1

ABOUT

UTTAR PRADESH RAJ YA VIDYUT UTPADAN NIGAM LTD.

UP Rajya Vidyut Utpadan Nigam Ltd. was constituted on 25.08.1980
under the companies act 1956 for construction of new thermal power
projects in the state sector. On 14.1.2000, in accordance to up state
electricity reforms acts 1999, up state electricity board, till then
responsible for generation, transmission and distribution of power within
the state of Uttar Pradesh, was unbundled and operations of the state
sector thermal power stations was handed over to UPRVUNL.
At present 54.09% or 93918.38 MW (Data Source CEA, as on 31/03/2011) of total
electricity production in India is from Coal Based Thermal Power Station. A coal based
thermal power plant converts the chemical energy of the coal into electrical energy.
This is achieved by raising the steam in the boilers, expanding it through the turbine
and coupling the turbines to the generators .
Today it is looking after operations of five number thermal power plants located
in different parts of UP, with a total installed generation capacity of 4683 MW
with planting facility as follows.

NAMEOFTPS INSTALLED
CAPACITY
DERATED
CAPACITY
TOTAL
CAPACITY
ANPARA TPS 3X210 MW 3X210 MW = 630 MW 1630 MW
2X500 MW 2X500 MW = 1000 MW
OBRA TPS 2X50 MW 2X50 MW = 100 MW 1288 MW
2X100 MW 2X94 MW = 18 MW
5X200 MW 5X200 MW = 1000 MW
PANKI TPS 2X110 MW 2XI05 MW = 210 MW 210MW
PARlCHHA TPS 2X110 MW 2X110 MW = 220 MW 1140 MW
HARDUAGANJ
TPS
1X60 MW 1X40 MW = 40 MW 415 MW
2X105 MW 2X55MW=110MW
2X250 MW 2X60 MW = 120 MW
1X110 MW 1XI05 MW = 105 MW
TOTAL
UPRVUNL
4683 MW

2

HARDUAGANJ THERMAL POWER STATION

PLANT LOCATION
it is in district ALIGARH about 18 KM from ALIGARH railway station.
ALIGARH is on DELHI-KANPUR road/rail rout.

ABOUT GENERATING UNITS AT HARDUAGANJ THERMAL POWER STATION
All units of this power station are coal fired thermal power plants,
having a total generating capacity of 415 mw. The power station
consists of following units -



STAGE UNITS INSTALLED DERATED DATE OF ORIGINAL
NO. CAPACITY CAPACITY COMMISSIONING EQUIPMENT
MANUFACTURER





i.

50 MW Deleted




ATPS ii. 50 MW Deleted
iii. 50 MW Deleted
01 50 MW Deleted 21.04.1968 USSR
02 50 MW Deleted 23.01.1969 USSR
BTPS 03 55 MW Deleted Mar.1972 M/S BHARAT HEAVY
ELECTRICALS LTD.
04 55 MW Deleted 18.09.1972
05 60 MW 60 MW 14.05.1977
CTPS 06 60 MW Deleted 26.10.1977
07 110 MW 105 MW Aug.1978
HTPS
Extn.
08 250 MW 250 MW 01.02.2012
09 250 MW 250 MW 01.02.2012

3

POWER PLANT DESCRIPTION

Rankine cycle
The Rankine cycle is a cycle that converts heat into work. The heat is
supplied externally to a closed loop, which usually uses water. This
cycle generates about 90% of all electric power used throughout the
world, including virtually all solar thermal, biomass, coal and
nuclearpower plants. It is named after William John MacquornRankine,
a Scottish polymath and Glasgow University professor. The Rankine
cycle is the fundamental thermodynamic underpinning of the steam
engine.
The four processes in the Rankine cycle



T-s diagram of a typical Rankine cycle operating between pressures of 0.06bar and
50bar.
There are four processes in the Rankine cycle. These states are identified by
numbers (in brown) in the above Ts diagram.

4

Process 1-2: The working fluid is pumped from low to high pressure. As the
fluid is a liquid at this stage the pump requires little input energy.
Process 2-3: The high pressure liquid enters a boiler where it is heated at
constant pressure by an external heat source to become a dry saturated
vapour. The input energy required can be easily calculated using mollier
diagram or h-s chart or enthalpy-entropy chart also known as steam tables.
Process 3-4: The dry saturated vapour expands through a turbine, generating
power. This decreases the temperature and pressure of the vapour, and some
condensation may occur. Theoutput in this process can be easily calculated
using the Enthalpy-entropy chart or the steam tables.
Process 4-1: The wet vapour then enters a condenser where it is condensed
at a constant temperature to become a saturated liquid.
In an ideal Rankine cycle the pump and turbine would be isentropic, i.e., the pump
and turbine would generate no entropy and hence maximize the net work output.
Processes 1-2 and 3-4 would be represented by vertical lines on the T-S diagram
and more closely resemble that of the Carnot cycle. The Rankine cycle shown here
prevents the vapor ending up in the superheat region after the expansion in the
turbine,
[1]
which reduces the energy removed by the condensers.
Rankine cycle with reheat
In this variation, two turbines work in series. The first accepts vapour from the
boiler at high pressure. After the vapour has passed through the first turbine, it re-
enters the boiler and is reheated before passing through a second, lower pressure
turbine. Among other advantages, this prevents the vapour from condensing during
its expansion which can seriously damage the turbine blades, and improves the
efficiency of the cycle, as more of the heat flow into the cycle occurs at higher
temperature.
Regenerative Rankine cycle
The regenerative Rankine cycle is so named because after emerging from the
condenser (possibly as a subcooled liquid) the working fluid is heated by steam
tapped from the hot portion of the cycle. On the diagram shown, the fluid at 2 is
mixed with the fluid at 4 (both at the same pressure) to end up with the saturated
liquid at 7. This is called "direct contact heating". The Regenerative Rankine cycle
(with minor variants) is commonly used in real power stations.
Another variation is where bleed steam from between turbine stages is sent to feed
water heaters to preheat the water on its way from the condenser to the boiler.

5

These heaters do not mix the input steam and condensate, function as an ordinary
tubular heat exchanger, and are named "closed feed water heaters".
The regenerative features here effectively raise the nominal cycle heat input
temperature, by reducing the addition of heat from the boiler/fuel source at the
relatively low feed water temperatures that would exist without regenerative feed
water heating. This improves the efficiency of the cycle, as more of the heat flow
into the cycle occurs at higher temperature.


6

POWER PLANT DESCRIPTION-(OVERVIEW)





7

First of all we send DM water from hotwell to low pressure heater with the help of
condensate extraction pump. On the suction of L.P. heater the temp of water is
40
0
C and on the exhaust the temperature of water we got 160
0
C-170
0
C. We take
steam for heating water in L.P. heater from different stages of turbine.After L.P.
heater this water goes into deaerator where dissolved gases available in water are
removed by steam. Now this water goes to high pressure heater through Boiler
feed pump. B.F.P. send the water into the H.P. heater.We use H.P. heater to
increase the temperature of water. At the exhaust of H.P. heater water temperature
becomes 240
0
C.After this, mixture of water and steam goes through economiser
where we use flue gases heat to increase the temperature of water. This water is
send into boiler drum.Boiler drum separates steam from water. From Boiler drum
water goes into the water wall. In this water wall water converts into saturated
steam. This saturated steam is send into super heater for becoming superheated
steam. The temperature of superheated steam raises upto and pressure. After this
superheated steam goes to turbine and strikes the turbine blades at a very high
speed. After rotating the turbine, steam temperature and pressure got down. This
low temperature steam send into the condenser for condensing. After condensing,
steam changed into water. We collect this water in hotwell and again we use this
water for making steam through above written process.

COAL TO ELECTRICITY
First of all we send pulverised coal in furnace where it burns and its chemical
energy converts into heat energy. By using this heat energy, water change into
steam form. This steam have high temperature and pressure. We send this steam
into turbine through steam line, where steams heat energy convert into turbine
mechanical energy. Turbine and generator are mounted on the shaft. Due to steam,
turbines are moving after that generator rotor also got rotary poles are available
and flux is cut by the rotor due to this electricity form.
Fuel:- fuel may be defined as a substance which contains hydrogen and carbon
which on burning with oxygen in atmospheric air produces a large amount of heat.
The amount of heat generated is known as calorific value of fuel.

8

Coal Handling And Preparation
In a coal based power plant coal is transported from coal mines to the
power plant by railway in wagons or in a merry-go-round system. Here 4
wagon tipplers are present, 3 in service and 1 in standby. Coal is unloaded
from the wagons to a moving underground conveyor belt. This coal from
the mines is of no uniform size. So it is taken to the Crusher house and
crushed to a size of 20mm. From the crusher house the coal is either
stored in dead storage( generally 40 days coal supply) which serves as
coal supply in case of coal supply bottleneck or to the live storage(8 hours
coal supply) in the raw coal bunker in the boiler house. Raw coal from the
raw coal bunker is supplied to the Coal Mills by a Raw Coal Feeder. The
Coal Mills or pulverizer pulverizes the coal to 200 mesh size. The
powdered coal from the coal mills is carried to the boiler in coal pipes by
high pressure hot air. The pulverized coal air mixture is burnt in the boiler in
thecombustionzones.Generally in modern boilers tangential firing system is
used i.e. the coal nozzles/ guns form tangent to a circle. The temperature in
fire ball is of the order of 1300 deg.C. The boiler is a water tube boiler
hanging from the top. Water is converted to steam in the boiler and steam
is separated from water in the boiler Drum. The saturated steam from the
boiler drum is taken to the Low Temperature Superheater, Platen
Superheater and Final Superheater respectively for superheating. The
superheated steam from the final superheater is taken to the High Pressure
Steam Turbine (HPT). In the HPT the steam pressure is utilized to rotate
the turbine and the resultant is rotational energy. From the HPT the out
coming steam is taken to the Reheater in the boiler to increase its
temperature as the steam becomes wet at the HPT outlet. After reheating
this steam is taken to the Intermediate Pressure Turbine (IPT) and then to
the Low Pressure Turbine (LPT). The outlet of the LPT is sent to the
condenser for condensing back to water by a cooling water system. This
condensed water is collected in the Hotwell and is again sent to the boiler
in a closed cycle. The rotational energy imparted to the turbine by high
pressure steam is converted to electrical energy in the Generator.




9



10

Principal
Coal based thermal power plant works on the principal of Modified Rankine
Cycle.

i)Fuel preparation system: In coal-fired power stations, the raw feed coal
from the coal storage area is first crushed into small pieces and then
conveyed to the coal feed hoppers at the boilers. The coal is next
pulverized into a very fine powder, so the coal will undergo complete
combustion during combustion process.
** Pulverizer is a mechanical device for the grinding of
many different types of materials. For example, they are used to pulverize coal for
combustion in the steam-generating furnaces of fossil fuel power plants.

Types of Pulverisers: Ball and Tube mills; Ring and Ball mills; MPS; Ball mill;
Demolition.

11

ii)Dryers: they are used in order to remove the excess moisture from coal mainly
wetted during transport. As the presence of moisture will result in fall in efficiency
due to incomplete combustion and also result in CO emission.
iii)Magnetic separators: coal which is brought may contain iron particles.
These iron particles may result in wear and tear. The iron particles may include
bolts, nuts wire fish plates etc. so these are unwanted and so are removed with the
help of magnetic separators.
The coal we finally get after these above process are transferred to the storage site.
Purpose of fuel storage is two
Fuel storage is insurance from failure of normal operating supplies to arrive.
Storage permits some choice of the date of purchase, allowing the purchaser
to take advantage of seasonal market conditions. Storage of coal is primarily
a matter of protection against the coal strikes, failure of the transportation
system & general coal shortages.


WATER TREATEMENT PLANT


12

Water used in power plant is taken from River. This water is passed
through gates where screens are placed which remove the floating and
heavy bodies from the water like wood and fishes.This water is stored in
pump house from where water is served for different purposes.Then Alum
is mixed with this water which precipitates the impurity in it and this water is
then send to clarifier which collect water in a pool.Then this water is passed
through 1 portable filter and 9 pressure filter.After that water is send to
Cation exchanger , where positive charged particles are neutralised from
water by adding Acidic solution to it from Acid storage tank. acid storage
tanks are present in WTP.Then this water is send to Anion exchanger to
neutralise negative charged particles from water by adding basic solution to
it from Alkali storage tank. Alkali storage tank are present in WTP.If then
also any charge particles left in the water it is neutralised in the mixed
beds.This water is send to degasifier tower for removing the CO
2
generated
during the process of Anion and Cation removal.
After these processes DM water is send to the plant.
Quality of DM water:
Hardness: Nill
Ph value: 6.8 to 7.2
Silica SiO
2
: less than 0.08 ppm
Conductivity: 0.5 u mho/cm
2








13

I.D. FAN (Induced Draft Fan).
Each 250 MW boiler is provided with two 1.0. Fans o, axial KKK BHEL
make. Each fan is capable of delivering flue gases from the furnace for
subsequent evacuation through chimney. IG vane is used to shut the damper
of ID fan so flue gas will not pass through it. It is generally used during
maintainence.
Each fan consists:
1. Suction chamber
2. Inlet vane control
3. Impeller supported on two bearing
4. Outer guide vanes
5. Diffuser
6. Flexible coupling
7. Bearing self aligning roller type
8. Outlet damper


F.D. FAN (Forced Draft Fan)
Each 250 MW boiler is provided with two F.D. Fans,axial KKK BHEL
make. F.D. fans supplies air for combustion
process by taking directly atmospheric air. The secondary air after
pre heating in air heater mixes with the primary air and coal dust
in the manner to shape the flame and promote rapid mixing for
proper combustion.

Each fan consists:
1. Suction chamber
2. Inlet vane control
3. Impeller supported on two bearing
4. Outer guide vanes
5. Diffuser

14

6. Flexible coupling
7. Bearing self aligning roller type
8. Outlet damper



P.A. FAN (Primary Air Fan)
Each 250 MW boiler is provided with two P.A. Fans of type NDF
22b, redial KKK BHEL make. This fan handles clean atmospheric air
which is then created in Ljungstrom Air Preheater the hot primary
air which comes out of the air preheater scavenges the bowl mill
and carries the coal particles to the burners. The bowl mills are
under pressure. A part of the primary cold air is used for regulating
temperature of hot air entering the bowl mill. A part of the primary
cold air is used for sealing R.C. Feeder, coal dust lines at the
discharge end of bowl mills and seal air ring header of mill.

Each fan consists:
1. Suction nozzle
2. Inlet guide vane unit, D-144
3. Intermediate piece
4. Impeller
5. Box-section scroll
6. Rotor
7. Bearing
8. Soft labyrinth seal
9. Coupling
10. Outlet damper







15


Condenser
The condenser condenses the steam from the exhaust of the turbine into liquid to
allow it to be pumped. If the condenser can be made cooler, the pressure of the
exhaust steam is reduced and efficiency of the cycle increases. The functions of a
condenser are:-
1) To provide lowest economic heat rejection temperature for steam.
2) To convert exhaust steam to water for reserve thus saving on feed water
requirement.
3) To introduce make up water.
We normally use surface condenser although there is one direct contact condenser
as well. In direct contact type exhaust steam is mixed with directly with D.M
cooling water.


Low pressure heater & high pressure heater
From hotwell water is send to L.P. heater . Heat of steam ejected by turbine is
utilised to heat the water before sending it to boiler, so less fuel will be needed to
make superheated steam . After passing through L.P. heater temperature of
water becomes 160-170
0
C at 135kg/cm
2
pressure at exhaust. From L.P. heater
water is sent to dearetor then boiler feed pump.
After that, high pressure heaters are used to increase the temperature of water .
H.P. heaters are used since high pressure will be needed to supply water to the
boiler at the height of 52m. The mixture of water & steam is then send to
economiser which further increases its temperature. Water is not converted into
steam at such a high temperature because of the pressure which is maintained
from starting otherwise it will be difficult to increase the pressure of steam.

16


Gland Steam Cooler
Steam which leak off from glands H.P.T. and I.P.T. is collected in GSC. If quantity
of steam is less, then it is send to condenser and if more then send to drip pump.

Deaerator
A constant pressure deaerator pegged at 7kg/cm
2
abs is
envisaged in turbine cycle installed at 27m level in boiler side to
provide properly deaerator feed water for boiler, limiting gases
(mainly oxygen) to O.005ppm. It is a direct contact type heater
combined with feed storage tank of adequate capacity (87.9m
3

2/3
rd
height storage). The heating steam is normally supplied from
turbine extractors but during starting and low load operation from
auxiliary steam station.

Boiler Feed Pump
Boiler feed pump takes suction from deaerator and delivers to H.P. heaters.
Boiler feed pump is a multi stage pump provided for pumping feed water to
economiser. BFP is the biggest auxiliary equipment after Boiler and Turbine. It
consumes about 4 to 5 % of total electricity generation.

Boiler Fill Pump
When boiler has to be checked or used for any other use, Boiler Fill Pump is used
to supply water as it consumes few kilo watts instead of running big auxiliaries like
Boiler Feed Pump which consume 4 Mega Watt.



17

Turbine

The steam turbine is acondensingtendem compound, three
cylender (H.P., I.P., L.P.) horizontal, disc and diaphragm type with
nozzle governing and regenerative feed water heating. The L.P.
turbine is a double flow which incorporates a multi exhaust in
each flow.
The high pressure turbine (HPT) comprises of 12 stages, the first stage
being governing stage the steam flow in HPT being in
reverse direction, the blade are designed for anti-clock wise
rotation, when viewed in the direction of steam flow.






18




19

HP and IP rotors are connected by rigid coupling and have a
common bearing. The low pressure turbine (LPT) is a double flow
consisting 4 stages in each.Baumann stage is and present before LPT, It
dumps majority of steam and majority steam goes to low pressure
turbine. Steam becomes moist after passing through stages of HPT and
IPT, so around 400 tonnes of steam is dumped out at Baumann stage.


Fig.LPT.
FOR 250MW UNI T LOAD CLASSI FI CATI ON:-
I .P.T=49%=122.5MW
H.P.T=31%=77.5MW
L.P.T=20%=50MW
EFFI CI ENCY OF 250MW TURBI NE=32.9%



20

Principle of operation and design
An ideal steam turbine is considered to be an isentropic process, or constant
entropy process, in which the entropy of the steam entering the turbine is equal to
the entropy of the steam leaving the turbine. No steam turbine is truly isentropic,
however, with typical isentropic efficiencies ranging from 2090% based on the
application of the turbine. The interior of a turbine comprises several sets of
blades, or buckets as they are more commonly referred to. One set of stationary
blades is connected to the casing and one set of rotating blades is connected to the
shaft. The sets intermesh with certain minimum clearances, with the size and
configuration of sets varying to efficiently exploit the expansion of steaTo
maximize turbine efficiency the steam is expanded, doing work, in a number of
stages. These stages are characterized by how the energy is extracted from them
and are known as either impulse or reaction turbines. Most steam turbines use a
mixture of the reaction and impulse designs: each stage behaves as either one or
the other, but the overall turbine uses both. Typically, higher pressure sections are
impulse type and lower pressure stages are reaction type.


Impulse turbines
An impulse turbine has fixed nozzles that orient the steam flow into high speed jets.
These jets contain significant kinetic energy, which is converted into shaft rotation
by the bucket-like shaped rotor blades, as the steam jet changes direction. A
pressure drop occurs across only the stationary blades, with a net increase in
steam velocity across the stage. As the steamflows through the nozzle its pressure
falls from inlet pressure to the exit pressure (atmospheric pressure, or more
usually, the condenser vacuum). Due to this high ratio of expansion of steam, the
steam leaves the nozzle with a very high velocity. The steam leaving the moving
blades has a large portion of the maximum velocity of the steam when leaving the
nozzle. The loss of energy due to this higher exit velocity is commonly called the
carry over velocity or leaving loss.





21

Reaction turbines
In the reaction turbine, the rotor blades themselves are arranged to form
convergent nozzles. This type of turbine makes use of the reaction force produced
as the steam accelerates through the nozzles formed by the rotor. Steam is directed
onto the rotor by the fixed vanes of the stator. It leaves the stator as a jet that fills
the entire circumference of the rotor. The steam then changes direction and
increases its speed relative to the speed of the blades. A pressure drop occurs
across both the stator and the rotor, with steam accelerating through the stator
and decelerating through the rotor, with no net change in steam velocity across the
stage but with a decrease in both pressure and temperature, reflecting the work
performed in the driving of the rotor.


Operation and maintenance
When warming up a steam turbine for use, the main steam stop valves (after the
boiler) have a bypass line to allow superheated steam to slowly bypass the valve
and proceed to heat up the lines in the system along with the steam turbine. Also, a
turning gear is engaged when there is no steam to the turbine to slowly rotate the
turbine to ensure even heating to prevent uneven expansion. After first rotating the
turbine by the turning gear, allowing time for the rotor to assume a straight plane
(no bowing), then the turning gear is disengaged and steam is admitted to the

22

turbine, first to the astern blades then to the ahead blades slowly rotating the
turbine at 1015 RPM (0.170.25 Hz) to slowly warm the turbine.


A modern steam turbine generator installation
Any imbalance of the rotor can lead to vibration, which in extreme cases can
lead to a blade breaking away from the rotor at high velocity and being ejected
directly through the casing. To minimize risk it is essential that the turbine be
very well balanced and turned with dry steam - that is, superheated steam with a
minimal liquid water content. I f water gets into the steam and is blasted onto the
blades (moisture carry over), rapid impingement and erosion of the blades can
occur leading to imbalance and catastrophic failure. Also, water entering the
blades will result in the destruction of the thrust bearing for the turbine shaft. To
prevent this, along with controls and baffles in the boilers to ensure high quality
steam, condensate drains are installed in the steam piping leading to the turbine.
Turbine should not be run at critical speed.
4 critical speeds are specified b/w 1200 to 2400 rpm in these generators.
Speed is increased immediately if rotar rotates at these speeds.









23

GOVERNING SYSTEM

Governing system is an important control system in the power plant as it regulates
the turbine speed, power and participates in the grid frequency regulation.

Need for governing system
The control of a turbine with a governor is essential, as turbines need to be run up
slowly, to prevent damage while some applications (such as the generation of
alternating current electricity) require precise speed control. Uncontrolled
acceleration of the turbine rotor can lead to an over speed trip, which causes the
nozzle valves that control the flow of steam to the turbine to close. If this fails then
the turbine may continue accelerating until it breaks apart, often spectacularly.
Turbines are expensive to make, requiring precision manufacture and special
quality materials.

Basic scheme
Governing system controls the steam flow to the turbine in response to the control
signals like speed error, power error. It can also be configured to respond to
pressure error. It is a closed loop control system in which control act ion
goes on till the power mismatch is reduced to zero. As shown in the basic
scheme given in Fig. 1, the inlet steam flow is controlled by the control valve or the
governor valve. It is a regulating valve. The stop valve shown in the figure a head
of control valve is used for protection. It is either closed or open. In emergencies
steam flow is stopped by closing this valve by the protective devices. The electronic
part output is a voltage or current signal and is converted into a hydraulic
pressure or a piston position signal by the electro- hydraulic converter (EHC).
Some designs use high pressure servo valves. The control valves are finally
operated by hydraulic control valve servo motors.

24


The steam flow through the control valve is proportional to the valve opening in
the operating range. So when valve position changes, turbine steam flow changes
and turbine power output also changes proportionally. Thus governing
system changes the turbine mechanical power output. In no load
unsynchronized condition, all the power is used to accelerate the rotor
only (after meeting rotational losses) and hence the speed changes. When t he
t urbi ne generat or uni t i s bei ng st art ed, governi ng syst em
cont rol s t he speed precisely by regulating the steam flow. Once the
unit is synchronized to the power system grid, same control system is used to
load the machine. As the connected system has very large i nert i a( i nf i ni t e
bus) , one machi ne cannot change t he f requency of t he g ri d. But i t
can participate in the power system frequency regulation as part of a group of
generators that are used for automatic load frequency control. (ALFC).As shown
in the block diagram, the valve opening changes either by changing the
reference setting or by the change in speed (or frequency). This is called
Primary regulation.
. Th e reference setting can also be changed remotely by power system load
frequency control. This is called Secondary regulation.
. Only some generating units in a power syst em may be used for secondary
regulation.





25

3 TYPES OF GOVERNI NG
1. Nozzle governing
2. By pass governing
3. Throttle governing

WE are using throttle governing in HADUAGANJ power plant, because in
this method there are less losses than others.

Ejectors
Ejectors are used to create vaccum in turbine condensor. First starting
ejector sucks air faster but create less vaccum of 500 mmHgcl. Then main
ejector is used, it sucks slowly but creates more vaccumupto 700 mmHgcl.
Vaccum is created because steam will not change its phase into water even
at 45
0
C.
Also work done P
1
-P
2
becomes more since in vaccum this formula become
additive,
i.e. P
1
-(-P
2)
= P
1
+P
2
Another important factor is Latent heat of steam is less in vaccum to change
from steam to water.
Gland water cooler valves are filled with water so air would not pass
through it. GWC is used to supply air when vaccum is not needed in
condenser.
EMERGENCY STOP VALVE
Two emergency stop valve are used with turbine. ESV(Left) and
ESV(Right)are placed before turbine. When the turbine is in shut down
condition these valves are closed. Steam will be passed to turbine only after
opening both ESV(L) and ESV(R).

26


Turbine Efficiency

H
E
= Sensible heat + latent heat + super heat
Efficiency
Rankine
= Output/Input = ( H
E
-H
F
)/(H
E
-H
a
)
H
a
is the sensible heat of condensate water at point A.
H
E
= enthalpy of superheated steam at point E in kCal/kg of steam.
H
F
= enthalpy of exhaust steam from L.P. turbine in kCal/kg.
Mollier chart
H
E
= h
c
+ L + C
p
(T
E
-T
D
)
Boiler heat rate:- Heat rate is a parameter which monitors the
performance of boiler/turbine/generator.

LOSSES:-Lickages, Drain, P.R.D.S. drain, surface losses(not proper insulation),
condenser, Regenerative system.
From above it reveals that heat rate of boiler increased performance of turbine
detoriates.

Auxiliary P.R.D.S System
This system is situated in boiler side . A part of the main steam is taken to
auxiliary steam station and after reducing pressure and temperature. The steam
is utilised in the following auxiliaries. Initially when unit is lighted up the auxiliary
P.R.D.S steam is taken from the other running unit by opening the interconnecting
valve of auxiliary P.R.D.S.


27

Utilization of auxiliary P.R.D.S. system:-
(i) Feed water heating in feed water storage tank.
(ii) Deaerator heating and pressurisation.
(iii) Main ejectors and starting ejectors.
(iv) Gland steam cooler.
(v) Turbine seals.
(vi) Soot blower.
(vii) F.O. atomisation at burner level.
(viii) Steam fracing lines of F.O. lines.
(ix) Fuel oil heating.
(x) Steam coiled air pre heater.

STEAM COIL AIR PREHEATER

The steam coil air heaters on each at the outlet of F.D. fans are
used to control the air preheaters cold and temperature of
corrosion control. Steam coil air heater must be brought into service after
starting of F.D. fan but before light up of boiler. This can be out only after
cutting off oil burners from boilers. Air temperature is to be maintained
below 60-65cby regulating steam inlet to SCAPH.

BOWL MILL
The pulverised fuel system adopted for 250MW boilers employs a
bowl mill by the direct firing system utilizing hot air as dring cum
transporting medium. A tangential fire system admits the
pulverised cool together with the air required to combustion
(secondary air) to the furnace.
Crushed coal is fed to each pulveriser by its feeder at a rate to suit
the local dense and primary air is supplied from the primary air
fans. A portion of the primary air preheated in the air heater. The

28

hot and cold primary air is proportionally mixed to admission to
the pulveriser to provide the required drying as indicated by the
pressure outlet temperature. The total primary air flow may
constitute from approximately to the total unit combustionair and
controlled such as to maintain the velocities required to
transport the coal through the pulveriser and coal piping. Pyrite Hopper
excretes out the coal which is left unpulverised.

FUEL
1. Coal Bituminous Coal
2. Fixed carbon 36.5%
3. Volatile matter 25.5%
4. Moisture 10%
5. Ash 28%
6. Hydrogen 34%
7. Grindability
50 Hard Groove Index (HGI)
8. High heating valve 4750 kcal/kg

Bituminous Coal 36.5%
FURNACE
Furnace of boiler forms the enclosure for combustion of
fuel.This is where the latent heat of vaporisation of water
is added.







29

BOILER

Boiler is a steam generator which generates the steam at the desired
rate, pressure and temperature to run prime mover such as Steam
Turbine in power stations, by burning fuel in the furnace and
converting chemical energy into thermal energy.Boiler operation is a
balance between heat flow from combustion of fuel and steam
generation, in the furnace. I t is the most expensive equipment and has
complicated design, requiring great skill to install and operate.Boiler
Tube Failure is the main cause of forced outage in electric utility
steam generating boilers in the whole world.
The sub critical boiler designed for HARDUAGANJ 250 MW
units are of conventional, single drum, natural
circulation,radiantdry bottom, balanced draft, reheat type.


Classification of Boiler
1) CIRCULATION TYPE:
a) Natural Circulation Boiler:-Boilers operating below the critical
pressure. The natural circulation is based on thermo-siphon
principle.
In this system, the flow of water and the water/steam mixture through
the boiler circuit is produced naturally by the force of gravity due to
density difference. The water density in the down comers provides the
driving force that pushes up the less dense water/steam mixture in the
risers.
As the pressure increases, the difference in density between water
and steam reduces thus the hydrostatic head available will not be

30

able to overcome the frictional resistance for a flow corresponding to
the minimum requirement of cooling of water wall tubes, Therefore
natural circulation is limited to boiler with drum operating pressure .
Circulation Number: - It is the ratio of quantity of water-steam mixture
flowing through the circuit to the quantity of steam produced in the
circuit. In other words, if 10 kg of water is circulated for each kg of
steam generated, the circulation number is 10.Higher circulation
number reduces the chance of scale formation in evaporating
surface. At lower operating pressure, circulation ratio increases
mainly because of the increased difference in density between water
and steam.
The general practice adopted for circulation number in various boilers
is-
1. Natural circulation industrial boiler 10-15
2. Natural circulation Utility boiler 7-9
3. Assisted circulation boiler 2-4
4. Forced circulation/once through boiler 1

b) Assisted circulation:-Beyond 175 kg/cm2 this circulation is also termed as
Positive circulation in this system circulating water pumps are employed
for force movement of water through different circuit of boiler. Generally
positive circulation is adopted above 182.7 kg/cm2.
I n this type of boilers, since the pressure is high the circulation head caused
by density difference is too low to cause effective circulation.
c)Forced Circulation Boiler:- Boilers Operating above critical pressure are
called super critical Boilers. Above critical pressure, phase transformation is
absent and hence a once through system is adopted. These boilers are also
known as once through boilers. A typical operating pressure for such a
system is 260 kg/cm
2
. This type of forced circulation requires no boiler drum.


31

OPERATING PRESSURE
a) Sub Critical Boiler:-Boilers operating below the critical pressure.
b) Super Critical Boiler:-Boilers Operating above critical pressure. These
boilers are necessarily once through type.
2) FUEL USED:-
a) Stoker Fired Boiler.
b) Pulverised Fuel Fired Boiler.
c) Fluidised Bed Combustion Boiler.
3) DRAUGHT SYSTEM:-
a) Natural Draught:- The draught required to flow air and gas inside the
boiler is created by chimney.
b) Mechanised Draught

4) Boiler Setting:-
a) Single Pass Boilers:-All the pressure parts such as super heater, re-heater
and economiser are arranged as horizontal coils in a single pass of flue gas
which is the vertical extension of the furnace. These boilers are also known
as TOWER TYPE BOI LERS.
b) Multi Pass Boilers:-In these boilers, the flue gas passes through more than
one pass and the pressure parts are distributed in all the passes. Many of the
electric utility boilers are of two pass.

Boiler Pressure Parts
I n a steam generator, the parts through which the feed water and steam flows
above atmospheric pressure are termed as BOI LER PRESSURE PARTS. Most
of the heat released by the fuel in the Boiler is transferred to pressure parts.

32

The following parts of the Boiler are listed under the category of Boiler pressure
parts-
1- Economiser
2- Boiler Drum
3- Water wall system
4- Super-heater
5- Re-heater
1- Economiser:--It is situated in 2
nd
pass of Boiler. Economiser is provided in
the Boiler to improve the efficiency of the Boiler by extracting heat from flue
gases. Before water entering into the evaporating surface of the Boiler, heat
is added, either in the form of sensible heat or in the form of sensible as
well as latent heat by the economiser.
2- Drum and Drum Internals :-Boiler drum is situated on the top of the
boiler. The main function of boiler drum is to separate steam from steam-
water mixture and store the water for evaporator.
3- Water wall system:-The water walls are tube panels. In water walls, water
circulates for steam generation. In the water wall, heat is added to
evaporate the feed water in the form of saturated steam. The furnace is built
up of water wall panels for burning the fuel. The water wall panels cover all
the four sides as well as floor with a opening on only one side for the gases
to go out of the furnace.
4- Super Heater:-It is situated in II
nd
pass of boiler. Super heaters are
provided in the boiler to raise the steam temperature above the saturation
temperature by absorbing heat from flue gases.


Temperature Control Methods of Super heater

I. Desuperheating spray control.
II. Burner tilting.
III. Gas bypass dampers.
IV. Gas recirculation.

5. Reheater:- Development of large capacity steam turbines with more
number of stages posed a problem of retaining the steam within vapour
phase till the last stage. In Reheater, the temperature of steam is raised
after a part of energy is extracted by the steam turbine. This is called as
reheating of the steam which increases the cycle efficiency.

33






34

Differences Super Critical Boiler (SBC) & Sub Critical Boiler :-
Super Critical Boiler (SBC) Sub Critical Boiler
1. Boiler operates above critical
pressure.
Boiler operates below critical
pressure.
2. Drum is not provided in this type
of boilers only separator is used.
Drum is essential this type of
boiler for steam separation and
recirculation Water through
evaporator.
3. There is no provision of CBD. Heat is lost through CBD.
4. MS Temp. around 600
0
C. MS Temp. around 540
0
C.
5. Single phase Boiler. Two phase Boiler (water in water
wall & steam in superheater).
6. Once through Boiler. Natural circulation Boiler.
7. Water wall tube temperature rises
during operation.
Water wall tube temperature
constant during whole operation.
8. Water wall is used to raise the
temperature of steam. Thermal
Water wall is used to evaporate
the water.
9. Thermal stress is developed in
water wall tube due to high
temperature difference.
Boiler operates at saturation
temperature in water wall tubes,
all the circuit is at the same fluid
temperature.
10. Spiral wall is used to increase the
mass flow per tube by reducing
the number of tubes required to
envelop the furnace.
Spiral wall is not used. Vertical
water wall is used only.
11. Every water wall tube is the part
of all four walls.
Every water wall tube is not the
part of all four walls.

35

12. Riffle tube is used in water wall. Plan tube is used in water wall.
13. I ts BFP requires more power
rating due to restrict flow inside
riffle tubes.
Lesser power of BFP is required.
14. Boiler efficiency is more (around
93%).
Boiler efficiency is lower (around
86%).
15. Heat rate is lesser. Heat rate is more in comprised to
SCB.
16. Boiler is costly. Boiler costs lesser than SCB.


Boiler Efficiency

Boiler efficiency is defined as the heat added to the working fluid expressed as a
percentage of heat in the fuel being burnt. The theoretical limit to boiler efficiency
is 100%.
Boiler efficiency depends solely on the boilers ability to burn the fuel and
transfer the resulting heat to the water and steam.

Method of Boiler Efficiency Calculation
A. Direct Method.
B. Indirect Method or Loss Method.
A. Direct Method :- In this method, the heat supplied to boiler and heat added to
the steam in the boiler in given time.
Boiler Efficiency = (Enthalpy of stm-Enthalpy of feed water)xstm flow
Qty of coal x C.V.

= Ws[Cp(T-To)+L+(To-t)
Mf x C.V.



36

Where, Ws = Steam flow rate.
Cp = Specific heat of steam.
T = S.H. steam temperature.
To = Saturated temperature of steam.
L = Latent heat of conversion
t = Feed water inlet temperature.
Mf = Fuel burning rate.
C.V. = Calorific value of fuel.
The trouble with this method is that several of these quantities are difficult to
measure particularly coal quantity, the steam quantity and C.V. of coal.
B. Indirect Method or Loss Method :- The Boiler efficiency is calculated by
Heat loss method as -
BOILER EFFICIENCY = 100 VARIOUS HEAT LOSS
Boiler Losses :-
1. Dry flue gas loss.
2. Wet flue gas loss (moisture in fuel & H2 in fuel).
3. Moisture in combustion air (in vapour form).
4. Un-burnt carbon loss (carbon in ash).
5. Un-burnt gas loss (incomplete combustion of carbon).
6. Radiation and unaccounted losses.

High Speed Diesel (Light Oil)
Light oil required for use with eddy plate oil side ignitors and warm-up oil guns.
Warming up guns are used during star up the boiler from cold condition when
steam is not available for heating heavy fuel oil. Worm up oil guns are in service
till the pressure is raised sufficiently to charge the auxiliary PRDS (Pressure
Reducing & De-superheating Station), when steam will be available for fuel oil
heating, tracing and fuel oil atomization.
Light oil has the advantage of being low viscous at ambient temperatures,
requires no heating and with low sulphur content. I t has negligible carbon reside
so leaves no soot deposits on the colder heat transfer surfaces.


37

Ignitors

Application Star up and coal flame stabilisation.
No. Of 8 (4 per elevation)
Capacity 1.5 million cal/hr (6 million BTU/hr)
Oil firing rate 150 Kg/hr/ignitor.
Oil pressure at the control
cabinet
12.5 to 14 Kg/Cm
2
g.
Atomizing air quality L.O.
(light oil)
Service air, water free.

Heavy Fuel Oil System

I n coal fired boiler oil firing is adopted for the purpose of warming up of the
boiler, imparting stability to the coal flame and low load operation. Efficient or
complete combustion of fuel oil is best achieved by finer atomizing of oil and
proper turbulent mixing with combustion air, supplying oil at appropriate
pressure and temperature are essential requirements for better atomization and
pumps and heaters are the main auxiliaries for the oil system.
Heavy fuel oil from storage tank enters the H.O. preheater where it is heated to
about 115
0
C corresponding to an atomizing viscosity. The temperature of H.O.
from heatingunit is maintained at constant temperature by the automatic
temperature regulating valve, mounted on auxiliary steam supply line to heaters.
From the oil preheater oil is left to the boiler through oil delivery line and then
to each burner. Fuel oil from the oil preheater can be recirculated to return oil
line from near the boiler front oil heats up the oil lines. At the end of oil supply
line to burners, a recirculation line with valve for recirculation of fuel oil to the
return oil line is provided. Fuel oil of 115
0
C temperature at boiler front and
burners can be obtained by recirculation valve. When oil is admitted to each oil
burner then the recirculation valve is closed. The recirculation valve after last
burner can be kept slightly open to circulate a small quantity of hot fuel oil to
prevent solidification of fuel oil at dead ends and to ensure uniform temperature
of fuel oil in piping. All heavy oil lines are steam traced with steam line to

38

prevent loss of heat and eventual solidification of heavy oil and to maintain the
temperature of heavy oil at the required value.
Technical Data
Heay Fuel Oil -

Used for Stabilising coal flame stabilisation
and low load carrying
Relevant standard I.S. 1593, 1960.
Flash point 66
0
C.
Kinematic viscosity at 50
0
C
max.
120 centistokes.
Sulphur, total by weight max. 4%
API gravity 12, SP gravity, 0.986 at 15
0
C
Gross heating value 10270 Kcal/Kg.

Heay Fuel Oil Guns -
Application Stabilising coal flame at low load carrying
hot start up.
Type Tilting tangential steam atomized, internal
mixing
Capacity 25% of boiler MCR per elevation max. 25%
boiler MCR total in one or two elevations.
Oil firing rate 33380 kg/hr/gun
Oil pressure at the gun 8.5 Kg/Cm
2
g
Oil viscosity at the atomizing steam
gun quantity
16 to 18 centistokessuper heated by 10 15
0
C
Steam consumption 310 kg/hr/gun during normal operation and
490 kg/hr/gun during scavenging.
Steam pressure at the gun 9.5 kg/cm(guage).
Differential pressure between oil
and steam
15 psi (1 kg/cm
2
) steam pressure to be more
than oil pressure.
Atomizer nozzle assembly designation mixing plate NB SH spray plate 60 NB.



39

Ignito Air Fan

The ignitor air system provides required air to the ignitors at all boiler
loads. I gnitors require approximately 350scfm of air per ignitor and
this air is ensured by keeping a 3 differential across the ignitor horn.
During the boiler start up condition this pressure will not be available
from the FD fan. For this purpose, system has been provided with
booster fans called ignitor fan. The ignitor air system is provided with
two fans in which one is working and the other is standby.

Air Preheater
Air preheater is an important boiler auxiliary, which primarily preheats the
combustion air for rapid and efficient combustion in the furnace. The air heater
recovers the waste heat from the outgoing flue gases of the boiler and transfers
the same to the combustion air. The flue gas temperature is 380
0
C after leaving
the economizer, every 20
0
C drop in flue gas temperature improves the boiler
efficiency about 1%.
Advantage ofAir Preheater:-
1. Boiler efficiency is increased.
2. More stable combustion in furnace.
3. The combustion is intensified with the use of hot air.
4. Lower grade coal can be burnt efficiently with hot air.
5. The use of hot air improves heat transfer rate and so less heat transfer area is
required.
6. Faster load variations are possible.
7. The coal is dried effectively for easy pulverisation and combustion.






40

Cooling Tower

Service water is cooled in cooling tower which is used to cool bearings of
motor/generator etc.
3 cooling tower pumps are present.
2 in service and 1 in reserve
The cooling tower is a semi-enclosed device for evaporative cooling of water by
contact with air. The hot water coming out from the condenser is fed to the tower
on the top and allowed to tickle in form of thin sheets or drops. The air flows
from bottom of the tower or perpendicular to the direction of water flow and then
exhausts to the atmosphere after effective cooling.
Cooling tower fan- maintain temperature of water upto 18
0
C. No of fans varies
with season, maynot needed to run in winter.




Electrostatic precipitator
From air preheater this flue gases (mixed with ash) goes to ESP. The precipitator
has plate banks (A-F) which are insulated from each other between which the flue
gases are made to pass. ESP has 4 paths and each path contain 6 field i.e. total of
24 fields. The dust particles are ionized and attracted by charged electrodes. The
electrodes are maintained at 30KV.Hammering is done to the plates so that fly ash
comes down and collect at the bottom which is then forwarded through pipe with
the help of compressed air. The fly ash is dry form is used in cement manufacture.

41



Ash slurry pump
ASP drags fly ash with pipes to the other side of mountain by the force of
compressed air where ash is collected in bunkers. These are then supplied to the
Jaypee Cement Factory.
If ash precipitates in the pipe, water is supplied in the pipes which flows the ash
with them.
We use 3 ASP in series of slurry tube. So according to slurry load and pressure
suitable number of ASP is used.





42

CHIMNEY
A chimney is a structure for venting hot flue gases or smoke from a boiler, stove,
furnace or fireplace to the outside atmosphere. Chimneys are typically vertical, or
as near as possible to vertical, to ensure that the gases flow smoothly, drawing air
into the combustion in what is known as the stack, or chimney, effect. The space
inside a chimney is called a flue.
The height of chimneys plays a role in their ability to transfer flue gases using
stack effect, the dispersion of pollutants at higher altitude helps to ease down its
influence on surroundings. In the case of chemically aggressive output, the tall
chimney allows partial or complete self-neutralization of chemicals in the air
before they reach the ground. The dispersion of pollutants over greater area
reduces their concentrations in compliance with regulatory limits.
Height of chimney is made according to the flue gases venting by it. If the gases
are more harmful then the height of chimney is kept more.




43

250 MW TURBO GENERATOR:-



DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTIONAL FEATURES OF 250MW TURBO
GENERATOR
2.1General-The 250MW Turbo-generator incorporates the modern features of
direct cooling water and H
2
and fast acting excitation system.
2.2Stator-The stator body is totally enclosed gas tight fabricated structure.
Hydrogen gas coolers are housed longitudinally inside the stator body. Stator core
is made up of segmental varnish insulated punching of cold rolled grain oriented
silicon steel assembled in an inter-leaved manner on core bars. The core consists
of several packets separated by steel spacers for radial cooling of the core by
hydrogen and is held in pressed condition by means of heavy non magnetic steel
press rings bolted to the ends of cold bars. The core bars are designed to provide

44

elastic suspension of the core in the stator body to isolate the magnetic vibrations
of stator core from foundation of generator.
Stator has a three phase double layer short chordate type windings having two
parallel paths. Each coil side consist of glass insulated soiled and hollow
conductors with cooling water passing through the later. The elementary
conductors are rebel transposed in the slot portion of winding to minimise eddy
losses. The overhang portion of the coils is securely lashed with glass chord to
bandage rings and special brackets of non magnetic steel which are fixed to core
press rings.
Ring type distillate headers of copper supported on insulators are provided
separately for distillate inlet and outlet in the stator on turbine side .The winding
ends are solidly soldered into the lugs. The three phase terminals and six neutral
terminals are brought out to facilitate external connections .
2.3Rotor-The cylindrical type rotor is forged in one piece (shaft and body) from
chromium nickel molybdenum steel. The rotor(field) windings is made from hard
drawn silver bearing copper and is held in position against centrifugal forces by
duralumin wedges in slot portion and by non magnetic steel regaining rings in the
over hangs portion.
The cantering rings are mounted at the end of retaining rings support and prevent
movement of rotor winding in axial direction due to thermal stresses.
2.4Hydrogen gas coolers-Four numbers gas coolers are mounted longitudinally
inside the generator stator body . The gas coolers consists of longitudinally placed
cooling tubes made out of admiralty brass with coiled copper wire wound outside
for increasing the cooling surface area. The cooling water flows through the tube
while the hydrogen comes into contact with external surface of cooling tubes.
Vent pipes are provided on the slip ring side to remove air from gas coolers while
filling them with water.
2.5 Ferquency variation The generator can be operated continuously at rated
output with a frequency variation (+_) 5% over the rated value. However the

45

performance of the generator with frequency variation is limited by the turbine
capability.
2.6 Temperature of the coolants Not more than 58
0
c and not less than 20
0
c
temperature of cold gas.
2.7 Overloading
2.8 Operation under unbalanced load
2.9 A-synchronous operation
3.0 Motoring action Motoring of the turbo-generator is allowed withih the limit
a ions turbine.
3.1Operation at reduced hydrogen pressure Continuous operation of the
generator with hydrogen pressure inside the stator body lower than the rated
value is not permitted.

4. STATIC EXCITATION SYSTEM OF 250 MW:-
Static excitation system has been used in 250 MW unit in order to furnish a
significant improvement in the overall system stability .This system controls the
generator voltage by direct variation of the excitation current. Instead of
conventional rotating converters,the system utilizes static silicon converters
(thermistors) which are highly efficient and can operate in wide temperature
range. Due to following advantages .this system has replaced the older ones and is
being widely used these days.
(i) Faster response time. (ii) Higher reliability. (iii) Main free performance.
(iv) no influence due to short circuit in the system.



46

Hydrogen cooling system:-
A hydrogen-cooled turbo generator is a turbo generator with gaseous hydrogen
as a coolant. Hydrogen-cooled turbo generators are designed to provide a low-
drag atmosphere and cooling for single-shaft and combined-cycle applications in
combination with steam turbines. Because of the high thermal conductivity and
other favourable properties of hydrogen gas this is the most common type in its
field today.
The use of gaseous hydrogen as a coolant is based on its properties, namely low
density, high specific heat, and highest thermal conductivity at 0.168 W/(m.K) of
all gases; it is 7-10 times better coolant than air. Another advantage of hydrogen is
its easy detection by hydrogen sensors. A hydrogen-cooled generator can be
significantly smaller, and therefore less expensive, than an air-cooled one. For
stator cooling, water can be used.

ALTERNATING CURRENT MOTORS

SERIES AC MOTOR
A series ac motor is the same electrically as a dc series motor. Refer to figure 4-1
and use the left hand rule for the polarity of coils. You can see that the
instantaneous magnetic polarities of the armature and field oppose each other and
motor action results. Now, reverse the current by reversing the polarity of the
input. Note that the field magnetic polarity still opposes the armature magnetic
polarity. This is because the reversal effects of both the armature and the field. The
ac input causes these reversals to take place continuously. The construction of the
ac series motor differs slightly from the dc series motor. Special metals,
laminations, and windings are used. They reduce losses caused by eddy currents,
hysteresis, and high reactance. Dc power can be used to drive an ac series motor
efficiently, but the opposite is not true. The characteristics of a series ac motor are
similar to those of a series dc motor. It is a varying-speed machine. It has low
speeds for large loads and high speeds for light loads. The starting torque is very
high. Series motors are used for driving fans, electric drills, and other small
appliances. Since the series ac motor has the same general characteristics as the
series dc motor, a series motor has been designed that can operate both on ac and
dc. This ac/dc motor is called a universal motor. It finds wide use in small electric

47

appliances. Universal motors operate at lower efficiency than either the ac or dc
series motor.
They are built in small sizes only. Universal motors do not operate on poly phase
ac power.



SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS
The construction of the synchronous motors is essentially the same as the
construction of the salient pole alternator. In fact, such an alternator may be run as
an ac motor. It is similar to the drawing in figure.Synchronous motors have the
characteristic of constant speed between no load and full load. They are capable of
correcting the low power factor of an inductive load when they are operated under
certain conditions. They are often used to drive dc generators. Synchronous motors
are designed in sizes up to thousands of horsepower. They may be designed as
either single-phase or multiphase machines. The discussion that follows is based
on a three-phase design.


Figure 4-6.Revolving-field synchronous motor.


Figure 4-7.Self-starting synchronous ac motor.

48


To start a practical synchronous motor, the stator is energized, but the dc supply to
the rotor field is not energized. The squirrel-cage windings bring the rotor to near
synchronous speed. At that point, the dc field is energized. This locks the rotor in
step with the rotating stator field. Full torque is developed, and the load is driven.
A mechanical switching device that operates on centrifugal force is often used to
apply dc to the rotor as synchronous speed is reached.
The practical synchronous motor has the disadvantage of requiring a dc exciter
voltage for the rotor. This voltage may be obtained either externally or internally,
depending on the design of the motor.
SYNCHRONOUS SPEED is the speed of stator field rotation. It is determined by
the number of poles and the frequency of the input voltage. Thus, for a given
motor, synchronous speed is constant.
SLIP is the difference between actual rotor speed and the synchronous speed in
induction motors. Slip must exist for there to be torque at the rotor shaft.


INDUCTION MOTORS

The induction motor is the most commonly used type of ac motor. Its simple,
rugged construction costs relatively little to manufacture. The induction motor has
a rotor that is not connected to an external source of voltage. The induction motor
derives its name from the fact that ac voltages are induced in the rotor circuit by
the rotating magnetic field of the stator. The stator construction of the three-phase
induction motor and the three-phase synchronous motor are almost identical.
However, their rotors are completely different (see fig. 4-8). The induction rotor is
made of a laminated cylinder with slots in its surface. The windings in these slots
are one of two types (shown in fig. 4-9). The most common is the squirrel-cage
winding. This entire winding is made up of heavy copper bars connected together
at each end by a metal ring made of copper or brass. No insulation is required
between the core and the bars. This is because of the very low voltages generated
in the rotor bars. The other type of winding contains actual coils placed in the rotor
slots. The rotor is then called a wound rotor.

49


Figure 4-8.Induction motor.

Figure 4-9.Types of ac induction motor rotors.

The rotating magnetic field generated in the stator induces a magnetic field in the
rotor. The two fields interact and cause the rotor to turn. To obtain maximum
interaction between the fields, the air gap between the rotor and stator is very
small.Lenzs law states that any induced emf tries to oppose the changing field that
induces it.

In the case of an induction motor, the changing field is the motion of the resultant
stator field. A force is exerted on the rotor by the induced emf and the resultant
magnetic field. This force tends to cancel the relative motion between the rotor and
the stator field. The rotor, as a result, moves in the same direction as the rotating
stator field.

50

It is impossible for the rotor of an induction motor to turn at the same speed as the
rotating magnetic field. If the speeds were the same, there would be no relative
motion between the stator and rotor fields; without relative motion there would be
no induced voltage in the rotor. In order for relative motion to exist between the
two, the rotor must rotate at a speed slower than that of the rotating magnetic field.
The difference between the speed of the rotating stator field and the rotor speed is
called slip. The smaller the slip, the closer the rotor speed approaches the stator
field speed.


TRANSFORMER
A transformer is a static device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to
another through inductively coupled conductorsthe transformer's coils without
changing its frequency and power on the principle of induction. A varying current
in the first or primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the transformer's
core and thus a varying magnetic field through the secondary winding. This
varying magnetic field induces a varying electromotive force (EMF), or "voltage",
in the secondary winding. This effect is called inductive coupling.
If a load is connected to the secondary, current will flow in the secondary winding,
and electrical energy will be transferred from the primary circuit through the
transformer to the load. In an ideal transformer, the induced voltage in the
secondary winding (V
s
) is in proportion to the primary voltage (V
p
) and is given by
the ratio of the number of turns in the secondary (N
s
) to the number of turns in the
primary (N
p
) as follows:

By appropriate selection of the ratio of turns, a transformer thus enables an
alternating current (AC) voltage to be "stepped up" by making N
s
greater than N
p
,
or "stepped down" by making N
s
less than N
p
. The windings are coils wound
around a ferromagnetic core, air-core transformers being a notable
exception.Transformers are essential for high-voltage electric power transmission,
which makes long-distance transmission economically practical.


51

Basic principles


An ideal transformer. The secondary current arises from the action of the
secondary EMF on the (not shown) load impedance. The transformer is based on
two principles: first, that an electric current can produce a magnetic field
(electromagnetism) and second that a changing magnetic field within a coil of wire
induces a voltage across the ends of the coil (electromagnetic induction). Changing
the current in the primary coil changes the magnetic flux that is developed. The
changing magnetic flux induces a voltage in the secondary coil.

Autotransformer
In an autotransformer portions of the same winding act as both the primary and
secondary. The winding has at least three taps where electrical connections are
made. An autotransformer can be smaller, lighter and cheaper than a standard dual-
winding transformer however the autotransformer does not provide electrical
isolation.
Autotransformers are often used to step up or down between voltages in the 110-
117-120 volt range and voltages in the 220-230-240 volt range, e.g., to output
either 110 or 120V (with taps) from 230V input, allowing equipment from a 100 or
120V region to be used in a 230V region.

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A variable autotransformer is made by exposing part of the winding coils and
making the secondary connection through a sliding brush, giving a variable turns
ratio. Such a device is often referred to by the trademark name Variac.
Instrument transformers
Instrument transformers are used for measuring voltage and current in electrical
power systems, and for power system protection and control. Where a voltage or
current is too large to be conveniently used by an instrument, it can be scaled down
to a standardized low value. Instrument transformers isolate measurement,
protection and control circuitry from the high currents or voltages present on the
circuits being measured or controlled.


Current transformers, designed for placing around conductors
A current transformer is a transformer designed to provide a current in its
secondary coil proportional to the current flowing in its primary coil.
Voltage transformers (VTs), also referred to as "potential transformers" (PTs), are
designed to have an accurately known transformation ratio in both magnitude and
phase, over a range of measuring circuit impedances. A voltage transformer is
intended to present a negligible load to the supply being measured. The low
secondary voltage allows protective relay equipment and measuring instruments to
be operated at a lower voltages.




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Different Transformers in Power Station
Generating Transformer

Generating Transformer:
This is the main transformer of generating unit used for stepping up the
voltage from generating station for the transmission
In a generating plant for every generating unit one generating transformer is
required
Rated voltage on LV side corresponds to the rated generating voltage
Rated voltage on the HV side corresponds to rated voltage of the HV bus
Usually these transformers are outdoor type
LV terminals are connected to the generating terminals via isolated phase
bus systems
HV terminals are connected to the outdoor busbars by flexible ACSR
conductors via overhead flexible bus
Generator produces electricity which is stepped up to 400 kv before transmission.
Generating transformer steps up the voltage and decrease the current to reduce i
2
r
losses while transmitting supply over a large distance. Also along with losses
heavy conductors will be needed tocarry heavy current and to support these heavy
cables heavy towers will beneeded which will increase the overall cost.
So to minimise the losses and cost during transmission of supply GT is used.

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Lightning Arrester: Used for protection of transformer, if lightning falls from
sky it will ground the flashover to earth.
PRV: If internal sparking caused inside GT, gases will expand and increase the
pressure inside the transformer. The Pressure Regulating Valvewill operate and
reduces the pressure.

Unit auxiliary Transformer
The Purpose of Unit auxiliary Transformer is to feed power to generator
auxiliaries of that unit
These transformers are connected to generators and are used as stepping
down transformers. The HV side transformer voltage corresponds to the
voltage of the generating unit and the LV side voltage is stepped down
Rated KVA of Unit Auxiliary Transformers is approximately 15% of the
generating rating
Usually these transformers are outdoor transformers
One Unit auxiliary transformer is present for every generating unit.

Station Service Transformer
In general station service transformer is used for supplying power to
auxiliary equipment in the power plant when the plant is not generating any
power.
Rated HV voltage corresponds to the rated voltage of the outer busbars
Rated LV voltage corresponds to the auxiliary bus voltage
Rated KVA corresponds to the load of common auxiliaries of the station.
This corresponds to the 10% to 15% of the rating of the generating power.
These transformers are Outdoor type.




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Auxiliary Transformers
These transformers are located in power plant to step down voltage from
6.6KV to 415V.
The rating for this transformer corresponds to the rating of the auxiliary load
it should be bearing.
These transformers are indoor type and usually dry type transformers are
used.
INTERCONNECTING TRANSFORMER

ICT interconnect ATPS and BTPS switchyard. 220v supply bus from
ATPS is merged with 440v supply bus from BTPS. And another 6.6kv
line is taken from ICT to feed auxiliaries. If ATPS generator stop
working then also some emergency auxiliaries will be working. To feed
them, supply is taken from BTPS.Both terminals act as input. Power can
be transmitted from anyside.
i.e. ATPS to BTPS
or BTPS to ATPS



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Transformer Cooling Methods
Losses in the transformer are of the order of 1% of its full load kW rating. These
losses get converted in the heat thereby the temperature of the windings, core, oil
and the tank rises. The heat is dissipated from the transformer tank and the radiator
in to the atmosphere. Transformer cooling helps in maintaining the temperature
rise of various parts within permissible limits. In case of Transformer, Cooling is
provided by the circulation of the oil. Transformer Oil acts as both insulating
material and also cooling medium in the transformer. For small rating transformers
heat is removed from the transformer by natural thermal convection. For large
rating transformers this type of cooling is not sufficient, for such applications
forced cooling is used.
As size and rating of the transformer increases, the losses increase at a faster rate.
So oil is circulated in the transformer by means of oil pumps. Within the tank the
oil is made to flow through the space between the coils of the windings.
Several different combination of natural, forced, air, oil transformer cooling
methods are available. The choice of picking the right type of transformer cooling
method for particular appilcatiion depends on the factors such as rating, size, and
location.
Transformer Cooling Methods
Different Transformer Cooling methods are:
Air Cooling For Dry Type Transformers:
Air natural Type (A.N.)
Air Forced type (A.F.)
Cooling For Oil Immersed Transformers:
Oil Natural Air Natural Type (O.N.A.N.)
Oil Natural Air Forced Type (O.N.A.F.)
Oil Forced Air Natural Type (O.F.A.N.)
Oil Forced Air Forced Type (O.F.A.F.)


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Oil immersed Water Cooling:
Oil Natural Water Forced (O.N.W.F.)
Oil Forced Water Forced (O.F.W.F.)

Oil natural Air Forced Transformer Cooling:
In this method, air fans are mounted near the Transformer and the forced air is
directed on to the cooling tubes to increase the rate of cooling. The fans are
provided with automatic starting. When the temperature of the oil and windings
increases above a permissible value the thermostats switch on cooling fans. This
happens during heavy load condition and during higher ambient temperatures.
In higher rating transformers where the heat dissipation is difficult this type of
cooling is used. Fans are used to forced and air blast on radiators. Forced air
cooling increases the heat dissipation rate. In this type of cooling oil circulates by
natural convection and the blast of air is directed towards the better heat dissipation
rate.

Oil Natural and Air Forced Transformer Cooling



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Oil Forced Air Forced Transformer Cooling:
Transformers above 60 MVA employ a combination of Forced Oil and Forced Air
Cooling. Oil Natural Air Forced type of cooling is not adequate to remove the heat
caused by the losses which is approximately equal to 1% of the transformer rating
(0.6MW). In case of Forced Oil and Forced air cooling system a separate cooler is
mounted away from the transformer tank. This cooler is connected to the
transformer with pipes at the bottom and the top. The oil is circulated from the
transformer to the cooler through the pump. The cooler is provided with the fans
which blast air on the cooling tubes. This type of cooling is provided for the higher
rating transformers available at the Substations and Power Stations.

Oil Forced Air Forced Transformer Cooling


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Site Contains Electrical Interview Questions With Answers.
Completer portal for Electrical Interviews






59

SWITCHYARD & ITS EQUIPMENT
INTRODUCTION:-
The switchyard is a junction connecting the transmission &
Distribution system to the power plant.
Switchyard consist the air insulated aluminium bus type and of the
high voltage SF6 insulated dead tank circuit breakers arranged in a
ring bus configuration.
Each circuit breaker are equipped with a no load breaker, air insulated,
disconnect switch on each side.
An isolating disconnect switch are installed in each generator
transformer connection to the bus.
In switchyard a power transformer is used to step up or step down the
voltage.
Current and voltage transformer are located at points within the
switchyard to provide for the metering and relaying.
Control protection and monitoring for the switchyard will be located
in the switchyard relay room of the electrical building.
All protection and circuit breaker control will be powered from the
station battery tn 220v D.C system.
A grounding grid is provided to control step and touch potentials.
Lightning protection are provide by shield wires for any overhead
lines lightning arrestors.
Interface with SCADA system are provided the communication
between the facility switchyard and the control building is facilitated.
Revenue metering are provided on the outgoing lines recording net
power to or from the switchyard.

EQUIPMENTS USED IN SWITCHYARD
(1) BUS BAR
(2) INSULATOR
(3) LIGHTNING ARRESTOR
(4) EARTHING SYSTEM

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(5) CONTROL SYSTEM
(6) TRANSFORMER
(7) CIRCUIT BREAKRER
(8) ARCHING HORNS
(9) SCADA NODES
(10) ROW
TYPES OF BUS BAR
Rigid bus bars:-used for low,md,and high voltage.
Strain bus bar:-used for high voltages.
Insulated phase bus bars:-used for medium voltage.
Sulphuloride bus bar:-used for medium and high voltage system.


INSULATOR
Supported the poles and towers in such a way that currents from conductors do not
flow to earth through these supports.

CONTROL PANEL
Control S mostly consists of meters and protective relays. The meters include
ammeter, voltmeter, wattmeter, energy meter, etc. The relay include fuse failure
relay, auto reclose relay, check synchronising relay, auxiliary relay and transformer
relays like OLTC out of step winding temperature alarm, oil temperature alarm.
The trip indicators included are CB SF6 gas density low, CB Air pressure low, VT
fuse fail alarm, CB pole disc trip, carrier signal received back up protection, auto
reclose lock out control DC supply fails distance protection imperative carriers out
of service, distance protection trip etc.




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Circuit Breaker
A circuit breaker is an automatically operated electric switch designed to protect an
electrical circuit from damage cause by overload or short circuit. Its function is to
interrupt continuity to immediately discontinue electrical flaw.

SULPHUR HEXAFLUORIDE CIRCUIT BREAKERS
The SF6 is an electro-negative gas and has a strong tendency to absorb free
electrons .The contacts of the breakers are opened in a high pressure flow of SF6
gas and an arc is struck between them.The conducting free electrons in the arc are
rapidly captured by the gas to form relatively immobile ions.

The advantage of using SF6 circuit breakers :-
(i) Very short arcing time.
(ii) Can interrupt much larger currents.
(iii) Noiseless operation due to its closed gas circuit.
(iv) No moisture problem.
(v) Low maintenance cost.
(vi) No carbon deposits so that tracking and insulating problems are
eliminated.



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Air Blast Circuit Breaker Working
In the air blast circuit breakers the arc interruption takes place to direct a blast of
air, at high pressure and velocity, to the arc. Dry and fresh air of the air blast will
replace the ionized hot gases within the arc zone and the arc length is considerably
increased. Consequently the arc may be interrupted at the first natural current zero.
In air blast circuit breakers, the contacts are surrounded by compressed air. When
the contacts are opened the compressed air is released in forced blast through the
arc to the atmosphere extinguishing the arc in the process. A compressor plant is
necessary to maintain high air pressure in the receiver.


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In air blast circuit breaker high pressure air is forced on the arc through a nozzle at
the instant of contact separation. The ionized medium between the contacts is
blown away by the blast of the air. After the arc extinction the chamber is filled
with high pressure air, which prevents restrike. In some low capacity circuit
breakers, the isolator is an integral part of the circuit breaker. The circuit breaker
opens and immediately after that the isolator opens, to provide addition gap.

Advantages:
How air blast circuit breaker is better than oil circuit breaker:-
1. The growth of dielectric strength is so rapid that final contact gap needed for arc
extinction is very small. this reduces the size of device.
2. The risk of fire is eliminated.
3. Due to lesser arc energy, air blast circuit breakers are very suitable for
conditions where frequent operation is required.
4. The arcing products are completely removed by the blast whereas the oil
deteriorates with successive operations; the expense of regular oil is replacement is
avoided.
5. The energy supplied for arc extinction is obtained from high pressure air and is
independent of the current to be interrupted.
6. The arcing time is very small due to the rapid build up of dielectric strength
between contacts. Therefore, the arc energy is only a fraction that in oil circuit
breakers, thus resulting in less burning of contacts.

Disadvantages:
1. Considerable maintenance is required for the compressor plant which supplies
the air blast.
2. Air blast circuit breakers are very sensitive to the variations in the rate of
restriking voltage.
3. Air blast circuit breakers are finding wide applications in high voltage
installations. Majority of circuit breakers for voltages beyond 110 kV are of this
type.

Aim of electric power supply
Supply of required amount of power to all consumers overthe entire geographical
area at all the time continuously.
Supply energy at lowest cost .
Maximum possible coverage of geographical area .

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Maximum security of supply and minimum fault duration.
Supply of the power with in the targeted limit of frequency(in case of ac supply).
Supply with in specified limits of voltages.

Why DC OVER A.C ?
Power transfer through an AC Transmission link is given by:-
Reactive power comes in play.
Power transfer through the A.C line cant be controlled easily, quickly and
accurately.
Losses are high as the reactive power is high .
Voltage drop will be more.



HVDC
High voltage direct current(HVDC) bulk transmission of electrical power.
For long distance distribution HVDC system are less expensive and suffer lower
electrical losses.
For shorter distances, the higher cost of DC conversion equipment compared to an
AC system may be warranted where other benifits of direct current links are useful.

Economic consideration +ve to HVDC
Lesser conductors are used as compare to AC
Lesser losser so better quality.
Long distance covered.
Simpler design of towers.
HV so more security.





65



Advantages of coal based thermal Power Plant
They can respond to rapidly changing loads without difficulty
A portion of the steam generated can be used as a process steam in
different industries
Steam engines and turbines can work under 25 % of overload continuously
Fuel used is cheaper
Cheaper in production cost in comparison with that of diesel power stations
Disadvantages of coal based thermal Power Plant
Maintenance and operating costs are high
Long time required for erection and putting into action
A large quantity of water is required
Great difficulty experienced in coal handling
Presence of troubles due to smoke and heat in the plant
Unavailability of good quality coal
Maximum of heat energy lost
Problem of ash removing

CONCLUSION
The electric power plant most importance role in daily life of common
people and industrial development of nation. Nations progress &
development is measured by per capita consumption of electricity. It
changes life style of the people. Thermal power plants supply around
75% of total power requirement of our country. Considering technical
feasibility and economical viability the higher capacity thermal power
plants are now being constructed with sophisticated and complex control
system.

66




REFERENCE







Er. S.K.RANJAN (EE)
(EED-I, 2*250MW)
Er. PRADEEP KUMAR (AE)
(EED-I, 2*250MW)