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Alex Wisner
4/1/14
4th Hour
The Tales of Ancient Ireland, Old and Modern
Cead mile filte! A hundred thousand welcomes! is the slogan for the lush country of
Ireland. What secrets hide in the ancient ruins of this beautiful land? Explore the history of this
exotic country, through all the new waves of different immigrants, the country dividing into two,
the infamous Irish Famine of the 1800s, and find out how the island has turned out through so
much political instability and strife. (Blashfield 9)
The beginning of the country of Ireland dates back to prehistoric times. Many things
happened around the time of 7000 B.C. The first people to immigrate to the island around this
time were from other parts of Europe at around this time. These people first laid claim on the
northeastern part of the island, near what is now Larne in Northern Ireland. Slowly, the settlers
moved southward by the rivers, towards Dalkey Island and near the Bann Valleys. Needing
sustenance, the people got their food by hunting and fishing, using knives and scrapers of flint.
(Ireland, History of)
Fast forward through time to circa 2000 B.C. when the Bronze Age began to take shape,
originating in the Middle East. The blacksmiths on the island began to educate themselves on the
inner workings of making bronze (a substance that is a combination of copper and tin). Ireland
was blessed with plentiful amounts of gold and copper, which raised the country to becoming the
mecca, the epicenter of metalwork. The products, such as necklaces of twisted metal, or torques,
bracelets, and other things, were exported to areas such as what is now the UK, modern day
Portugal and Spain (what used to be Iberia), France, Crete, and other regions. Later on was the
Iron Age, which began around 700 B.C. (Ireland, History of; Mythology)
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Later in time, about 1600 years later, in 400 B.C., the infamous Celts came around to the
island. These people originate from around the Rhine and Danube rivers in Europe. The modern
day Celtic language is now known as Gaelic, also known as Irish. These people sustained
themselves by growing flax and grains. For protein, meat in particular, the Celts raised large
amounts of cattle and sheep. (Ireland, History of)
Around the time the Celts arrived, the island was separated into about 150 tuatha, or
small communities. Each one had a king presiding over it, and each king lived in a house
supported by banks of earth, or in crannogs, also known as lake dwellings. What are sometimes
called the five fifths of Ireland (the original provinces) may have been Connacht, Leinster,
Meath (legend says that Tara, Meath was the location for a grand palace that King Cormac mac
Airt had built), Munster (which are now the Republic of Ireland), and Ulster (now modern day
Northern Ireland). King Cormac founded the kingdom of Meath, naming himself the high king
(back then it was ard ri). The total of provinces changed often, the same with their boundaries.
(Ireland, History of)
Presently, little is known about the Celtic religion. Historians do know of an educated
part of society called the Druids. This higher class was made up of different people, including
poets, teachers, judges, and even priests. The priests made sacrifices to the gods. The Celtic
people believed in an afterlife, a world far beyond death, that some called the Land of Youth, in
Gaelic Tir na nog. Around 800 years later, in the A.D. 400s, Christianity spread throughout the
island, with monasteries popping up all through the island. While some scholars believe
otherwise, others believe that all the credit for the coming of Christianity is due completely to
Saint Patrick, who was a slave in Ireland, then fled to France, then returned to Ireland as a
Christian missionary, arriving in 432 A.D. While scholars dispute how Christianity came to be in
the country, they all agree that most people were open to accepting the new religion. Around
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A.D. 500 to 800 (the beginning of the Middle Ages), scholarship, religion, and education
flourished all throughout the land. People flocked like bees to honey from other countries to
Ireland to study in its renowned and prestigious monastery schools. The main courses at these
schools were the studies of sacred text (scripture) and description of God (theology). (Morril;
Ireland, History of)
Beginning around the A.D. 400s to the 1400s, monks in Ireland preserved ancient texts,
papers, and manuscripts that told of ancient Celtic myths. One specifically, the Lebor Gabala,
shows the trail of mythical history of Ireland. The Irish myths are more about deities than
anything else. There are a series of related stories, or cycles that are imperative to Celtic
mythology: the mythological cycle, the Ulster cycle, and the Fionn cycle. The previously
mentioned Lebor Gabala holds the oldest cycle, that of the mythological cycle, depicting tales of
supernatural beings settling the country by several invasions. The Fomorians and Firbolgs,
different races, were defeated by the People of the Goddess Danu, or the Tuatha De Danann,
who were defeated by Milesians, the Sons of Mil. Centering on King Conchobars court in Ulster
is the Ulster cycle. This cycle focuses on a specific hero, a great one. A poet and magician, most
considered Cuchulainn a demigod for his resemblance to the Greek hero Achilles with the
exception of having special powers like spitting fire. Cuchulainn makes many appearances
throughout the Ulster cycle, most famously in The Cattle Raid of Cooley where, for a
distinguished brown bull, a raid on Ulster was arranged by a Queen Maeve of Connaught. Like
any other stereotypical ancient hero, Cuchulainn easily defeated the invaders and the queen
finally got her prized bull. Unfortunately, the lives of all heros must come to an end. Cuchulainn
was killed several years later with powers by the very queen he had helped because Cuchulainn
had help from some of King Conchobars army to drive the invaders away and right out of the
country. But the line of heroes doesnt stop there. There was another one, a Finn MacCool, who
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appears in the Fenian cycle, or, more famously known as, the Fionn cycle. The story goes like
this: once upon a time there was a great hero named Finn MacCool. Finn usually had his posse of
warriors, the Fianna. This infamous group was known for their sheer size and brute strength
while their leader was renowned for being wise and charitable. The main characters are mortal,
not a drop of supernatural powers within them, which leads some to believe that this series of
stories represents the way society and politics were at the time of the A.D. 200s. one of the more
renowned stories in this cycle is The Pursuit of Diarmuid and Grainne, where Finn was
supposed to wed the daughter of an Irish king, Grainne who in turn fell in love with Diarmuid,
who happen to be Finns nephew and friend. Grainne managed to convince Diarmuid to elope
with her. . Finn and the Fianna went after them. . The story centers on the obstacles that Grainne
and Diarmuid encounter on their trip. Eventually Finn caught up to the pair and Diarmuid died
indirectly because of Finn. Needless to say, Grainne wasnt very happy with Finn killing her
beloved, but eventually Finn won her over and they got married. What a wonderful love story.
(Mythology)
In 795, a new type of people arrived at the island, but not in a way that most people
would think. These people being mentioned were the Scandinavian Vikings, and they came to
raid Ireland. They plundered churches, specifically the monastery off the coast of Dublin, on
Lambay Island. They liked to make surprise attacks in small groups all along the coast and took
their stolen goods back to their country. About 35 years later, around 830 A.D., the default attack
for the Vikings changed. Their attacks began to move inland as they sailed up rivers, then began
to make bases and attacked surrounding land, typically the countryside, and later stayed during
the winter. Their first winter stay was over 841 and 842 A.D., at Dublin. The Vikings were much
stronger than the Irish, mainly being the Irish lacked an army, a navy, and good weapons. It also
didnt help much that the kings couldnt seem to get along, therefore the country was politically
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unstable and divided. That all changed, though, in the mid-800s when the people of Ireland
began to build up a stronger defense, causing them to win some battles against the Vikings. The
Irish may have won the battle, but not the war, because more Vikings came around to attack in
891. When the second wave came around, the first wave had made themselves right at home at
Cork, Dublin, Limerick, Waterford, and Wexford. The Vikings began to make trade in these first
Irish towns, and ended up marrying into Irish families, joining the Christian community, and the
leaders became like other leaders and rulers of Ireland and partook in wars and battles between
rival Irish kings. (Ireland, History of)
Next up to invade Ireland were the Normans from Normandy in May of 1169 at Bannow
Bay, on the southeast coast. They came on three longships. Again, the Irish were not armed well
enough to fight off the Normans, causing several territories to be captured. The Normans had the
help of an Englishman, a noble, typically called Strongbow. Promised land, the crown of
Leinster, and a bride, Strongbow set sail and, in 1170, arrived near Waterford, seized the town,
and married the daughter of Dermot MacMurrough, who died unexpectedly after the Normans
captured Dublin, which legally made Strongbow the king of Leinster. Another man, Hugh de
Lacy, was granted the kingdom of Meath. When the year 1300 rolled around, the majority of
Ireland was under Norman control, with the de Burghs holding on to much of Connacht and the
de Lacys controlling Meath and Westmeath. The Butlers held land in Munster while Leinster and
the south bank of the River Shannon were controlled by the Fitzgeralds. The aged country of
Ulster and land east of the River Bann (from Fair Head to Carlingford Lough) were held by John
de Courcy (or de Courci), a Norman soldier. While the Normans did hold a lot of land, they
fought among themselves as well as with the Irish. With all the fighting that they did, the
strength of the Normans diminished, and when 1350 arrived, the Irish began to get their land
back from the Norman barons. By recovering their territories, the Irish had also gained some of
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the Normans weapons and battle tactics. The people of Ireland also employed gallowglasses, or
soldiers from Scotland. These soldiers were typically stronger than the Normans. By doing this,
the Irish basically beefed up security after when they needed it most. Brilliant. (Ireland, History
of; Conquest, The Norman)
From B.C. to A.D. Ireland was Ireland. One country. Now Ireland is two countries. So
when did the great divide happen? Ireland used to be part of the United Kingdom (1801-1921),
but the entire thing began in the 1700s. Protestant people who owned land had better benefits
than others. They were richer and more powerful at the expense of others, namely the heirs of the
Presbyterian and Puritan settlers from Scotland and England and Irish Catholics. From these
people came nationalists who began to campaign for better rights. By the cause of a war, the
English government took away a lot of land from the Roman Catholics in Ireland and by 1704,
they had no more than one-eighth of the territories. The Penal Laws, created in 1691 by the
British government in hopes that Catholicism would die out, were hard on Irish Catholics. One
law banished members of religious orders and bishops from their communities and others were
meant to keep Roman Catholics powerless and poor. Land laws when something like this: when
a landowner that was Catholic died, his land and possessions had to be divided equally among
his sons, but if the oldest son change to become a Protestant, he inherited all the land. Not a
single Catholic could lease or purchase land for more than 31 years. They werent allowed to
send their children abroad for an education or teach in schools, nor could they carry guns or own
a horse worth more than a little bit of money they couldnt call a government office, become a
lawyer, an army officer, or serve on a jury. They also werent allowed to become Parliament
members or participate in parliamentary elections. Roman Catholics formed the majority of the
population in the 1770s, but controlled only one-twentieth of the land and not many did well in
trade. Most were tenant farmers who paid high rent to their Protestant landlords. They paid
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contributions, one-tenth of their earnings, or tithes, to the Protestant church. Other Roman
Catholics were very poor without land and lived in great poverty. (Ireland, History of; United
Kingdom, History of)
As the population increased, so did the competition for land and many lived on potatoes
and not much else. The use of the Irish language, or Gaelic language, decreased after the Irish
aristocracy lost their territories. This was because the Protestants in Ulster and the ruling class
used English, while the lower classes still spoke Irish. Although Presbyterians of Ulster did not
have full civil rights and had to pay tithes, they were allowed to participate in parliamentary
elections, and some even became members of Parliament, although this was not enough for some
and many ended up moving to the American colonies because of the lack of full civil rights. Not
a single person had complete freedom because of the British government. They made it difficult
for trade in Ireland by using restrictions. The British government only backed the linen industry
and made it so that the British had to give their permission before Irish Parliament made any
laws. By 1719, the British had it to where they could make laws for Ireland. Not too many were
ready to voice their protests at such restrictions, but the Protestants gained courage as time
passed on, and people in the Irish Parliament began to hate the constraints (these people were
called Patriots). Thanks to the Revolutionary War in the Colonies in the Americas in 1775, the
British government had to pull back part of their armed forces to send them to fight against the
people in the colonies. Another group was formed, the Volunteers, made up of armed Protestant
landlords, who became controlled by the Patriots. These two groups helped a politician, Henry
Grattan, force the British to take away the constraints on the Irish Parliament and trade.
(Ireland, History of)
A long 18 years of freedom began in 1782, which made the land prosperous by giving the
industries financial support. Unfortunately, the people werent exactly included in this wealth
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because the government was fraudulent. The lord lieutenant controlled Parliaments decisions by
giving out pensions, titles, and jobs to the members and Parliament didnt equally represent all
the Irish groups. Most of the Penal Laws had been repealed at this point by the British
government. Later on, people began to get political reform fever. The strongest feelings came
from the Presbyterians in Ulster. Around this time, the Roman Catholics got the right to vote
(1793), but they werent allowed to be a part of Parliament. Five years later, some French people
arrived in County Mayo and there was a short rebellion close to Castlebar. This rebellion is
known as the Races of Castlebar because the French chased the British through the Castlebar
streets. Unfortunately, the French and Irish were defeated by the British and thousands were
wounded or killed. Ouch. (Ireland, History of)
In the 1800s, the Irish really wanted rights. There were problems in the country. The
British decided to help and formed the Act of Union, under which Ireland and Great Britain were
united. They had yet to convince the Irish Parliament and people to become part of this Union, so
they began campaigning. Roman Catholics were told that the British government would allow
them political rights. By 1801, Ireland integrated with the United Kingdom of Great Britain and
Ireland. That put an end to the Irish Parliament, and the Irish sent some representatives to the
UKs Parliament. Unfortunately, it was not what the Irish had expected. Roman Catholics did not
get their political rights and the Act of Union did not do anything to give them a great economy.
As time passed on, more people came to Ireland, and, as more people came to the island, more
people were in need of land. The British industries were more efficient than the Irish industries.
The Irish had no chance. The only prosperous part of the island was Ulster, which profited from
the linen industry. (Ireland, History of)
In 1823, a Roman Catholic lawyer, Daniel OConnell, founded the Catholic Association
and worked to get Roman Catholics complete political rights because he believed that Ireland
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couldnt get its problems fixed until the British would accept Roman Catholics and Ireland had
its own Irish Parliament. Lots of people supported his ideas with the exception of the Protestants
in Ulster and, 5 years later, Daniel became a member of the British Parliament, mostly because
the British government was afraid that there would be a revolution in Ireland if they didnt give
him a seat. A year after being elected to PArliament, an act was passed that let Catholics hold
any political offices except lord chancellor, regent, and lord lieutenant and they could sit in
Parliament. Unfortunately, some laws were changed and many Irish people lost their voting
rights. (Ireland, History of)
When 1842 finally came around, a newspaper, The Nation, was formed by three men
who were part of a group called the Young Irelanders, a group that had supported OConnell and
promoted nationalism in Ireland. These men, Charles Gavan Duffy, John Blake Dillon, and
Thomas Osborne Davis, founded the paper in hopes that people would begin to think about
Catholic emancipation, independence from the British, and nationalism in Ireland. Many
Protestants were against these ideas of the Young Irelanders even though the group kept trying to
win over the Protestants. The idea of taking drastic measures by using force to gain Irelands
independence resurfaced again, and began to root itself in the minds of these young men.
Parliaments own William Smith OBrien tried this idea by attempting a rebellion, but,
unfortunately, did not succeed and the government sent William and some of the other
ringleaders to Tasmania. (Ireland, History of)
By 1801, there was a total of 5 million Irish people inhabiting the country, however this
number rose sharply, and by the time 40 years had passed, the total population was a staggering
8 million people, which became a huge problem, because the country relied heavily on farming
and agriculture. Theres only so much land that can be used for growing crops. With the
population on the rise, agriculture became the basis for the peoples survival. Farms got smaller
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as the population grew. See a problem? A space deficit. The tenants, the people that lived on
these little farms gave most of their crops to their proprietors as their rent, which made life
difficult. Many Irish didnt have much in the means of sustenance so most depended on potatoes.
The difficult part was that there were some waves of disease that infected this main source of
food in 1845, 1846, and 1848. Those crops became rotted and millions were affected. The prime
minister of Great Britain made relief plans for the most affected areas. The intended plan was to
help people make more money to buy grain from the US. Unfortunately this didn't work and the
government ended up giving food out free of charge. As if that werent enough, the free handouts
werent effective. Lots of people died of starvation causing the population to drop from 8 million
to 2 million, which has led historians to believe that a million people died from disease and
starvation. From the rest of those who were still alive, many left Ireland for the Americas feeling
hostility towards the UK, blaming their suffering on them. (Ireland, History of)
In 1858, John OMahony formed a group called the Fenian Brotherhood, in New York.
There was another similar society in Ireland founded by James Stephens titled the Irish
Republican Brotherhood, in Dublin. They joined together quickly after they formed and by the
end of the Civil War in the States, some of the soldiers joined the Fenians. Other people were
from the British Army. The year of 1865, some of the ringleaders of the Fenians were
incarcerated because the group was caught illegally importing ammo for a planned rebellion by
spies working for the government. There, eventually, was a rebellion, but it ended quickly and
the Fenian movement was unsuccessful. All this drama did draw the attention of the British
government, who noted how badly the country needed reform. (Ireland, History of)
In 1868, William Gladstone was elected to UK prime minister. He was really worried
about all the violence throughout the country.He tried to subdue the people by passing a Land
Act which was supposed to supply some tenants with a piece of mind and disconnected the ties
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between the Church of Ireland and the Irish government. Two years after Gladstone became
Prime minister, the home rule movement was formed by a Protestant lawyer, Isaac Butt. This
movement suggested that Ireland stay as part of the UK but have their separate parliament to
work on the countrys problems. Bigger things like foreign policies, certain taxes, and defense
would be left up to the British to deal with. Although a great idea, the founder wasnt the leader
type, so the movement didnt really take off until a Protestant landlord, Charles Stewart Parnell,
came onto the scene, in 1879. In the same year, Michael Davitt, a nationalist leader, created the
Irish National Land League to shield farmers from expensive rent and eviction. Charles joined
their two ideas and got plenty of support from the Fenians and the US even gave him assistance
and the group had many more activities. With Gladstone still in power in 1881, the British
passed a second Land Act, which gave courts the power to make fair rents. However, the Irish
still werent satisfied and on May 6th, 1882, two British officials were killed by Irish terrorists in
Phoenix Park, Dublin. (Ireland, History of)
About four years after the murder, in 1886, William, the prime minister, brought in a
Home Rule Bill, but his party was indecisive, so the bill didn't pass and the prime minister,
William Gladstone resigned. Many of the British didnt want the Irish to have home rule, so they
decided to give the Irish different laws without directly giving the home rule, of which they had
no intention. The most significant law was Wyndhams Act of 1903, giving tenants the right to
buy their land by long term loans with low interest, but even still, the Irish werent happy. They
really wanted home rule, and near the beginning of the 20th century, the Irish, especially the
nationalists, really started to fight for control. Lots of people wanted to base the Irish government
on a republic, trying to preserve their homeland, their culture. Just before the 1900s, in 1893, to
be specific, two men by the names of Douglas Hyde and Eoin MacNeill wanted to keep the Irish
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language alive and in use, so he established the Gaelic League. Although the group was non-
political, many of the men who were affiliates became nationalists. (Ireland, History of)
In 1899, another newspaper, The United Irishman, was created and published, urging the
people to become less dependent, more self-supporting. The man behind the words was Arthur
Griffith, a journalist in Dublin. He wanted the constitution from the 18 years of independence to
be renewed. In hopes of accomplishing his goal, Arthur established a new political party called
Sinn Fin, but it didnt really take off at first. He had more peaceful views while his supporters
were more willing to use force, if necessary. In 1912, surprise, surprise, another political party
was established! This one was called the Labour Party. It was a branch of a union, specifically,
the Irish Trade Union Congress, for people in the workforce. It was mainly for people who had
socialist views, mainly directing their attention on emigration, poverty, and unemployment.
Something even more unexpected: another group was formed! This one was not a political party,
but a new group none the less. It was called the Ulster Volunteer Force with Sir Edward Carson
as the engaging leader. This organization was founded because, as usual, the Protestants in Ulster
werent happy. They were really steadfast in not accepting home rule. They chose the leader and
made the organization. The group brought in artillery from Germany, on the off chance that the
British insisted on doing so. Yet again, another organization was founded. This time, it was the
Irish Volunteers. Established by radical nationalists in the southern part of the country, following
the example of the Protestants of Ulster, it would soon become the Irish Republican Army. They
did the same things as the Ulster Volunteer Force. When World War I began, it was decided by
the British that home rule could wait a little while. Translation:wait until the war ended. During
the war, many of the Irish Volunteers backed the UK while the rest were put under the control of
the Irish Republican Brotherhood. The Brotherhood was in the midst of planning a rebellion that
was to take place on Easter Sunday, April 23, 1916, specifically. The ringleaders were Padraic
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Pearse, Sean MacDiarmada, and Thomas J. Clarke and they wished that the arrival of some
artillery, from Germany, would come just before the rebellion was to take place. It just so
happened that Roger Casement, an Irish revolutionary, went to receive aid from Germany. When
Roger returned, on Good Friday, he was arrested and the secret uprising was found out by the
leader, Eoin MacNeill, he attempted to stop it. The Volunteers became baffled by the mix of
orders, but they ended up putting up the flag of the Republican above the General Post Office in
Dublin and Padraic read the Proclamation of the Irish Republican aloud. Unfortunately, the
British subdued the uprising within a week and fifteen of the ringleaders, Padraic Pearse
included, were shot while Roger was hung in London. Eamonn de Valera received the death
sentence, but he was set free. (Ireland, History of)
After all the deaths of the leaders did not deter the people from supporting a republic and
Sinn Fin, but rather made them support it even more because of it and, in 1917, the organization
announced its support of a Irish republic. The Irish Volunteers changed to the Irish Republican
Army, but, after the announcement, there was a lot of fighting concerning the British forces and
Irish rebels. In 1920, Ireland became two different states, both still apart of the UK and Northern
Ireland was formed. Southern Ireland wasnt happy, though, and started working towards
complete freedom from the UK, fighting for independence. Everything ended when, on July 11,
1921, there was a truce. (Ireland, History of)
A few months later, on December 6, 1921, the Anglo-Irish Treaty was signed by Irish and
British representatives, making southern Ireland the Irish Free State. Some people were satisfied
with this while others were not, wanting complete freedom and cutting all ties to Great Britain
while reuniting with Northern Ireland. The treaty was ratified on January 7, 1922, but there
wasnt peace. In fact, a civil war started in June of 1922. Many people died, but, fortunately, it
all came to an end by April 1923, when the people were told to stop fighting. Sadly, most of the
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ties between the two states were cut within the timespan of 11932 and 1937, when the
government had a new constitution that stated that Ireland was a sovereign, independent,
democratic state and the Irish Free State became Eire, Gaelic for Ireland and in 1938, the Irish
regained control of their ports from the British. Eire was finally a completely independent
country on April 18, 1949. Many people wanted to reunite the two states, some by force, others
by peace. (Ireland, History of)
Eires industrial backbone is agriculture. For several decades, the countrys leaders have
tried to balance out the economy. They made tariffs to aid local manufacturers. From 1926 to
1960, employment rose by 100,000 people, but the number of farmers dropped sharply,
approximately by 250,000 people. There was a job deficit and many left Ireland for the Americas
and the UK. In the 80s, there was a very high rate of unemployment, but, after the government
created a program to aid the economy, the economy began to get stronger. By the 90s, Eire had
one of the best economies in the whole of Europe and its unemployment rates were below the
average of the continent. Even emigration slowed down, but, dismally, at the start of the 21st
century, so did the economy. Thats about when the world fell into the recession.By 2008, Eire
was in pretty bad shape, with atrocious debts and a disatrous property market. The country even
had to accept a 112 billion dollar loan, or, rather, 85 billion euro loan from other countries that
used the euro as currency. (Ireland, History of)
For the entire time, through all the problems, people still want the two states, Northern
Ireland and Eire, to reunite, yet most of the people of Northern Ireland are Protestants, and want
to be apart of the UK. From the 60s to the 80s, there was a big clash between the Catholics and
Protestants in Northern Ireland. There were bombings, kidnappings, and other terrorist acts that
also occurred in Eire. The consequences for terrorist attacks were heightened in 1976. Almost a
decade later, in 1985, the Progressive Democrats, a new political party, were founded in Eire.
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They supported tax reductions and a smaller role for the government. The group was broken up
in 2009. By 1998, there were peace talks between Northern Ireland and Eire. The finally decided
to put an end to the violence in more troubled areas in Northern Ireland. (Ireland, History of)
With a long, very extensive history, Ireland has had many ups, downs, formings of
organizations, famine, and, finally, a division between ideas, making two separate states. People
still have faith that the two states can reconcile their differences and become one again. Only
time will tell if the two governments and the people can settle their differences. Ireland, a
beautiful land, has had many new waves of foreign immigrants, an island dividing into two, and
the infamous Irish Famine of the 1800s,
but, in the end, Eire has survived it all, through all the troubles. Long live Ireland!















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Works Cited
Blashfield, Jean F. Ireland: Enchantment of the World. New York: Children's Press, 2002. N.
pag. Print.
History of Ireland. N.p., 2005. Web. 2 May 2014.
<http://www.historyofnations.net/europe/ireland.html>.
Leonard, Scott A. "Mythology." World Book Student. World Book, 2014. Web. 30 Apr. 2014.
Morrill, John S. "Ireland, History of." World Book Student. World Book, 2014. Web. 31 March
2014.
Morrill, John S. "United Kingdom, History of the." World Book Student. World Book, 2014.
Web. 30 Apr. 2014.
The Norman Conquest. N.p., 2005. Web. 2 May 2014.
<http://www.irelandseye.com/aarticles/history/events/dates/norman.shtm>.