Weight and Balance g

INTRODUCTION
Aviation has been one of the most dynamic industries
since its beginning. New aircraft are continually being
developed with improvements over previous models.
Improvements in design have, in many cases, tended to
increase the importance of the proper loading and
balancing of today's airplanes. Weight-and-balance
calculations are performed according to exact rules
and specifications and must be prepared when aircraft
are manufactured and whenever they are altered,
whether the airplane is large or small. he constantly
changing conditions of modern aircraft operation pre-
sent more complex combinations of cargo, crew, fuel,
passengers, and baggage. he necessity of obtaining
maximum efficiency for all flights has increased the
need for a precise system of controlling the weight and
balance of an aircraft.
FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES
In a previous chapter, the laws of physics were discussed.
Included were discussions of specific gravity and balance,
together with explanations of levers. These principles form
the basis for computing weight-and-balance data for an air-
plane and will be reviewed briefly here.
Force of Grait!
Every body of matter in the universe attracts every other
body with a certain force that is called gravitation. The
term gravity is used to refer to the force that tends to draw
all bodies toward the center of the earth. The weight of a
body is the result of all gravitational forces acting on the
body.
Center of Grait!
Every particle of an object is acted on by the force of gravi -
ty. However, in every object there is one point at which a
single force, eual in magnitude to the weight of the object
and directed upward, can !eep the body at rest, that is, can
!eep it in balance and prevent it from falling. This point is
!nown as the center of gravity (CG).
The "# might be defined as the point at which all the
weight of a body can be considered concentrated. Thus, the
"# of a perfectly round ball would be the exact center of the
ball, provided that the ball was made of the same material
throughout and that there were no air or gas poc!ets inside
$see %igure &-'(. The "# of a uniform ring would be at the
center of the ring but would not be at any point on the ring
itself $see %igure &-)(. The "# of a cube of solid material
would be euidistant from the eight corners, as shown in
%igure &-*. In airplanes or helicopters, ease of control and
maneuverability reuire that the location of the "# be within
specified limits.
Location of the CG
+ince the "# of a body is that point at which its weight can
be considered to be concentrated, the "# of a freely sus-
pended body will always be vertically beneath the point of
support when the body is supported at a single point. To lo-
cate the "#, therefore, it is necessary only to determine the
point of intersection of vertical lines drawn downward from
two separate points of support employed one at a time. This
techniue is demonstrated in %igure &-,, which shows a
flat, suare sheet of material lettered -, B, C, and D at its
four corners, suspended first from point B and then from
point C. The lines drawn vertically downward from the
point of suspension in each case intersect at the "#.
The "# of an irregular body can be determined in the
same way. If an irregular object, such as the one shown in
"#$
FIGURE $%" !enter of gravity of a ball.
FIGURE $%& !enter of gravity of a ring.
%igure &-., is suspended from a point P in such a manner
that it can turn freely about the point of suspension, it will
come to rest with its "# directly below the point of suspen-
sion, P. If a plumb line is dropped from the same point of
suspension, the "# of the object will coincide with some
point along the plumb line/ a line drawn along the plumb
line passes through this point. If the object is suspended
from another point, which will be called A, and another line
is drawn in the direction indicated by the plumb line, the in-
tersection of the two lines will be at the "#. In order to veri-
fy the results, the operation can be repeated, this time with
the object suspended from another point, called B. 0o mat-
ter how many times the process is repeated, the lines should
pass through the "#/ therefore, it can be shown that the "#
of the object lies at the point of intersection of these lines of
suspension. Therefore, any object behaves as if all its
weight were concentrated at its "#.
s "
# "
$ " " "
s
/
FIGURE $%' %ocating the !& in an irregular body.
The General La( of the Leer
In "hapter ) the law of levers was explained/ it will be re-
peated briefly here to show how it relates to the weight and
balance of an airplane.
1renches, crowbars, and scissors are levers used to gain
mechanical advantage, that is, to gain force at the expense
of distance or to gain distance at the expense of force. -
lever, in general, is essentially a rigid rod free to turn about
a point called the fulcrum. There are three types of levers,
but the study of weight and balance is principally interested
in the type !nown as a first-class lever. This type has the
fulcrum between the applied effort and the resistance, as
shown in %igure &-2.
In %igure &-2 the fulcrum is mar!ed F, the applied effort
is E, and the resistance is R. If the resistance, R, euals '3 lb
4,..*. !g5, and it is ) in 4..36 cm5 from the fulcrum, F, and
if the effort, E, is applied '3 in 4).., cm5 from the fulcrum,
it will be found that an effort of ) lb 43.73& !g5 will balance
the resistance, R. In other words, when a lever is balanced,
the product of the effort and its lever arm $distance from the
fulcrum( euals the product of the resistance and its lever
arm. The product of a force and its lever arm is called the
moment of the force.
fl'()%*
()+
FIGURE $%) !enter of gravity of a cube. "#* Cha+ter $
FIGURE $%# %ocation of the !&.
,'-%*
Weight and Balance
FIGURE $%, .irst-class lever.
The general law of the lever is as follows8 If a lever is in
balance, the sum of the moments tending to turn the lever in
one direction about an ais e!uals the sum of the moments
tending to turn it in the o""osite direction. Therefore, if the
lever is in balance, and if several different efforts are ap-
plied to the lever, the sum of the moments of resistance will
eual the sum of the moments of effort.
Mo-ent of a Force and E./ili0ri/-
The tendency of a force to produce rotation around a given
axis is called the moment of the force with respect to that
axis.
The amount and direction of the moment of a force de-
pend upon the direction of the force and its distance from
the axis. The perpendicular distance from the axis to the line
of the force is called the arm, and the moment is measured
by the product of the force and the arm. Thus, a force of '3
lb 4,..*2 !g5 acting at a distance of ) ft 43.2372 m5 from the
axis exerts a turning moment of )3 ft-lb 4).&2. !g-m5.
In order to avoid confusion between moments tending to
produce rotation in opposite directions, those tending to
produce a cloc!wise rotation are called positive and those
tending to produce countercloc!wise rotation are called
negative. If the sum of the positive, or cloc!wise, moments
euals the sum of the negative, or countercloc!wise, mo-
ments, there will be no rotation. This is usually expressed in
the form E# 9 3. The symbol E is the #ree! letter sigma,
and E# means the sum of all the moments, #, both positive
and negative.
In %igure &-& a moment diagram is shown, with mo-
ments about the point -. :, acts in a countercloc!wise di -
rection, with a force of ' lb 43.,.*2 !g5 at a distance of * ft
43.7',, m5/ therefore, the value of :, is -* ft-lb 4-3.,',6
!g-m5. #$ acts in a countercloc!wise direction, with a force
of ) lb 43.73&) !g5 at a distance of ) ft 43.2372 m5, thus pro-
ducing a moment of -, ft-lb 4-3...)6 !g-m5. :*, acting in
a countercloc!wise direction with a force of ' lb 43.,.*& !g5
at a distance of ' ft 43.*3,6 m5, produces a moment of -' ft-
lb 4-3.'*6* !g-m5. -;, acts in a cloc!wise direction, with a
force of , lb 4'.6', !g5 at ) ft, which ma!es a moment of
<6 ft-lb 4<'.'3. !g-m5. Thus, -* - , - ' < 6 9 3. The
sum of the negative moments is eual to the positive mo-
ment/ therefore, there is a condition of equilibrium, and
there is no rotation about point -.
There is a total force of 6 lb 4*.2)7 !g5 acting downward,
and unless the axis is supported by an upward force of 6 lb,
there will be downward movement but no rotation.
Aircraft CG Range and Li-it1
The first-class lever is in balance only when the hori=ontal
"# is at the fulcrum. However, an aircraft can be balanced
in flight anywhere within certain specified forward and aft
limits if the pilot operates the trim tabs or elevators to exert
an aerodynamic force sufficient to overcome any static un-
balance. "# locations outside the specified limits will cause
unsatisfactory or even dangerous flight characteristics.
The allowable variation within the "# range is carefully
determined by the engineers who design an airplane. The
"# range usually extends forward and rearward from a
point about one-fourth the chord of the wing, bac! from the
leading edge, provided that the wing has no sweepbac!. The
exact location is always shown in the Aircraft Specifica-
tions or the Type Certificate ata Sheet. Heavy loads near
the wing location are balanced by much lighter loads at or
near the nose or tail of the airplane. In %igure &-6, a load of
. lb 4).)26 !g5 at - will be balanced by a load of ' lb
43.,.*2 !g5 at B because the moments of the two loads are
eual.
+ince the "# limits constitute the range of movement
that the aircraft "# can have without ma!ing it unstable or
unsafe to fly, the "# of the loaded aircraft must be within
these limits at ta!eoff, in the air, and on landing. In some
cases, the ta!eoff limits and landing limits are not exactly
the same, and the differences are given in the specifications
for the aircraft.
%igure &-7 shows typical limits for the "# location in an
airplane. -s previously stated, these limits establish the CG
range. The "# of the airplane must fall within this range if
the airplane is to fly safely/ that is, the "# must be to the
rear of the forward limit and forward of the aft limit.
CG and Balance in an Air+lane
The "# of an airplane may be defined, for the purpose of
balance computations, as an imaginary point about which
the nose-heavy $-( moments and tail-heavy $<( moments
are exactly eual in magnitude. Thus, the aircraft, if sus-
pended from that point $"#(, would have no tendency to ro-
tate in either direction $nose-up or nose-down(. This
condition is illustrated in %igure &-'3. -s stated previously,
the weight of the aircraft can be assumed to be concentrated
at its "#.
The "# with the aircraft loaded is allowed to range fore
and aft within certain limits that are determined during the
flight tests for type certification. These limits are the most
forward- and rearward-loaded "# positions at which the
aircraft will meet the performance and flight characteristics
reuired by the %--. These limits may be expressed in
( %* - %*/ (
%*
0 %*/
1i M2 M3 t
2
%*/ FIGURE $%$ 1oment diagram.
r
FIGURE $%* *alancing of the load.
F/nda-ental Princi+le1 (03
A!4A% ! & %5!AI5N
FIGURE $%2 !enter-of-gravity limits.
The :-" is usually given in the aircraft>s Type "ertifi-
cate ?ata +heet when it is reuired for weight-and-balance
computations/ therefore the person wor!ing on the airplane
is expected to have only a general understanding of its
meaning. %or simplicity purposes, most light-aircraft manu-
facturers express the "# range in inches from the datum,
while transport-category aircraft are expressed in terms of
percentages of the :-".
WEIG3T%AND%BALANCE
TERMIN4L4G5
FIGURE $%"6 Airplane suspended from the !& location.
terms of a percentage of the mean aerodynamic chord
$:-"( or in inches forward or to the rear of the datum line.
The relative positions of the "# and the center of lift of
the wing have critical effects on the flight characteristics of
the aircraft. "onseuently, relating the "# location of the
chord of the wing is convenient from a design-and-
operations standpoint. %ormally, an aircraft &ill have ac'
ce"table flight characteristics if the C( is located some'
&here near the $)* average chord "oint. This means the
"# is located one-fourth of the total distance bac! from the
leading edge of the average wing section $see %igure &-''(.
+uch a location will place the "# forward of the aerody-
namic center for most airfoils.
The mean aerodynamic chord $:-"( is established by
the manufacturer. If the wing has a constant chord, the
straight-line distance from the leading edge to the trailing
edge $the chord( would also be the :-". However, if the
wing is tapered, the mean aerodynamic chord is more com-
plicated to define. The :-" is the chord of an imaginary
airfoil which has the same aerodynamic characteristics as
the actual airfoil. The :-" is established by the manufac-
turer, who defines its leading edge $@E:-"( and trailing
edge $TE:-"( in terms of inches from the datum. The "#
location and various limits are then expressed in percent-
ages of the chord.
Aefore proceeding with explanations of the methods for
computing weight-and-balance problems, it is important to
have a good understanding of the words and terms used.
Arm. The arm is the hori=ontal distance in inches from the
datum to the center of gravity of the item. The algebraic
sign is plus $<( if measured aft of the datum and minus
$-( if measured forward of the datum $see %igure &-')(.
Center of gravity (CG). The "# is a point about which the
nose-heavy and tail-heavy moments are exactly eual in
magnitude. If the aircraft were suspended from this point
it would be perfectly balanced. Its distance from the ref-
erence datum is found by dividing the total moment by
the total weight of the airplane.
Center of gravity range. The operating "# range is the
distance between the forward and rearward limits within
which the airplane must be operated. These limits are
indicated on pertinent %-- -ircraft Type "ertificate
?ata +heets $see %igure &-'*( or in aircraft weight-and-
balance records, and they meet the reuirements of the
%ederal -viation Begulations $%-Bs(.
atum (reference !atum). The datum is an imaginary ver-
tical plane or line from which all hori=ontal measure-
ments of arm are ta!en $see %igure &-')(. The datum is
established by the manufacturer. Cnce the datum has
been selected, all moment arms must be ta!en with refer-
ence to that point. The location of the datum may be
found in the aircraft>s Type "ertificate ?ata +heet $see
%igure &-'*(.
FIGURE $%"" 6ercent of mean aerodynamic chord. "'6 Cha+ter $ Weight and Balance
%I1I/
.W7A.
'///////A
N5/8-98A:; <-=
1518N
o
AI>!>A. !&
!& ' -?@ 1A!
%8:8% >8.8>8N!8
<4668> AI%!5N8=
WIN& %8A7IN& 87&8
98 7A41 I/ AA.-? IN A98A7
5. 98 WIN& %8A7IN& 87&8.
A ' BB.)
B - 3).)
FIGURE $%"& %eveling diagram. (Piper Aircraft
Corp.)
"mpty #eight ("$). The empty weight of an aircraft in-
cludes the weight of the airframe, power plant, and re-
uired euipment that has a fixed location and is
normally carried in the airplane. %or aircraft certificated
under %-B Dart )*, the empty weight also includes unus-
able fuel and full-operating fluids necessary for normal
operation of aircraft systems, such as oil and hydraulic
fluid. %or older aircraft not certificated under %-B Dart
)*, in place of full oil, only the undrainable oil is includ-
ed in the empty weight. The current aircraft empty
weight must be !ept as a part of the permanent weight-
and-balance records.
"mpty-#eight center of gravity ("$CG). The, empty-
weight "# is the "# of the aircraft in its empty condition
and is an essential part of the weight-and-balance record
that must be !ept with the permanent aircraft records.
"mpty-#eight CG range. The E1"# range is established
so that when the E1"# falls within this range, the air-
craft-operating "# limits will not be exceeded under
standard loading conditions. The E1"# range shown for
many light airplanes is listed in the aircraft specifications
or the Type "ertificate ?ata +heet and may eliminate
further calculations by technicians ma!ing euipment
changes $see %igure &-'*(.
%leet empty #eight. The fleet empty weight is used by air
carriers as an average basic empty weight which may be
used for a fleet or group of aircraft of the same model
and configuration. The weight of any fleet member can-
"&A'T(")T *% T'A)S&*'TAT+*)
%""'A, A-+AT+*) A(+)+ST'AT+*)
T.&" C"'T+%+CAT" ATA S/""T
"ngine0
%uel0
"ngine ,imits0
&ropeller. &ropeller
,imits0
Airspee! ,imits
%light (aneuvering
,oa! %actor (g1s)
CG 'ange0 atum0
,eveling (eans0
"mpty-$eight CG
'ange0
(a2imum $eight0
)o. of Seats0
(a2imum 3aggage0
%uel Capacity0
)ever e2cee!
(a2. structural cruising
(aneuvering
%laps e2ten!e!
%laps !o#n
%or#ar! limit Aft
limit
45.6 in- 478.9 in
Ta:eoff
,an!ing
%ront tan: (total)
(usable)
'ear tan: (total)
(usable)
;tility Category
977mph(75<:ts)
756mps(769:ts)
79= mph (785 :ts)
>> mph ( 56 :ts)
4=.=
-7. 5
4 9.8
-7. 5
4 78.6 in (75? (AC)
4 7@.@ in (<8? (AC)
759> lb 7@6<
lb
9 at 499.@ in
7787b at4AA.7
7>.5 (at -6.@ in)
7>.8
98.5 (at4AA.7 in)
98.6
Acrobatic Category
977 mph (75< :ts)
756 mph (769 :ts)
7=6 mph (79@ :ts)
>> mph ( 56 :ts)
46.8
-<. 8
C-.)
--.)
78.6 in (75? (AC)
7A.< in (96? (AC)
76@A lb
76@A lb
9 at499.@ in
)one
7>.5 (at -6.@ in)
7>.8
6 6
*il
Capacity0
'ear tan: must be empty for operations in acrobatic category.
(inimum fuel quantity for acrobatics0 9.6 gal.
(a2imum capacity0 9 gal
(inimum0 8.A gal
(a2imum oil quantity for acrobatics0 7.A gal
,ycoming 78<68 39% #ith BChristenB inverte! oil system, or
,ycoming A"+*<6*-39% fuel inCecte!.
>7D>6 minimum aviation gra!e gasoline.
%or all operations 9@88 rpm (758 hp).
/offman /* 9>-758-7@8
(;tility an! Acrobatic Categories)
Statis rpm at ma2imum permissible throttle settingE99A8 F S*
iameter @8.> in. )o cutoff permitte!.
See )*T" < for acrobatic maneuvers.
%laps up
$ing lea!ing e!ge at A7 in from airplane center line.
(,ength of #ing chor! at !atum A> in).
,ongitu!inal0 ,eft canopy rail
,ateral0 Top of bul:hea! G9.
FIGURE $%") /ample ype !ertificate 7ata /heet.
Weight%and%Balance Ter-inolog! "'"
t
not vary more than the tolerance established by the ap-
plicable government regulations.
,"(AC. @E:-" is the abbreviation for the leading edge
of the mean aerodynamic chord.
,eveling means. @eveling means are the reference points
used by the aircraft technician to insure that the aircraft is
level for weight-and-balance purposes $see %igure &-')(.
@eveling is usually accomplished along both the longitu-
dinal and lateral axis. @eveling means are given in the
Type "ertificate ?ata +heet $see %igure &-'*(.
,oa!ing envelope. The loading envelope includes those
combinations of airplane weight and center of gravity that
define the limits beyond which loading is not approved.
(ain-#heel center line (($C,). The :1"@ is a verti-
cal line passing through the center of the axle of the main
landing-gear wheel.
(a2imum gross #eight. The maximum gross weight is
the maximum authori=ed weight of the aircraft and its
contents as listed in the Type "ertificate ?ata +heet
$%igure &-'*(.
(a2imum lan!ing #eight. The maximum landing weight
is the maximum weight at which the aircraft may nor-
mally be landed $see %igure &-'*(.
(a2imum ramp #eight. The maximum ramp weight is the
maximum weight approved for ground maneuver. $It in-
cludes the weight of the start, taxi, and run-up fuel.(
(a2imum ta:eoff #eight. The maximum ta!eoff weight is
the maximum allowable weight at the start of the ta!eoff
run $see %igure &-'*(. ,
(ean aero!ynamic chor! ((AC). The :-" is the length
of the mean chord of the wing as established through
aerodynamic considerations. %or weight-and-balance pur-
poses it is used to locate the "# range of the aircraft. The
locati
on
and
dime
nsion
of
the
:-
",
wher
e
used,
will
be
foun
d in
the
aircraft specifications, the Type "ertificate ?ata +heet
$see %igure &-'*(, the flight manual, or the aircraft
weight-and-balance record.
(inimum fuel. :inimum fuel for weight-and-balance
computations is no more than the uantity of fuel re-
uired for + h of operation at rated maximum continuous
power. It is calculated on the maximum except ta!eoff
$:ETC( horsepower and is the figure used when the fuel
load must be reduced to obtain the most critical loading
on the "# limit being calculated. The formula usually
used in calculating minimum fuel is , :ETC hp 9 mini-
mum fuel in pounds $e.g., - E *23 hp 9 '63 lb of fuel(.
(oment The moment is the product of the weight of an
item multiplied by its arm. :oments are expressed in
pound-inches $lb-in(. The total moment of an aircraft is
the weight of the aircraft multiplied by the distance be-
tween the datum and the "#.
(oment in!e2. The moment index is a moment divided by
a constant, such as '33, '333, or '3 333. The purpose of
using a moment index is to simplify weight-and-balance
computations of large aircraft where heavy items and
long arms result in large, unmanageable numbers.
Stan!ar! #eights. %or general weight-and-balance purpos-
es, the following weights are considered standard8
#asoline
Turbine fuel
@ubricating oil
1ater
#eneral aviation crew
and passengers
-ir-carrier passenger $summer(
-ir-carrier passenger $winter(
AT;(
STA. 8.
)*S" G"A'
$"+G/+)G &*+)T
H$. ,. 789.87
7A9
FIGURE $%"# Weighing and measuring. (Cessna Aircraft Co.)
Cha+ter $ Weight and Balance
2 lb;gal 4).&. !g;gal5
2.& lb;gal 4*.3 !g;gal5
&.. lb;gal 4*., !g;gal5
6.* lb;gal 4*.&. !g;gal5
'&3 pounds 4&& !g5
per person
'23 pounds 4&).. !g5
'2. pounds 4&. !g5
(A+) G"A' $"+G/+)G &*+)T
/*'+I*)TA, CG.
Station. - station is a location along the airplane fuselage
given in terms of distance in inches from the reference
datum. The datum is, therefore, identified as station =ero
$see %igure &-',(. The station and arm are usually identi-
cal. -n item located at station .3 would have an arm of
.3 in.
Tare. Tare is the weight of the euipment necessary for
weighing the airplane $such as choc!s, bloc!s, slings,
jac!s, etc.( which is included in the scale reading but is
not a part of the actual weight of the airplane. Tare must
be subtracted from the scale reading in order to obtain
the actual weight of the airplane.
T"(AC. TE:-" is an abbreviation for the trailing edge
of the mean aerodynamic chord.
;n!rainable oil. That portion of the oil in an aircraft lubri-
cating system that will not drain from the engine with the
aircraft in a level attitude is called the undrainable oil.
This oil is considered a part of the empty weight of the
aircraft.
;nusable fuel. Fnusable fuel is the fuel that cannot be con-
sumed by the engine. The amount and location of the un-
usable fuel may be found in the Type "ertificate ?ata
+heet $see %igure &-'*(. Fnusable fuel is a part of the
aircraft>s empty weight.
;sable fuel. %uel available for flight planning is called us-
able fuel.
;seful loa!. The useful load is the weight of the pilot, copi-
lot, passengers, baggage, and usable fuel. It is the empty
weight subtracted from the maximum weight.
$eighing point. The weighing points of an airplane are
those points by which the airplane is supported at the
time it is weighed. Fsually the main landing gear and the
nose or tail wheel are the weighing points $see %igure &-
',(. +ometimes, however, an airplane may have jac!ing
points from which the weight is ta!en. In any event, it is
essential to define the weighing points clearly in the
weight-and-balance record.
DETERMINATI4N 4F T3E EWCG
L4CATI4N
Weighing the Aircraft
1eighing aircraft with accurately calibrated scales is the
only sure method of obtaining an accurate empty weight and
"# location. The use of weight-and-balance records in ac-
counting for and correcting the aircraft weight-and-balance
location is reliable over limited periods of time. Cver ex-
tended intervals, however, the accumulation of dirt, miscel-
laneous hardware, minor repairs, and other factors will
render the basic-weight and "# data inaccurate. %or this
reason, periodic aircraft weighings are desirable/ however,
they are not reuired of aircraft operated under %-B Dart
7'. This is not the case for air-taxi and air-carrier aircraft,
which are reuired by the %-Bs to be periodically weighed.
-ircraft may also be reuired to be weighed after they are
painted/ when major modifications or repairs are made/
when the pilot reports unsatisfactory flight characteristics,
such as nose or tail heaviness/ and when recorded weight-
and-balance data are suspected to be in error.
Weighing E./i+-ent
The type of euipment which is used to weigh aircraft varies
with the aircraft si=e. Three types of scales are commonly
used to weigh aircraft. Each type is eually effective in ob-
taining accurate results. The three types of scales are plat-
form scales, portable electronic weighing system using load
pads, and electronic load cells used in conjunction with
jac!s.
@ight aircraft are often weighed on beam-type platform
scales, such as those illustrated in %igure &-'.. Dlatform
scales reuire the use of jac!s or ramps to position the air-
craft on the scales.
- portable electronic #eighing system ma!es it possi-
ble to find the weight and balance of large and small aircraft
without jac!ing $see %igure &-'2(.. The system consists of
FIGURE $%"' Weighing an airplane with platform scales. (Piper Aircraft Corp.)
Deter-ination of the EWCG Location "')
D+-'.D-EDD .-
FIGURE $%", 6ortable electronic weighing system.
(Evergreen Weigh !nc.)
electronic platform scales as necessary to weigh each wheel
or pair of wheels on the aircraft, signal amplifiers, a digital
"# indicator, a digital gross-weight indicator, and a power
panel. Each scale consists of a platform supported by strain-
gauge transducers, usually no more than * in 4&.2) cm5 in
height. Bamps are supplied with the platforms so that the
aircraft can easily be towed to position on the scales. The
signals from the scales provide the information that is pre-
sented on the digital "# and gross-weight indicators. %or
larger aircraft the weighing pads may be recessed so that
they are level with the floor to facilitate locating the aircraft
on the scales.
-nother method used to weigh large aircraft is to use
electronic load cells. These cells are strain gauges whose
resistance changes in accordance with the pressure applied
to them. - load cell is placed between a jac! and a jac!
point on the aircraft, with particular attention paid to locat-
ing the cell so that no side loads will be applied $see %igure
&-'&(. 1hen weight readings are ta!en, the entire airplane
weight must be supported on the load cells.
The output of the load cells is fed to an electronic instru-
ment that amplifies and interprets the load-cell signals to
provide weight readings. The instrument is adjusted to pro-
vide a =ero reading from each load cell before the aircraft is
weighed. -fter weighing, the cells are chec!ed again and
the reading is adjusted to compensate for any change noted.
1hichever type of system is selected, only weighing
euipment that is maintained and calibrated to acceptable
standards should be used.
E./i+-ent Pre+aration
1hen preparing to weigh an aircraft, the accuracy of the
scales must be established. This can be done in accordance
with instructions provided by the manufacturer of the scales
or by testing the scales with calibrated weights. 1hen there
is nothing on the scales, the reading should be =ero. %ote.
:ost electronic scales reuire a specified warm-up period.
-ll the euipment that will be reuired to perform the
weighing procedures should be located prior to beginning
the weight chec!. The following is a list of euipment com-
monly used when weighing an aircraft8
'. Gac!s or ramps
). 1heel chal!s
*. @evel
,. Dlumb lines
.. +teel measuring tape
2. Hydrometer $for testing the specific gravity of the fuel(
6. Tools and gauges for strut deflation and inflation
7. 0itrogen bottles for strut inflation
Aircraft Pre+aration
In order to obtain an accurate determination of the aircraft>s
weight and center of gravity, it is important that the aircraft
be properly prepared for weighing.
+pecific weighing preparations and procedures will vary
with the model of the aircraft being weighed. However, the
following information will provide general guidance.
The aircraft should be clean and free from excessive dirt,
grease, moisture, or any other extraneous material before
weighing. The aircraft should be dry before it is weighed/
thus an aircraft should never be weighed immediately after
it is washed.
-ll euipment to be installed in the aircraft and included
in the certificated empty weight should be in place for
weighing. Each item must be in the location that it will oc-
cupy during flight, as shown on the aircraft euipment list.
-ll euipment, such as carpets, seat belts, oxygen mas!s,
and so on, should be placed in their normal location. -ll
tools and other wor!ing euipment must be removed before
weighing.
Fnless otherwise noted in the Type "ertificate ?ata
+heet, the oil system and other operating fluids should be
chec!ed to see that they are full. Items that should be filled
to operating capacity include lubricating oil, hydraulic fluid,
oxygen bottles, and fire extinguishers.
The fuel should be drained from the aircraft unless other
instructions are given. %uel should be drained with the air-
craft in the level position to ma!e sure that the tan!s are as
empty as possible. The amount of fuel remaining in the air-
craft tan!s, lines, and engine is termed unusable fuel, and its
weight is included in the empty weight of the aircraft. In
special cases the aircraft may be weighed with full fuel in
the tan!s, provided that a definite means is available for de-
termining the exact weight of the fuel.
FIGURE $%"$ 8lectronic load cells.
"'# Cha+ter $ Weight and7 Balance
Weighing Area
The aircraft should be weighed inside a closed building to
, avoid errors that may be caused by wind. Hangar doors and
windows should be !ept closed during the weighing
process. The floor should be level. -ll fans, air condition-
ing, and ventilating systems should be turned off.
Po1itioning the Air+lane
The aircraft should be placed in the weighing area. The air-
craft>s exterior should be chec!ed to see that there is no in-
terference with wor! stands and other euipment. If the
main wheels are used as reaction points, the bra!es should
not be set because the resultant side loads on the scales or
weighing units may cause erroneous readings.
The aircraft should be positioned securely on the scales.
If the wheels are used as weighing points, it is advisable to
use choc!s on the scales both fore and aft so that the aircraft
does not roll during the weighing procedure. Bemember that
items such as choc!s and tail stands that are placed on top of
the scales during weighing are considered tare weight. Tare
weight must be subtracted from the scale readings. Tare
weight items are generally weighed on different scales be-
cause aircraft scales are li!ely to be inaccurate in the lower
range readings.
-n airplane must be level to obtain accurate weighing
information. @eveling is usually accomplished along both
the longitudinal and the lateral axis. The leveling means are
given in the Type "ertificate ?ata +heet. The leveling
means are the reference points used by the aircraft techni-
cian to insure that the aircraft is level for weight-and-
balance purposes.
Cne method used on many light aircraft is to set a spirit
level on a longitudinal structural member to establish the
longitudinal level position and another level across a lateral
structural member to establish the lateral level position.
This same basic procedure is accomplished in some air-
craft by the installation of two nut plates on the side of the
fuselage. +crews can be placed in these nut plates and lon-
gitudinal level is determined when a spirit level placed on
the extended screws is level, as shown in %igure &-'6.
+ome aircraft use a plumb bob and a target to estaonsn
the level on both axes. In the ?"-'3 airplane, an inclinome-
ter consisting of a plumb bob and gri! plate is provided in
the right wheel well, and brac!ets for spirit levels are locat-
ed in the nose-gear wheel well. In %igure &-'7 locations of
the leveling means for the ?"-'3 are shown.
The inclinometer indicates degrees of roll or pitch. The
plumb bob is suspended by a cord and is secured in a
stowage clip when not in use. ?uring leveling operations,
the plumb bob is released from the clip and is suspended by
its cord over the grid plate. The level attitude of the airplane
is established by the location of the plumb bob in relation to
the grid-plate mar!ings.
1hen a higher degree of leveling accuracy is reuired,
spirit levels are used. The two sets of brac!ets provided in
the nose-gear wheel well are used to support the levels in
both longitudinal and lateral axes.
Weighing Proced/re
The scale reading should be given a period of a few minutes
to stabili=e. The weights of the weighing points should be
recorded to provide information needed for the "# determi-
nation. +everal readings are ta!en for each reaction point, and
the average reading is entered on the aircraft weighing form.
1ith the aircraft in the level position, it is necessary to
measure and record the weigh point locations on the weigh-
ing form. Cn some aircraft the exact location of the weigh
points will be provided in the aircraft flight manual or main-
tenance manual. If the location of weighing points is not
provided, the exact location of the weighing points must be
accurately measured while the aircraft is in the level posi-
tion and then recorded for use in the weight-and-balance
computation. The location of the datum is provided in the
Type "ertificate ?ata +heet.
%or aircraft where the datum passes through the aircraft,
a plumb bob is dropped from that point to the floor. %or air-
craft where the datum is located ahead of the aircraft, a ref-
erence point should be located on the aircraft from which a
plumb bob can be dropped to locate the datum. Cnce the
datum is located on the floor, the plumb bob is suspended
from each of the weighing points. The technician can mea-
sure these distances by projecting the reuired points to the
hangar floor. To project these points to the hangar floor, a
plumb bob may be suspended so that it is approximately
one-half inch above the floor. 1hen the swing of the plumb
bob dampens, a cross mar! is made on the floor directly
under the tip of the plumb bob. The main reaction points are
projected to the floor in the same manner. -fter mar!ing the
crosses for the two main gear points, a chal!ed string is
stretched between them. The string is then snapped to the
floor, leaving a chal! line between the main reaction points.
The nose or tail reaction point is projected to the hangar
floor in a similar manner, as is shown in %igure &-)3.
-fter these points are projected to the floor, it is a simple
matter to measure the reuired dimensions. 1hen measur-
ing these distances, the tape must be parallel to the center
line of the aircraft. :easurements made from the main reac-H
tion points are ta!en perpendicular to the chal! line joining
these two points. 1hen fuselage and wing jac! points are
Deter-ination of the EWCG Location "''
FIGURE $%"* %eveling longitudinally. (Piper Aircraft Corp.)
L4NGITUDINAL LE8ELING BRAC9ETS
.I&4>8 F-(3 %ocations for leveling means on a 7!-() airplane. (Mc"onne## "o$g#as Corp.)
used as reaction points in weighing the aircraft, it is unnecessary to measure
dimensions. These points will remain fixed and their moment arms may
be found in the aircraft records. "are must be ta!en to use the fixed
reaction points indicated in the records for the particular aircraft being mea-
sured. Aecause of manufacturing tolerances and minor model changes,
the fixed reaction points are not necessarily identical for all aircraft of a
particular type.
The weight of the tare should be recorded either before or
after weighing the aircraft, and the tare weight should then be
subtracted from the total weight obtained from the scales.
1hen data for comparison are available, an attempt should
be made to verify the results obtained from each
"', !hapter F Weight and *alance
LATERAL LE8ELING BRAC9ETS
L4NGITUDINAL LE8ELING BRAC9ETS
STA
'2'
STA
"'",
% "FT * INC3ES
:) FT # INC3ES
"" FT #
INC3ES
LATERAL LE8ELING BRAC9ETS
%+'"$A,,
AT;(
.I&4>8 F--) %ocating weighing points.
weighing. Ierification may be made by comparing results
with a previous weighing of an aircraft of the same model.
Co-+/ting CG Location
-fter the necessary dimensions and weights have been ob-
tained, the empty weight and the empty weight "# can be
calculated. Empty weight is the total of the three scale read-
ings after subtracting the weight of tare items, plus or minus
calibration errors. This weight is important for subseuent
calculation of maximum weight and also is a necessary fac-
tor in the determination of the "#.
"enter-of-gravity computations may be figured by several
methods. The formulas used in computing the center of
gravity are varied. 1henever possible, the manufacturer>s
weight-and-balance formulas and diagrams should be used,
as shown in %igure &-)'. -lthough most manufacturers use
similar formulas, they use different letter designations for
different items. If these formulas are not available, a stan-
dard formula may be used for the E1"# computation.
%undamentally, the "# is the point at which all the
weights of the aircraft can be considered to be concentrated.
The average location of these weights can, therefore, be ob-
tained by dividing the total moment $weight E arm( by the
total weight. The process then involves multiplying each
measured weight by its arm to obtain a moment and then
adding the moments.
Extra care must be ta!en in these types of empty-weight
calculations if one or more of the arms is located ahead of
the datum. In this event, the algebraic sign of the arm and
moment will be negative. It should be remembered that a
positive number $the weight( times a negative number $the
arm( results in a negative number $the moment(. %ollowing
the multiplication step, additional care must be ta!en when
adding wheel moments to obtain the total moment and when
dividing the total moment by the total weight to obtain the
"#. In all these mathematical operations, the algebraic sign
must be observed.
- set of formulas used uite extensively today is con-
tained in the %-- -dvisory "ircular ,*.'*.'-. and is
CENTER
4F ;AC9
P4INT
Scale Po1ition Scale Reading Tare S!-0ol Net Weight
Left Wheel L
Right Wheel R
No1e Wheel N
S/- of Net Weight1 <A1 Weighed= W
(A) - (N) x <B= > X
= ? < = IN
W
CG ARM @ """:2&A B IN
Ite- Mo-entC"666 Weight <L0= B CG Ar- <In= @
<L0%ln=
Air+lane Weight <Fro- Ite- 'D Page ,%*=
AddE Un/1a0le F/el <& Gal at , L01CGal= "& ",&:" ":2
E./i+-ent Change1
Air+lane Ba1ic E-+t! Weight
.I&4>8 F--( /ample airplane weighing. (Cessna Aircraft Co.)
7etermination of the 8W!& %ocation "'$
DATUM
STA 6:6
LE8EL 4N LE8ELING SCREWS
N
%""":2&
N4SE%W3EEL%T5PE AIRCRAFT
DATUM L4CATED F4RWARD 4F T3E MAIN W3EELS
!& ' " -
FX
L
W
TAIL%W3EEL%T5PE AIRCRAFT
DATUM L4CATED F4RWARD 4F T3E MAIN W3EELS
CG @ D A
Rx



L


W
N4SE%W3EEL%T5PE AIRCRAFT
DATUM L4CATED AFT 4F T3E MAIN W3EELS
TAIL%W3EEL%T5PE AIRCRAFT
DATUM L4CATED AFT 4F T3E MAIN W3EELS
CG @ % D
+
FX L W
CG J -
RX L W
CG @ di1tance fro- dat/- to center of grait! of aircraft
IV = (eight of aircraft at ti-e of (eighing
D ' horiGontal distance measured from datum to main wheel weighing point % ' horiGontal
distance measured from main wheel weighing point to nose or tail weighing point & ' weight at
nose weighing point ' - weight at tail weighing point
.I&4>8 F--- 7ifferent arrangements of the formula for 8W!&.
shown in %igure &-)). This system uses four separate for-
mulas. The user selects one of these formulas, depending
upon the weighing points and the datum location in refer-
ence to the weighing points. These formulas simplify the
calculations in several ways. In effect, the datum is mathe-
matically moved to the main gear by this process, resulting
in relatively small moments, which are easy to handle in
weight-and-balance calculations. - major benefit of the use
of these formulas is the elimination of multiplication steps
that involve negative arms and negative moments. In the
first diagram of %igure &-)), the datum is at the nose of the
airplane, and since the airplane is of the tricycle-gear type,
the "# must be forward of the :1"@. The part of the for-
mula F x /A0 gives the distance of the "# forward of the
:1"@. This distance must then be subtracted from the dis-
tance D to find the distance of the "# from the datum.
In the second diagram, the airplane is of conventional
tail-wheel type, and so the "# must be to the rear of the
:1"@. 1ith the datum at the nose of the airplane, it is nec-
essary to add the datum-line distance, D, to the R E /A0
distance to find the E1"# from the datum line.
(?2 !hapter F Weight and *alance
In the third diagram, the "# and the :1"@ are both for-
ward of the datum line/ therefore, both distances are nega-
tive. %or this reason the "# distance from the :1"@ and
the datum distance from the :1"@ are added together, and
the total is given a negative sign.
The fourth diagram shows a condition where the "# is
positive from the :1"@ but negative from the datum line.
The datum to the :1"@ is a negative distance, and the "#
from the :1"@ is a positive distance. Therefore, the
E1"# from the datum line is the difference between the
two distances and, in this case, carries a negative sign.
Co-+/ting EWCG for a Tric!cle%Gear
Air+lane
In %igure &-)* a tricycle-gear airplane is weighed, and it is
found that the nose-wheel weight is *)3 lb 4',..' !g5, the
right-wheel weight is 6'2 lb 4*&3.' !g5, and the left-wheel
weight is 6'3 lb 4*2&., !g5. The datum, which is located at
the nose of the airplane, is ,3 in 4'3'.2 cm5 forward of the
nose-wheel center line and ''. in 4)7).' cm5 forward of the
.I&4>8 F-B2 A balance computer. (Continenta# Air %ines)
). Dosition a scale and jac! under each jac! pad and
raise the helicopter clear of the floor.
*. @evel the helicopter with the jac!s as explained in the
section on weighing airplanes.
,. Aalance each scale and record its reading.
.. @ower the helicopter to the floor surface and weigh the
jac!s, bloc!s, and any other euipment used between
the scales and the helicopter. ?educt this tare weight from
the scale readings to obtain net scale readings. The total of the
net scale readings is the as-#eighe! #eight of the helicopter.
- typical example of net weights is .'* lb 4)*).& !g5 for
the forward left scale, .)) lb 4)*2.6 !g5 for the forward
right scale, and '32* lb 4,6).) !g5 for the aft scale. The as-
weighed weight is then the sum of the net scale weights, or
)376'b 47.'.2 !g5.
Weight and *alance for a 9elicopter (F(
T4TAL TA9E4FF
FUEL%LBS: CAUTION
AFTER L4ADING PASSENGERSD CARG4: AND
FUEL BALLAST AND BEF4RE L4ADING
USABLE FUELD T3E APRPLANE CG MUST BE
WIT3IN T3E F4RWARD AND AFT FER4 FUEL
LIMITS AS LABELED:
L4ADING
INSTRUCTI4NS 4N T3E
RE8ERSE SIDE
:-". The flight engineer is therefore always able to deter-
mine whether the weight of the aircraft and the location of
the "# are within specified limits. The attitude sensor deter-
mines whether the aircraft is in the correct attitude $level(
for an accurate measurement of "# location.
WEIG3T AND BALANCE F4R A
3ELIC4PTER
The weight-and-balance principles and procedures which
have been discussed in connection with airplanes apply gen-
erally to helicopters, with one important difference8 #ost
helico"ters have a much more restricted C( range than do
air"lanes. In some cases this range is less than * in 4&.2)
cm5. 1hen loading helicopters, it is also often a reuirement
to calculate the hori=ontal "# as well as the fore-and-aft
"#. The exact location and length of the "# range is speci-
fied for each helicopter and usually extends a short distance
fore and aft of the main-rotor mast $the center of lift( or in
the center of a dual-rotor system. Ideally, the helicopter
should have such perfect balance that the fuselage remains
hori=ontal while in a hover and the only cyclic adjustment
reuired should be that made necessary by the wind. The
fuselage acts as a pendulum suspended from the rotor. -ny
change in the "# changes the angle at which it hangs from
this point of support. :any recently designed helicopters
have loading compartments and fuel tan!s located at or near
the balance point.
The information in this section applies to a Aell :odel
)32@ @ong Banger helicopter. This information, however,
is typical of instructions for leveling, weighing, and com-
puting the "# location for a helicopter.
Leeling
%or leveling, a level plate is located on the cabin floor ap-
proximately ,.3 in 4'3.'2 cm5 forward of the aft seat and
left of the helicopter center line. This is shown in %igure
&-,'. - slotted level plate is located directly above the level
plate. The leveling procedure is then as follows8
'. Hang a plumb bob from the small hole in the slotted
level plate and suspend it in such a manner that the plumb
bob is just above the level plate on the cabin floor.
). Dosition the helicopter on a level surface in an en
closed hangar.
*. Dosition three jac!s under the helicopter at the jac!
and tie-down fittings that are permanently installed. Two
forward jac! fittings are located at station ...'2, and the aft
fitting is located at station )3,.7).
,. -djust the aft jac! at the aft jac! fitting until the heli
copter is approximately level. The forward end of the land
ing-gear s!id tubes should still be in contact with the
ground.
.. -djust all three jac!s evenly until the helicopter is
level, as indicated when the point of the plumb bob is direct
ly over the intersection of the cross lines of the level plate.
This position is shown in %igure &-,'.
"$6 Cha+ter $ Weight and Balance
REF ITEM WEIG3T M4MENTC
"66
": BASIC EMPT5
WEIG3T
&: PA5L4AD
): FER4 FUEL WEIG3T
<SUB%T4TAL= <D4 N4T
EBCEED MABIMUM
FER4 FUEL WEIG3T=
#: FUEL L4ADING
': RAMP WEIG3T <SUB%
T4TAL= <D4 N4T
EBCEED MABIMUM
RAMP WEIG3T 4F
P4UNDSG
,: LESS FUEL
F4R TABIING
$: TA9E4FF WEIG3T
<D4 N4T EBCEED
MABIMUM TA9E4FF
WEIG3T 4F P4UNDS=
*: LESS FUEL T4
DESTINATI4N
2: LANDING WEIG3T
<D4 N4T EBCEED
MABIMUM LANDING
WEIG3T 4F P4UNDS=
FIGURE $%)$ T!+ical tran1+ort%categor! aircraft (eight%and%
0alance loading for-:
Weighing
- helicopter may be weighed with platform scales or by
means of electronic load cells mounted on jac!s. The in-
structions given here are for weighing with scales.
The helicopter should be weighed in a configuration as
near empty weight as possible. Empty-weight condition al-
lows for the weight of the basic helicopter together with
seats, ballast, special euipment, transmission oil, hydraulic
fluid, unusable fuel, and undrainable oil. The baggage com-
partment should be empty. 1eighing is accomplished as
follows8
'. Dosition the scales in an approximately level area and
chec! them for proper adjustment to the =ero position. The
weighing should be done in an enclosed area to avoid the
adverse effects of wind, such as flapping rotors and body
sway.
.I&4>8 F-B3 ransducer installed in the axle of a *oeing F0F airplane.
\ H>::
LEFT
WING
GEAR
RIG3T
WING
GEAR
LEFT
B4D5
GEAR
RIG3T
B4D5
GEAR
TRANSDUCERS UPPER EIUIPMENT
CENTERD LEFT
P, CB PANEL
FWD
4UTBD ""'8 AC
FWD L3 WING PWR
AFT INBD GEAR
;UNCTI4N
SIG #66 J GND
SER8ICE BUS
4UTBD B4B
AFT
INBD
FWD FLIG3T ENGINEERKS PANEL
4UTBD
R3 WING
GEAR
;UNCTI4N
PWR
oo
FWD
INBD
PWR
AFT
4UTBD B4B SIG GW L MAC
AFT
INBD
WEIG3T%AND%
BALANCE
SIG INDICAT4RC
C4NTR4L PANEL
FWD C4MPUTER
4UTBD
L3 B4D5
GEAR
;UNCTI4N
:: PWR PWR TRANSDUCERS
FWD
INBD
SIG
AFT SIG
4UTBD L3 ABLE
INBD N4SE GEAR
PWR D%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%D
FWD SIG
4UTBD
FWD
INBD
R3 B4D5
GEAR
G PWR PWR %
R3 ABLE
N4SE GEAR
AFT
4UTBD
AFT
INBD
M ;UNCTI4N
B4B
SIG
--------
N
SIG
ATTITUDE
ATTITUDE
SENS4R
MAIN
EIUIPMENT
CENTER
S4LEN4ID
.I&4>8 F-0) *locH diagram of the weight-and-balance system for a *oeing F0F airplane.
Deter-ining CG Location
The "# location for a helicopter is determined in the same
manner as for other aircraft. In the case of the Aell :odel
)32@, the datum line is at the 3.3 fuselage station, which is
just forward of the nose of the helicopter, as shown in %ig-
ure &-,). The "# location aft of the datum line is found as
follows8
moment of forward weights <
moment of rear weights
"# location 9
total net weight
!hapter F Weight and *alance
The location of the forward weighing point is ...'2 in
4',3.' cm5 aft of the datum line at %+ ...'2, and the loca-
tion of the rear weighing point is at %+ )3,.7).
The sum of the weights indicated by the forward scales is
'3*. lb 4,27.7 !g5, and the moment is '3*. E ...'2 9
.& 373.2 in-lb 42.&.6, !g-m5. The moment of the aft weight
is '32* E )3,.7) 9 )'& 6)7.7. in-lb 4).37.7 !g-m5. The
total moment is then )&, 7)3... in-lb 4*'2&.6 !g-m5. 1hen
this is divided by the total net weight of the helicopter, the
"# location is found to be '*'.3, in aft of the datum line.
If a helicopter when weighed does not include all the
7@9
": SL4TTED LE8EL PLATE
&: AFT ;AC9 FITTING
): ;AC9S
#: LE8EL PLATE
': F4RWARD ;AC9 FITTINGS
,: PLUMB B4B
.I&4>8 F-0( %eveling a helicopter. (Be## (e#icopter )e*tron)
euipment reuired for the empty-weight condition, these
items must be added. The weights must be added to the as-
weighed weight, and the moments must be computed and
added to the original computed moment. The result is a total
weight !nown as the !erive! #eight and a slightly different
"# location.
If the fmal empty-weight "# location does not fall with-
in the limitations set forth in the empty-weight "# location
chart, ballast plates are installed either forward or rearward
in specified locations. Aallast is never added in both for-
ward and rearward locations. The forward ballast location in
the Aell :odel )32@ helicopter is at <'* $%+ '*.3(, and the
rearward ballast location is at <*&&.'6 $%+ *&&.'6( as
shown in %igure &-,). The ballast reuirement is computed
in the way described earlier in the section on correcting the
"# location of airplanes.
RE8IEW IUESTI4NS
(. 7efine center of gravit+.
-. What is the general law of the leverI
(. What is the condition that exists when the sum of
the positive moments eJuals the sum of the negative
momentsI
>eview Kuestions
7@<
';"' G;ST ,*CK
.I&4>8 (?-(B &ust locHs on an airplane. (Cessna Aircraft Co.)
main and tail rotor blades should be secured if a helicopter
is par!ed in an area subjected to turbulence created by jet,
prop, or rotor blast from other aircraft.
;AC9ING AND 34ISTING AIRCRAFT
%rom time to time in performing maintenance and inspec-
tion procedures, it becomes necessary to jac! or hoist the
aircraft. In the jac!ing or hoisting of aircraft, it is essential
that the operation be performed according to the manufac-
turer>s instructions. The points where hoisting or jac!ing fit-
tings are attached to the aircraft are designed to withstand
the stresses imposed when the aircraft is hoisted or jac!ed.
If the aircraft is lifted or jac!ed at a point other than those
designed for the operation, severe damage will often be
caused. The locations of jac!ing points for a light twin-
engine aircraft are shown in %igure '.-',.
;acOing Aircraft
+ince jac!ing procedures and safety precautions vary for
different types of aircraft, only general jac!ing procedures
and precautions are discussed here. "onsult the applicable
aircraft manufacturer>s maintenance instructions for specific
jac!ing procedures. In jac!ing one wheel only, a small jac!
can be used at the landing-gear jac! pad. This procedure is
employed when tires are being changed and when bra!es
are being repaired or serviced. 1hen only one set of wheels
has to be raised, a low single-base jac! is used, as shown in
%igure '.-'.. Aefore the wheel is raised, the remaining
wheels must be choc!ed fore and aft to prevent
movement of the aircraft. The wheel should be raised only
high enough to clear the floor.
%or jac!ing the complete aircraft, wide-base jac!s, such
as the large tripod types shown in %igure '.-'2, should be
used because of the greater stability they afford. The si=e
and configuration of the aircraft will dictate the type and
number of jac!s needed to raise it. :any small aircraft are
raised by using a jac! under each wing spar and a weighted
tail stand, as shown in %igure '.-'& on page *,2. If this
method is used, be sure to consult the manufacturer>s rec-
ommendations on the amount of weight needed. Transport-
category aircraft may use several jac!s, with three or four
jac!s being used to raise the aircraft and additional jac!s
being inserted to stabili=e it after it has been jac!ed up. %ig-
ure '.-'6 on page *,2 illustrates the jac! points on a Aoe-
ing &,&. The airplane is provided with three main jac!ing
points and five stabili=ing jac!ing points. The primary jac!-
ing points are at the wing-body junction and the tail. The
five stabili=ing points are located with one at the nose and
two under each wing.
:any aircraft have jac! pads located at the jac! points.
Cthers have removable jac! pads or jac!ing adapters that
are inserted into receptacles prior to jac!ing $see %igure
'.-'7 on page *,&(. The correct jac! pad should be used in
all cases. The function of the jac! pad is to ensure that the
aircraft load is properly distributed at the jac! point and to
provide a convex bearing surface to mate with the concave
jac! stem.
Typical jac!ing procedures and precautions for raising
an aircraft are as follows8
'. Dlace the aircraft in a hangar, if possible, to avoid
the - effects of wind. $Head the airplane into wind if it is to
be jac!ed outside.(
LacHing and 9oisting Aircraft
)#)
A+,"'*) G;ST
,*CK
(-. ??
%7%
.I&4>8 (?-(0 LacHing
points for a light twin-
engine aircraft. (Cessna Aircraft Co.)
FIGURE "'%"' LacHing a single set of wheels.
)## Cha+ter "' Gro/nd 3andling and Safet!
). +ee that the areas under and around the airplane are
clear of obstructions $such as ladders, wor! platforms, or
entry stands(.
*. If any other wor! is in progress on the aircraft, ascer
tain if any critical panels have been removed. Cn some air
craft the stress panels or plates must be in place when the
aircraft is jac!ed to avoid structural damage.
,. Install the landing-gear ground loc!s if applicable.
.. Dlace the jac!s directly under the center of each jac!
point and extend the jac!s until they touch the jac! points
$most accidents during jac!ing are the result of misaligned
jac!s(.
2. "hec! the legs of the jac!s to see that they will not
interfere with the operations to be performed after the air
craft is jac!ed, such as retracting the landing gear.
&. +tation one person at each jac!, if possible. Cperate
all jac!s evenly so that the airplane remains as nearly level
as possible.
6. Jeep the amount of lift to an absolute minimum and
always within the safe limits of the jac!.
7. +et the loc!ing devices on the jac!s to prevent acci
dental lowering of the airplane.
(A+) LACK &*+)T ,/
:-I0 G-"J DCI0T '/
%S
756. 98
0C+E LACK &*+)T
;
L
P INTEGRAL RAM
L4C9NUTS
ELECTRICAL%CENTRAL
C4NTR4L C4NS4LE
.I&4>8 (?-(A ypical tripod MacH.
'3. Hold any climbing on the aircraft to an absolute
minimum, and avoid violent movements by persons who are
reuired to go aboard.
To lower an aircraft, the following jac!ing instructions
apply8
'. Aefore lowering the aircraft, ma!e certain that the
landing gear is down and loc!ed and that all ground-loc!ing
devices are properly installed.
). "hec! the area under
and around the aircraft to
insure
that it is free from all
euipment and wor!stands.
*. Belease the mechanical
loc!s, then slowly and care
fully release the pressure,
lowering the jac!s evenly.
Cau'
tion. -s the aircraft is lowered, watch that the oleo struts do
not bind up.
,. -s soon as possible, remove the jac!s out from under
the aircraft.
3oi1ting
It is often necessary to hoist
airplanes and helicopters in
order to perform certain
service and maintenance
operations. 1hen hoisting the
entire
airplane or
any of the
airplane
components,
it is
recommended that hoisting slings, manufactured
specifically for the airplane, be used. These slings are
designed to lift the airplane or components from the
approximate center of gravity. :ost fuselage hoist
LacHing and 9oisting Aircraft B0?
T5PICAL TRIP4D ;AC9
PRESSURE
GAGE
MANUAL C4NTR4LS
.I&4>8 (?-(F LacHing a small airplane. (Piper Aircraft Co.)
*6:$ T4NS
<EAC3= DURING
;AC9ING: "66
T4NS <EAC3=
;AC9ED WEIG3T
IND44RS:
"' T4NS
<EAC3
SIDE=
GR4UND LINE
;AC9ING LINE
.I&4>8 (?-(2 LacHing arrangement for a *oeing F0F aircraft. (Boeing Co,,ercia# Aircraft Co.)
slings are adjustable to allow for different weight and cen-
ter-of-gravity variations. %igure '.-)3 illustrates an aircraft
and its components being hoisted with a sling.
&>54N7-/4665> 8K4I618N
#round-support euipment is needed primarily for the oper-
ation of aircraft on the ground when the aircraft engines are
not operating. In some cases, small ground-support units,
such as battery carts, preoil units, and test units, are used
)#, Cha+ter "' Gro/nd 3andling and: Safet!
with light aircraft, but this is not usually a regular and ongo-
ing procedure, as it is with large aircraft. #round-support
units for large aircraft include electrical power supplies, air-
conditioning and;or air-supply units, hydraulic test units,
and various service units.. The units used on a regular basis
are those supplying electric power and air for starting en-
gines, ventilating, heating, and cooling.
Electrical Po(er S/++lie1
Electrical power for light aircraft is usually supplied by
means of a battery cart. +uch carts contain one or more
7>.@ T*)S