Mitchell Young

Christina Harris
Chemistry 151 Research Paper
2 April 2014
Catalytic Converters
There are many parts that make up a car, and many of
them are taken for granted. One of these is a catalytic
converter. They take poisonous gases that would harm the
environment and humans, and convert them into non-toxic
gases. The catalytic converter was invented in the mid 20
th

century, put into production about 20 years later, and are
now required on all cars sold in the United States and
other countries.
In the early 1950s reports on the smog conditions were
published and one individual, Eugene Houdry took note and
decided something needed to be done to reduce the smog
amount. Houdry was a French mechanical engineer who
specialized in catalytic oil refining. He began researching
how to create a catalytic converter for gasoline engines
with Cat style exhaust systems, and then later for
forklifts. One of the problems that faced widespread
popularity of catalytic converters was the use of leaded
gasoline. Leaded gasoline forms a layer of lead on the
surface of the converter, which makes it unable to convert
the toxic gases into non-toxic gases, making it useless. It
wasnt until 1973 that a team of engineers from the
Engelhard Corporation perfected the design of the catalytic
converter and put it into production. These converters were
made mandatory in all vehicles in the United States in
1992.
Catalytic converters are positioned between the
headers and mufflers of an exhaust system in a vehicle, as
shown in Figure 1:
Figure 1

The raw exhaust gases come out the engine, into the headers
and into the catalytic converter. The poisonous exhaust
gases, which are a result of incomplete combustion of
gasoline, are converted to nonpoisonous gases, the exhaust
leaves the catalytic converter, and flows out of the
tailpipe and into the exterior environment.
There are three metals used for catalyzing reactions
in the substrates in catalytic converters: platinum (Pt),
palladium (Pd), and rhodium (Rh). The Platinum, palladium,
and rhodium allow the reactions HC H
2
0 (hydrocarbon to
water), CO CO
2,
(carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide), and
NOx N
2
(nitrogen oxides to nitrogen) to take place.
Platinum is an excellent oxidation catalyst and is ideal
for catalytic converters because of its resistance to
poisonous substances that are often found in engine exhaust
such as sulfur, lead, and phosphorus. The drawbacks of
platinum are its inefficiency to catalyze NOx (nitrogen
oxides), sensitivity to high temperatures, and higher costs
than palladium. Palladium is excellent at oxidizing
hydrocarbons, and decent at removing nitrogen oxides.
Palladiums resistance to heat is a plus, but it is
sensitive to poisons, which can be problematic if used in a
catalytic converter that has dirty exhaust, meaning there
are many poisons in the exhaust. Rhodium is the best metal
for oxidizing hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide, and
removing nitrogen oxides out of the three metals. It is
very resistant to poisonous gases, and to high
temperatures. The only significant drawback to rhodium is
the cost, which is much higher than platinum or palladium.
(Figure 2)
Figure 2

There are three main types of catalytic converters,
two-way catalytic converters, three-way catalytic
converters, and three-way plus catalytic converters. Two-
way catalytic converters are the least effective of the
three types at neutralizing poisonous gases. This is
because the substrate uses only platinum and palladium, but
lacks rhodium, which is the main metal used in the removal
of nitrogen oxides. (Figure 3)

Figure 3

Conversion of hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide to water and
carbon dioxide was efficient, but nitrogen oxides were
still present in the exhaust after the catalytic converter
that are harmful. Because of the intensity of these
reactions, there is a large amount of heat generated in the
converter, so much so that heat shields are required around
the converter, and the temperature of the exhaust exiting
the converter is greater than the temperature of the
exhaust when it enters the converter. Because of the
ineffectiveness of converting nitrogen oxides to nitrogen,
two-way catalytic converters were phased out and three-way
plus catalytic converters were introduced in the mid
1970s.
Three-way plus catalytic converters fixed the issue of
nitrogen oxide emissions, but raised new problems. In
three-way catalytic converters there are two substrates.
The first is covered with rhodium, which fixes the problem
that two-way catalytic converters have of too much nitrogen
oxides in the emissions by converting the nitrogen oxides
into nitrogen and oxygen gases. The second substrate is
coated with platinum and palladium that catalyze
hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide into water and carbon
dioxide, just like the two-way converter does. In-between
the first and second substrate there is an air tube that
allows oxygen gas (O
2
) to enter the converter. This oxygen
gas helps the carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons to react in
the second substrate. (Figure 4)
Figure 4


Unfortunately because it required an air tube to allow
oxygen in, the three-way plus catalytic converter is
inefficient. Under high loads, or when there is a lean
mixture (high oxygen content in the fuel) the oxygen
concentration in the converter becomes too high, causing
the second substrate to be saturated with too many oxygen
molecules, which doesnt allow the hydrocarbons and carbon
monoxide to be converted into water and carbon dioxide.
This inefficiency caused the development of an improved
design known as the three-way catalytic converter.
Three-way catalytic converters were implemented in
vehicles around the world since 1981. They are still in use
today and are required on all new gasoline powered vehicles
sold in the United States. Three-way catalytic converters
are, by far, the most complex of the three types of
catalytic converters. The mechanical side of three-way
converters is fairly simple, using rhodium on the first
substrate to remove nitrogen oxides, and platinum and
palladium on the second substrates to eliminate
hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide. (Figure 5) For optimal
reduction of harmful gases, oxygen sensors are in the
exhaust pipe after the catalytic converter, and depending
on what is needed, the fuel mixture is adjusted for optimal
oxygen levels. Oxygen is also stored in the catalytic
converter, and can be released when necessary. Current
vehicles have the sensors connected to the cars main
computer system and can alert the driver when the catalytic
converter is not working at peak efficiency.
Figure 5

Without these important pieces of machinery, the earth
would have many more pollutants than there already are. All
around, every day, catalytic converters clean up exhaust so
people can drive without harming the surrounding
environment. While one may not realize it, the basis of
everything comes down to the small atoms and molecules that
support and make up our world.
Catalytic converters remove poisonous gases in exhaust
systems. Without this converter, harmful emissions would
spew into the environment, damaging plants, animals, and
our planet as a whole. Likewise, Christ removes the poison
from our life if we allow him to. But we must make the
choice daily to allow him in our lives. Without him,
thoughtless words and harmful thoughts will fill our day.
Your sins may be as mountains before you; but if you
humble your heart and confess your sins, trusting in the
merits of a crucified and risen Saviour, He will f orgive
and will cleanse you from all unrighteousness. God demands
of you entire conformity to His law. This law is the echo
of His voice saying to you, Holier, yes, holier still.
Desire the fullness of the grace of Christ. Let your heart
be filled with an intense longing for His righteousness,
the work of which Gods word declares is peace, and its
effect quietness and assurance forever. Your sins may be as
mountains before you; but if you humble your heart and
confess your sins, trusting in the merits of a crucified
and risen Saviour, He will forgive and will cleanse you
from all unrighteousness. God demands of you entire
conformity to His law. This law is the echo of His voice
saying to you, Holier, yes, holier still. Desire the
fullness of the grace of Christ. Let your heart be filled
with an intense longing for His righteousness, the work of
which Gods word declares is peace, and its effect
quietness and assurance forever.

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Ellen White, Acts of the Apostles 566.2