an
associated acceleration. >ince this centripetal force is the only force acting on the motion it can be
said!
/ote! *elocity is a vector %uantity. >ince the object is constantly changing direction it must be
changing its velocity hence it must be accelerating
Centripetal acceleration is al#ays present in uniform circular motion. 3t is associated #ith
centripetal force and is also directed to#ards the centre of the circle.
?hy does an astronaut feel #ei"htless #hen orbitin" the Earth@
,eightlessness occurs when the g-force e.perienced by the astronaut is @. In the case of an
astronaut orbiting in a spacecraft, there are no resistance forces on the person so there is no
apparent weight.
-urthermore, when in orbit, the spacecraft is constantly falling 4but never hitting the earth due to the
$arth2s curvature'. This means that the acceleration e.perienced is g 4taing up to be the positive
direction'. 0ence!
5 force = 4g C a' < g
= Dg C 4-g'E < g
= @ apparent weight.
Therefore the astronaut feels ;weightless2
iscuss the importance of +e#ton$s <a# of >niversal (ravitation in
understandin" and calculatin" the motion of satellites
The application of /ewton2s ?aw of 6niversal 5ravitation to the orbital motion of a satellite will
produce an e.pression for the critical orbital velocity.
This gravitational force of attraction also serves as the centripetal force for the circular motion
hence!
Therefore we can e%uate the formula for -5 with that for -c!
,here!
+ote. &he radius of the orbit, r, is the sum of the radius of the Earth and altitude of the
orbit.
/ 5 /E 6 altitude 7m8
,here!
-rom these last two e.pressions, it can be noted that the orbital velocity for a particular object
depends only on the mass of the $arth, the radius of the $arth C the altitude orbit. 5iven that the
mass of the $arth and the radius have fi.ed values, this means that altitude is the only variable that
determines the specific velocity re%uired. In addition, the greater the radius of the orbit, the lower
the orbital velocity re%uired.
$conomical ?aunching
7ocet launch planners use the rotational speed of the $arth, about &F@@ ph, to assist the launch of
their rocets. To reach a low earth orbit 4the minimum height needed to significant atmospheric
drag, about (G@ ph' a spacecraft needs to reach an orbital speed about of )@ @@@ ph.
?aunching a spacecraft into its orbit in the direction of the $arth2s rotation from ?ES& &1 E*S& will
give the spacecraft an additional &F@@ ph for free.
+ission planners also use the speed of the earth around the sun, about &@F @@@ ph, to increase the
starting velocity of an intra solar system rocet. The advantages are obvious. Hust as obvious as the
fact that the $arth must the facing in the right direction of this orbital speed. -or this reason there
are )launch #indo#s, during which a rocet must be launched. If it is launched outside these
windows, the rocet will start its journey in the wrong direction.
Compare 2ualitatively and 2uantitatively lo# Earth and "eo-stationary orbits
In past theory, it has been assumed that the motion of the planets and satellites are circular. In
reality, however, this is not the case. The most common orbital shape is an ellipse, or oval shape.
Iepler also reali1ed this and stated it as his first law. 7<a# of Ellipses8
$llipsis can be round or elongated the degree of stretch is nown as the eccentricity.
The eccentricity is defined as the ration of c . a.
* circle is an ellipsis #ith an eccentricity of A.
+o planet in our solar system has a perfect circular motion. &hey all have difference values
of eccentricity.
Types of 3rbit
There are two main types of orbits in which satellites or spacecrafts will be placed into. 3ne is nown
as the "eostationary orbit, the other is nown as the <o# Earth 1rbit.
The <o# Earth 1rbit is generally an orbit higher than appro.imately (G@m, in order to avoid
atmospheric drag, and lower than appro.imately &@@@m, which is the altitude at which the *an
Allen radiation belts begin to appear.
The space shuttle utili1es a low $arth orbit somewhere between (G@m and #@@m altitude
depending on the mission. At (G@m, an orbiting spacecraft has a velocity of (FA@@ m<h and taes
just A@ minutes to complete an orbit of the earth.
A "eostationary orbit is at an altitude at which the period of the orbit precisely matches that of the
$arth. If over the e%uator, such an orbit would allow a satellite to remain pared over a fi.ed point
on the surrounding surface of the $arth. -rom the $arth such as satellite appears to be stationary in
the sy, always located in the same direction regardless of the time.
This is particularly useful for communication satellites because a receiving dish need only point to a
fi.ed point in the sy in order to remain in contact with the satellite.
The altitude of such an orbit can be calculated from Iepler2s Third ?aw. -irstly, the period of the orbit
must e%ual to length of one day. This is JK&K# s. The radius of the orbit then wors out to be
#(&KJm. >ubtracting the radius of the $arth gives an appro.imate altitude of )G J@@ m. This
places the satellite at the upper limits of the *an Allen belts, and near the edge of the
magnetosphere.
If a satellite at this height is not positioned over the e%uator but at some other latitude, it will not
remain fi.ed at one point in the sy. Instead from $arth, the satellite will appear to trace out a figure
J path each (# hours. It still has a period e%ual to $arths, however, and so this orbit is referred to as
"eosynchronous.
?ow $arth 3rbit 4>ummary'
- 3ccurs at an altitude between a few hundred to a few thousand m above the ground
- 0ere the atmospheric may be thic enough to e.ert enough drag force to slow the craft enough to
cause it to re-enter
?ow 3rbit >atellites
- :an communicate #ith the Earth 2uickly due to their shorter distance from the surface
- Suffer less data corruption from outside interference also due to shorter distance
- Shorter life due to air friction re%uires regular maintenance
- The atmosphere slows the satellite down, cause it to spiral into the earth burn up
- o not stay at fi'ed position above the $arth2s surface interruptions in communication
5eostationary 3rbit
- 0ave the same period as the earth$s rotation 4(# hours' and is an $ast-,est e%uatorial path
- The altitude is about BCAAA km 4Tangential orbital velocity of a satellite in this orbit is about
3075)
5eostationary >atellites
- >uffer from less orbital decay due to less air in the higher atmosphere
- >tay fi.ed above a particular position above the $arth allowing for constant communication, as
opposed to low-earth satellites that drift across the sy.
- >uffer more data corruption from outside interference due to large distance.
The radius of orbit of a satellite, the period of that orbit, and the mass of the planet being orbited is
related accordingly!
/ote that is constant for all satellites orbiting a common planet.
escribe ho# a slin"shot effect is provided by planets for space probes.
The slin"shot effect or planetary swing by, is a manoeuvre used with space probes and proceed
onto another target.
In order to fully understand the slingshot affect, it must be considered as a perfectly elastic one-
dimensional collision. $ven though there is no contact, the interaction behaves lie a collision.
0owever, because the bodies do not touch in any way, there are no energy losses and hence the
8collision9 is elastic.
It is described by the formula!
Lerivation on ne.t page.
The e.pression represents the ma.imum velocity achievable from the slingshot affect. This is
achieved by a head on rende1vous as shown below!
At other angles, a spacecraft will achieve lower velocities.
+ote. The inetic energy of the system has been conserved as the spacecraft gains some inetic
energy, whereas the planet loses an e%uivalent amount.
E'ample.
A satellite approaches Hupiter almost head on for a slingshot manoeuvre. Hupiter has an orbital
velocity of &) @@@ m<s relative to the >un, and the spacecraft has a velocity of &G @@@ m<s relative
to the >un.
:alculate the final velocity of the >atellite after completing the slingshot.
Advantages of the >lingshot Affect
The slingshot affect can be used to!
- Increase the velocity with respect to the sun
- :hanges the direction of travelling, without needed any e.cess fuel
0ence, can carry less fuel more e%uipment.

*ccount for orbital decay of satellites in lo# Earth 1rbit.
All satellites in a low earth orbit are subject to some degree of atmospheric drag that will eventually
decay their orbit and limit their lifetimes. As thin as the atmosphere is &@@@ m above the surface of
the $arth, it is still sufficient to significantly slow the satellite down over a period of time. In turn,
this will reduce the altitude of the satellite.
The amount of atmospheric drag e.perienced by a satellite depends on the si1e of the satellite and
the density of the air along the orbit. &his air density is affected by many variables such as
time of day, season, latitude and lon"itude all of #hich are predictable. 0owever, there are
also unpredictable influences such as solar #ind.
An increase in solar wind can heat up the outer atmosphere causing it to e.pand, thereby increasing
its density and height. This will subject satellites to drag that would not otherwise have been
anticipated.
As the satellite slows it loses altitude and begins to spiral downwards. As it descends, it encounters
higher density air and higher drag, speeding up the process. "y the time the satellite is below an
altitude of (@@ m it only has a few hours left before colliding with the $arth.
The re-entry process generates much heat and most satellites burn up 4vapori1e' before impacting,
though some pieces have struc the $arth.
,hy must a satellite lose altitude if it slows downM
The total mechanical energy, $, of a satellite in a stable orbit is the sum of its inetic and potential
energies. It can be shown that!
$ =
This e.pression shows that the energy of an orbiting satellite is always negative and that its
ma.imum value is 1ero 4much lie that of gravitational potential energy'.
0igher orbits correspond to higher energies, lower orbits correspond to lower energies.
A loss of energy by a satellite, due to atmospheric friction or deliberate slowing, means that the
radius of the orbit, and the altitude must also decrease.
+ote. As r decreases $ becomes ;more negative2 hence it becomes smaller.
L3/2T 5$T :3/-6>$L 7$+$+"$7 T0$ /$5ATI*$ >I5/
iscuss issues associated #ith safe re-entry into the Earth$s atmosphere and
landin" on the Earth$s surface
3dentify that there is an optimum an"le for re-entry into the Earth$s atmosphere and
the conse2uences of failin" to achieve this an"le.
As previously discussed, when the velocity of the spacecraft will reduce in magnitude the
spacecraft will be pulled down to the $arth. This mechanism is deliberately used by astronauts
wishing to re-enter the $arth2s atmosphere and return to the $arth2s surface.
Typically, astronauts will retrofire their spacecraft2s rocets and e.ecute a short burn that will slow
down the spacecraft, allowing it to drop down into the atmosphere. The time, direction and duration
of the burn must be controlled carefully to achieve an optimum re-entry angle.
3f the an"le of re-entry is too shallo#, the spacecraft may skip off the atmosphere. 3f the
an"le of re-entry is too steep, the spacecraft #ill burn up due to the heat of re-entry.
-or e.ample! In the Apollo missions the optimum angle of re-entry was between G.( and F.( degrees
>ome issues associated with safe re-entry include!
- E'treme Heat.
A spacecraft has a significant velocity, and thus will have significant inetic energy. Additionally,
due to the spacecrafts orbit, there is considerable gravitational potential energy applied on the
spacecraft. "ut this is lost as the space-craft2s altitude decreases during
re-entry.
As the spacecraft re-enters, it e.periences friction with the molecules of the atmosphere. This
friction is a force directed against the motion of the spacecraft which causes it to decelerate.
The enormous inetic energy the spacecraft possesses is converted into heat, and the heat can
cause the spacecraft to reach e.treme temperatures.
7esearch into re-entry initiated with the idea of a nose 4pointed' spacecraft. 0owever it was
determined that upon re-entry this would generate temperatures e.ceeding FG@@ degrees. This
was clearly too hot to prevent the vapori1ation of the cone. Thus as research continued, it was
determined that a blunt nose was the most efficient mechanism for re-entry.
?hen the blunt shape collides #ith the upper atmosphere at re-entry speeds, it
produces a shock#ave in the air that #ould absorb much of the heat "enerated as the
ob!ect re-entered and slo#ed in the atmosphere.
This led to the new design of warhead one that would detach from the rocet at altitude and
re-enter the atmosphere bacwards, presenting its blunt rear as it fell.
The space shuttle still uses this idea by eeping its nose well up while re-entering the most
critical phase of re-entry, it presents its flat underbelly to the atmosphere thereby using its
blunt shape to create the shoc wave.
0owever, the blunt shape design would still need to cope with high temperature and some
protective layer would therefore need to be devised to cover it. After considerable research a
techni%ue called ablation was established. This idea is that the nose-cone is covered with a
ceramic material, such as fiberglass, which is vapori1ed or ablated during re-entry heating.
The vapori1ing of the surface dissipates the heat and carries it away.
The space shuttle uses a different approach. In uses a covering of insulating tiles. These
tiles are made of appro.imately A@B air, with the rest fiberglass. This gives them e.cellent
thermal insulation properties and also conserves mass 4which is important in any rocet design'
The tile construction is denser near the surface to mae the tiles more resistant to impact
damage, but the surface is also porous. &his presents a difficulty as the glass fibre absorbs
water that can be held by the pores. This necessitates waterproofing of the surface between
each flight.
- eceleratin" (-Dorces.
(reater an"les of re-entry mean "reater rates of deceleration. This means a faster rate
of heat build up as inetic energy is converted, but it also means that greater g-forces are
e.perienced by the occupants of the spacecraft.
It was nown that optimum g-force was )g, with the ma. tolerance being Jg 4with some slight
chest pain, and perhaps loss of consciousness'. 0owever, studies had shown that during re-
entry the spacecraft2s optimum angles would generate up to (@ g-force.
7esearch was conducted into ways to increase tolerance of g-forces.
- A transverse application of g-load is easiest to cope with as the blood is not forced
away from the brain. This means lying down instead of standing up during re-entry.
- An eyeballs-in application is easier to tolerate rather than eyeballs, out. This means
that the astronaut should lift off forwards 4facing-up' but re-enter bacward 4facing
down' since the g forces are always directed upwards.
- >upporting the body in as many places as possible increases tolerance. A fiberglass
couch moulded to suit the body of a specific astronaut was ideal. This allowed for
successful e.periments, with up to (@g e.perienced by the astronauts successfully.
- 3onisation Elackout
As heat builds up around a spacecraft during re-entry, atoms in the air around it become
ioni1ed, forming a layer around the spacecraft. 7adio signals cannot penetrate this layer of
ioni1ed particles, preventing communication between the ground and the spacecraft. All
telemetry and verbal communication by radio is cut off for the duration of this ionisation
blacout, the length of which depends on the re-entry profile.
3onisation Elackout is a period of no communication #ith a spacecraft due to a
surroundin" layer of ioni%ed atoms formin" in the heat of re-entry.

- /eachin" the surface
In a typical Apollo mission, the capsule would contain three astronauts, which would reach an
altitude of &(@m, considered the )entry interface, 4at an angle of G.( F.( degrees'. It
would then descend from this altitude over a range of appro.imately )@@@ m, continually
slowing down, and at some point suffering ionisation blacout. In the last portion of the
descent, the parachutes would be released to slow it to about )) m<h, -inally it would splash
down into the ocean, awaiting recovery.
This was one strategy used. Another involved, re-entry over land. 0owever, in this case, the
cosmonauts would eject at a suitable altitude, descending to the ground by parachute on their
own.
The space shuttle, however has a uni%ue solution for reaching the surface of the $arth. It does
not subject its occupants to a g-force greater than )-g. As it has wings, the pilot is able to
control the altitude of the space shuttle and direct its descent.
Luring the period of ma.imum deceleration and heat, its nose is held up at an angle of #@
degrees, which slows its progress and presents the underbelly as a protected blunt surface.
Past this stage, it is flown in a series of sharp >-turns in order to control its descents. ,hen it is
just &.Gm from the runway, it is gliding down an &J degree gradient, much steeper than the )
degree approach of a large airliner. ,hen G@@m above the ground, speed braes are applied
4specialised flaps that increase drag' so that it settles to a &.G degree final approach. The crew
deploys landing hear and within seconds, the space shuttle touches down on its runway.
define the term orbital velocity and the 2uantitative and 2ualitative relationship bet#een
orbital velocity, the "ravitational constant, mass of the central body, mass of the satellite and
the radius of the orbit usin" Fepler$s <a# of Periods
1rbital 0elocity it the velocity re2uired for an ob!ect to retain orbit around a body.
3rbital *elocity is defined by the following formula!
Lerivation using Iepler2s Third ?aw!
0ence, it can be noted that the orbital velocity of an object is dependant solely upon the mass of the central
body and radius of the orbit and the gravitational :onstant.
Therefore if the +ass of the central body were to be raised by a factor of #, considering that the radius of
orbit, stayed the same, this meant a double in the magnitude of velocity of the satellite.
If the radius were to increase by a factor of #, then considering the mass remained constant, the orbital
velocity would be cut in half.
3t is independent upon the mass of the satellite.
&his means a satellite of 1AAA k" and a feather, need the same orbital velocity at any "iven
altitude.
3dentify data sources, "ather, analyse and present information on the contribution of
one of the follo#in" to the development of space e'ploration. 0on Eraun
,ernher von "raun was one of the most important rocet developers and champions of space e.ploration
during the period between the &A)@s and the &AF@s. -rom his teenage years, von "raun had held a een
interest in space flight, becoming involved in the 5erman rocet society, *erein fur 7aumschiffarht 4*f7', as
early as &A(A. As a means of furthering his desire to build large and capable rocets, in &A)( he went to
wor for the 5erman army to develop ballistic missiles. ,hile engaged in this wor, von "raun received a
Ph.L. in physics on Huly (F, &A)#.
*on "raun is well nown as the leader of what has been called the 8rocet team9 which developed the *(
ballistic missile for the /a1is during ,orld ,ar II. The *(s were manufactured at a forced labor factory
called +ittelwer.
The brainchild of von "raun2s rocet team operating at a secret laboratory at PeenemNnde on the "altic
coast, the *( rocet was the immediate antecedent of those used in space e.ploration programs in the
6nited >tates and the >oviet 6nion. A li%uid propellant missile e.tending some #K feet in length and
weighing (F,@@@ pounds, the *-( flew at speeds in e.cess of ),G@@ miles per hour and delivered a (,(@@-
pound warhead to a target G@@ miles away. -irst flown in 3ctober &A#(, it was employed against targets in
$urope beginning in >eptember &A##. "y the beginning of &A#G, it was obvious to von "raun that 5ermany
would not achieve victory against the Allies, and he began planning for the postwar era.
"efore the Allied capture of the *( rocet comple., von "raun engineered the surrender of G@@ of his top
rocet scientists, along with plans and test vehicles, to the Americans. -or fifteen years after ,orld ,ar II,
von "raun wored with the 6.>. Army in the development of ballistic missiles. As part of a military operation
called Project Paperclip, he and his rocet team were scooped up from defeated 5ermany and sent to
America where they were installed at -ort "liss, Te.as. There they wored on rocets for the 6.>. Army,
launching them at ,hite >ands Proving 5round, /ew +e.ico. In &AG@ von "raun2s team moved to the
7edstone Arsenal near 0untsville, Ala., where they built the Army2s Hupiter ballistic missile.
In &AK@, his rocet development center transferred from the Army to the newly established /A>A and
received a mandate to build the giant >aturn rocets. Accordingly, von "raun became director of /A>A2s
+arshall >pace -light :enter and the chief architect of the >aturn * launch vehicle, the super-booster that
would propel Americans to the +oon.
Thus it is clear that *on "raun had an enormous contribution to the development of space e.ploration
mainly in that he was the chief architect of the >aturn rocets which allowed Americans to be the first to
reach the moon.
More on the 0-= rocket.
The A-#, later called the 0-=, was a single-stage rocet fueled by alcohol and li%uid o.ygen. It stood #K.&
feet high and had a thrust of GK,@@@ pounds. The A-# had a payload capacity of (,(@@ pounds and could
reach a velocity of ),G@@ miles per hour. 3n 3ctober ), &A#( the A-# was first launched from Peenemunde.
"reaing the sound barrier, it reached an altitude of si.ty miles. It was the worldOs first launch of a ballistic
missile and the first rocet ever to go into the fringes of space.