Course Planning Page 1

COURSE PLANNING: COURSE RATIONALE

AND DESCRIBING ENTRY AND EXIT LEVEL







Compiled by
Rohib Adrianto Sangia
NIM. 137835102
rohib_sangia@yahoo.com





UNIVERSITAS NEGERI SURABAYA
PROGRAM PASCA SARJANA
S-2 PENDIDIKAN BAHASA INGGRIS
2014

Course Planning Page 2

Table of Contents

Cover 1
Table of Contents 2
Learning Theories 3
English for Specific Purpose 5
Defining Course Planning 6
The Course Rationale 7
Describing the entry and exit level 10
Conclusion 13
References 15

















Course Planning Page 3

COURSE PLANNING
This paper as a compulsory assignment in Language Teaching Design
subjects describes and explains the theories behind course planning as a
significant part in course development. This opinion and purposes in this
material hopefully can help those people which is working or doing the
business of courses especially language courses. Since one of some popular
courses product is ESP, it gives different meaning with language learning in
regular school.
The beginning of this paper reminds about the learning theories which
is the basic idea in conducting a course. Next part describes ESP at glance
about the characteristic of this course which is basically different with the
course in the regular school especially in its curriculum approach. Course
planning will be discussed in the next section. It is followed by course
rationale as opening stage in course planning subject. Finally describing
entry and exit level is the limitation of this paper out of the rest of the course
planning stages. They are the subtopic which is discussed in sequences here.

Learning Theories
Being related to instructional design, we need to know about learning
theories. There are many learning theories that are developed years after
years. The most popular ones are the behaviorism theory, cognitivism theory,
and constructivism theory.
According to behaviorism, learning is the transforming of the
behaviorism as the result of the interaction from stimulants and respons
(Gredler, 1986:42). From this definition, it emphasizes to the changing of
behavior that can be observed from the interaction between teacher as the
stimulant initiator and student as the responder from the stimulant action
that has given. There are several learning theories that being developed from
Course Planning Page 4

behaviorism theory. The developed theories are classical conditioning theory
from Ivan Pavlov, Connectionism theory from Thorndike, and operant
condition theory from Skinner(Dejnozka and Kapel, 1982:298)
Cognitivism theory exactly gives the direct responses that learning not
only is observed thru the changing or behavior but also the changing of
students internal mental structure which give his capacity to show the
changes. The mental structure covers knowledge, confidence, skill, hope, and
other mechanism in the students brain. The cognitivism theories are
developed into cognitive field theory, schema theory, and information
theory(Botturi and Stubbs, 2008:137).
Constructivist theory is developed by Piaget (1955) as Individual
constructivist or cognitive constructivist, and Vygotskii (1978) in his theory
is mentioned as social constructivist theory. There are theories about the
stage of cognitive development. It found that children are thinking and
reasoning differently in the different period in their life. Intellectual growth
involves three fundamentals process which is considered as assimilation,
accommodation, and equilibration(Harris, 1995:194). Assimilation is
involving the blending of new knowledge with the structure of previous
knowledge. Accommodation means the adaptation of the previous knowledge
structure to accommodate the new information or knowledge. The
unification of both assimilation and accommodation process gives new
process as called as schema. Equilibration is the balancing point between
individuality with the environment or between assimilation and
accommodation. Equilibration is the main factor that can explain why
somebody logical inteligensia is growing faster than others.




Course Planning Page 5

English for Specific Purposes
English for Specific Purposes (ESP) is the English learning with
particular purpose. Robinson (1980) reported
It is generally used to refer to the teaching and learning of a foreign
language for a clearly utilitarian purposes of which there is no
doubt(Robinson, 1980:5).
English for specific purposes has different approach and assumption with
General English. The main goal of ESP is building the student capacity in
mastering English on what field or discipline that they are working with.
Example, for the chemistrys student, they need English for chemistry field, or
if they are mechanical students, they will learn English for mechanical field.
ESP may be considered studying English especially to the specific register in
Sociolinguistics.
Another concept and definition of ESP was offered by Mc Donough
(1984):
ESP courses are those where the syllabus and materials are determined
in all essentials by prior analysis of the communication needs of the
learners(Mc Donough, 1984:3).
This concepts and view of ESP indicates that material and syllabus also the
purposes of ESP have to be designed and developed according to the
students needs and the output product. As the conclusion, ESP is using
button up approach.
Based on explanation above, ESP is not a new product, but it is a
particular approach in English language teaching and learning which is
different with General English. ESP refers to English language learning and
teaching which has orientation in providing special needs rendering the field
or discipline of the students themselves. After all, ESP material is created and
developed based on need analysis which is conducted by course organizer. It
Course Planning Page 6

is the essential consideration to the course organizer in making course
planning, syllabus, material, and other things in supporting the course
programs.

Defining Course Planning
In discussing course planning we need to know some discourses about
term course and planning. As mention by Briggs and Wager (1981:77) course
in this context means instructional activities, resource, and evaluation
activities which are organized and brought to the pre-specified guiding for
making transformation in the students behaviors. Furthermore, a course can
be well known with their characteristics which are having recognizable of
start and finish points and dealing with set of content. It means that a course
generally related with the content area and the specific instructional periode
of time.
Term planning is related with management, as a part managing
process. Some experts define this process as
Planning is the formal process of making decisions for the future of
individuals and organizations. Planning involves dealing on aims and
objectives, selecting to correct strategies and program to achieve the
aims, determining and allocating the resources required and ensuring
that plans are communicated to all concerned. Plans are statement of
things to be done and the sequence and timing in which they should be
done in order to achieve a given end(Sharma, 2011:15)
Another definition was purposed by English (2006:763), planning is
an orientation to the future and hierarchical discipline that contains various
models, each recommending approaches for actions that will bring about
transformation. Furthermore this process is an attempting action to change
the future by current and ongoing accomplishment. All planning is dedicated
Course Planning Page 7

to exchanging some future for the very short term or maybe it can be over
some longer period, perhaps decades.
From the explanations above, proper definition to course planning is a
systematic preparation by considering the needs to organizing the content
and period of acting and applying instructions, resources, and evaluations in
order to achieve the goals that make significant character and behavior
changes to the students. Systematic preparation in here means stages that
should be accomplished. The stages that purposed by Richards (2001:145)
are developing a course rationale, describing entry and exit levels, choosing
course content, sequencing course content, planning the course content
(syllabus and instructional blocks), and preparing the scope and sequence
plan. The stages can certainly be modified in different order according to the
needs.
The effective of a course is very determined by the effectiveness of the
course planning. The course planning is not only just completing the
administration needs and curriculum but also being designed by involving
the components instructional design that are included instructional goals
which is starting with instructional analysis, students analysis, context
analysis, and formulating performance target, evolving assessment
instruments, developing learning strategies, selecting and adapting learning
materials, and developing the application of formative assessments and
summative assessments as well(Dick, Carey, and Carey, 2001).

The Course rationale
The first stage that purposed by Richards (2001) is course rationale.
The term rationale was first time cited by Tyler (1950). Course rationale is
short written statements which is describing the reason and the nature of the
course program(Richards, 2001:145). Another definition arrived from
Posner and Rudnitsky (1986),
Course Planning Page 8

Course rationale is a statement that makes explicit the ideals, values,
and educational goals underlying the course(Posner and Rudnitsky,
1986:79).
It means that it contains many statements that have idea about reason and
the nature. Moreover, the statements is given accommodate some
information, as the target of people which suit to the course, the material or
content of the course, and the methods or strategies that will be given or
used in order to maintain the course treatments.
A good course rationale was support by several paragraphs. Each
paragraph shows the main idea about several topics around the notion and
nature of the course itself. The ideas are who the participants are, what the
content or the material that the course brought, and what kind of learning or
teaching design that run in the course(Richards, 2001:145). The participants
should be defined in the course rationale since a course is created for the
student with such kind criteria so it is helpful in the course. Material that is
offered by the course should be clear so make the better consideration and
decision to the course prospects. The teaching design and strategis is an
important point that should be presented in course rationale. From this
point, students, teachers or instructor, and course principle can prepare
themselves to conduct and follow the course effectively according to the
corridor.
Additionally, rationale expresses the values of the course and the
educational goals from the course(Posner and Rudnitsky, 1986:79).
Furthermore, the values and educational goals reveal the rules and
expectations that will motivate the way the course will be done. The rationale
expresses the values and goals that are related one to another. It means that
certain values from the planner are reflected the goals which is desired.
As Posner and Rudnitsky (1986:79) revealed that the rationale has
several purposes. The first purpose of rationale is moderating not only the
content that the learners gain while in course but also the method and
Course Planning Page 9

instruction engaged in the teaching in the course. The second purpose is the
rationale as the guideline of the planning of other course components. The
next purpose rationale controls the consistency the course components in
scope of values and goals.
There are at least five components of course rationale that purposed
by Posner and Rudnitsky (1986:81-87). The components are the problem,
the learners, the society, the subject matter and the educational goal. The
course rationale starts with the presentation of the problem or circumstance
that the course instruction proposed to solve(Posner and Rudnitsky,
1986:82). In addressing the learners, Smith, Stanley, and Shores (1957)
categorized as the intention of learners needs in education in getting the best
place in social and economic among society and the learners ideas in
developing to be better in self-balance according to their expectation(Posner
and Rudnitsky, 1986:82). Society component meets the skills, attitude, and
knowledge to the social group requirements without decreasing the learners
admiration(Posner and Rudnitsky, 1986:83-84). The rationale should
describe what the course is about and what the course is not about as part of
the subject matter component(Posner and Rudnitsky, 1986:85). The last
component is educational goals as important consideration that describes the
requirement outcome and indicates the priority and benefits(Posner and
Rudnitsky, 1986:86-87).
The following is an example of a short course rationale:
This course is designed for working adults who wish to improve their
communication skills in English in order to improve their employment
prospects. It teaches the basic communication skills needed to
communicate in a variety of different work settings. The course seeks to
enable participants to recognize their strengths and needs in language
learning and to give them the confidence to use English more effectively
to achieve their own goals. It also seeks to develop the participants'
skills in independent learning outside of the classroom.
(Richards, 2001:146)
Course Planning Page 10

It is clear stated that the target of the course is the working adult that wants
to improve their capacity in communication school in facing employment
environment or society. The course brings the content about basic
communication skills in various working setting. It is also describe the value
and objects of the course. It is also gives rich image of how the course runs,
such as the improvement of language strength and language use confidence
effectively, and initiate students independent learning behavior outside the
classroom.

Describing the entry and exit level
After conducting course rationale, the next stage is describing the
entry and exit level of the course. Since as explained in precious stages,
Rationale of the course has briefly shown what the course is for. But
intentionally, the explanation in the course rationale only gives the general
criterion in order to make it related with other course rationale components.
As Richards (2001:146) suggested, it is compulsory to knowing at
which level the student can join and the expected level that should be
reached by them in the end of course. In describing entering and exit level, it
is must include the more specific benchmarks in order to help them joining
the course effectively. From some commercial language course normally
divided the levels between elementary, intermediate, and advanced levels. It
means that the student that wants to join intermediate level, needs to
mastering minimal proficiency of elementary levels. Another example, the
student which meets with advanced level requirements is not recommended
to the elementary level which can make imbalanced an inefficient while the
course conducted.
In describing the entry and exit levels, it is need more specific and
technical criteria in order to categorize the students knowledge and ability.
Since the levels that mention before it feels still too broad, the depth
Course Planning Page 11

definition for the student standards is needed as part of detailed planning
that program and the material involve. Some of the detailed of the student
information can be such as, language proficiency for some skills, or all
language skills. In defining the proficiency, the course planner needs to follow
the standards. The standards can be created by course institution itself,
government standard, organization standards, or other more international
test service standar for example TOEFL or IELTS(Richards, 2001:146). From
determining entry level standard, the exit level requirements as well
necessary to be define which is considering the entry levels. It is to be higher
band of skills as the exit level than entry level. These requirements
undeniably can be looked by the assessments and over, it is recommended
with proficiency test.
The process in the precious paragraph shows an approach that
commonly used to classify different stages and levels in doing language
course planning(Richards, 2001:147). From this approach, it accommodates
the students and the course material in getting the best result of the course
objectives which is mentioned in the course rationale.
In describing the entry and exit levels, there are some assessments
that generally occur in language courses. There should be placement test,
diagnostic test, achievement test, and proficiency test. As Knapp (2009:630)
mentioned that these test in conventional foreign language classification
were distinguished to their purposed and function.
As indicated by the term itself, placement tests are used to place
language learners in appropriate language courses. Diagnostic tests are
aimed at identifying specific problem areas of individual learners, with
the intention to provide support for overcoming those problems.
Achievement tests are supposed to measure what a foreign language
learner has learned with regard to the goals of a particular course or
series of courses he has attended. Proficiency tests are used to specify a
learners abilities in a foreign or second language, regardless of the
goals of a particular course and even regardless of whether the learner
has had any tuition at all or acquired the L2 in naturalistic contexts.
This implies that in principle proficiency tests totally neglect how, when
Course Planning Page 12

and why an individual has gained proficiency in a foreign language.
Their orientation is clearly towards the future. The results of proficiency
tests are used for making inferences about an individuals future
performance in the foreign language: on the job, in university studies or
as a member of a social community.(Knapp, 2009:630)
From the report above, both of placement and diagnostics test are
recommended in adjusting the entry level of the students. While achievement
test is used in measuring result of the course, it describes the students
developments, as the consideration which usually found in the exit level. The
proficiency test is considered as the general assessment which is multi-
function, both in the entry and exit levels.
There are some example as the approach that mentioned by Richards
(2001), the first is the Australian Migrant Education On-Arrival Program
which used the Australian Second Language Proficiency Rating is defines the
student second language proficiency as nine points from scale zero to native-
like proficiency with attached the detailed description of language behavior
in four macro-skills, thus allow the adjustment of syllabus to fit as well as
proficiency development(Ingram, 1982:66). In another case, the American
Council on the Teaching of Foreign Language issued the standardization
proficiency that categorized course in 12 levels from novice, intermediate,
advanced, to superior and giving description in five skills which are listening,
speaking, reading, writing, and culture in a foreign language(Richards,
2001:170-173).






Course Planning Page 13

Conclusion
This paper presents three kinds of learning theories, the behaviorism
which emphasize the changes of behaviors in relation with the learning
material. The cognitivism emphasizes not only the changes of students
behavior but also the mental structure according to the learning objectives.
The constructivism learning theory explains the development of cognitive of
the learner from the social interaction.
ESP is a model of English course has been conducted for several
decades. It is designed to specific people with the specific purposes, and the
specific timeline. The objectives are ESP usually considers to the field or
discipline of the students. This course accommodates the English use in the
specific environment and by mostly appearing the register of the students
field. The significant difference between English for Specific Purpose and
General English is that the General English using Top-Down approach in
curriculum development and contradictory with ESP which is using Bottom-
Up approach in curriculum design.
Definition of course planning is a systematic preparation by
considering the needs to organizing the content and period of acting and
applying instructions, resources, and evaluations in order to achieve the
goals that make significant character and behavior changes to the students.
Systematic preparation in here are developing a course rationale, describing
entry and exit levels, choosing course content, sequencing course content,
planning the course content (syllabus and instructional blocks), and
preparing the scope and sequence plan. The stages can certainly be modified
in different order according to the needs.
Course rationale is short written statements which is describing the
reason and the nature of the course program. The first purpose of rationale is
moderating not only the content that the learners gain while in course but
also the method and instruction engaged in the teaching in the course. The
Course Planning Page 14

second purpose is the rationale as the guideline of the planning of other
course components. The next purpose rationale controls the consistency the
course components in scope of values and goals. The components are the
problem, the learners, the society, the subject matter and the educational
goal.
In describing entering and exit level, it is must include the more
specific benchmarks in order to help them joining the course effectively.
From some commercial language course normally divided the levels between
elementary, intermediate, and advanced levels. It means that the student that
wants to join intermediate level, needs to mastering minimal proficiency of
elementary levels.
This is the end of paper, since the next stages of the course planning
will be present by another student, hopefully this paper can open the readers
mind and reference in conducting the planning of language course program.












Course Planning Page 15

REFERENCES

Botturi, L., and Stubbs, S.T. 2008. Handbook of Visual Languages for
Instructional Design: Theories and Practices: Information Science
Reference.
Briggs, L.J., and Wager, W.W. 1981. Handbook of Procedures for the Design of
Instruction: Educational Technology Publications.
Dejnozka, E.L., and Kapel, D.E. 1982. American educators' encyclopedia:
Greenwood Press.
Dick, Walter, Carey, Lou, and Carey, James O. 2001. The systematic design of
instruction (5th ed.). New York: Longman.
English, Fenwick W. 2006. Encyclopedia of educational leadership and
administration. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications.
Gredler, Margaret E. 1986. Learning and instruction : theory into practice.
New York: Macmillan.
Harris, J.C. 1995. Developmental Neuropsychiatry: Fundamentals: Oxford
University Press.
Ingram, D.E. 1982. Developing a Language Programme. RELC Journal Vol. 13
No. 1, 64-86. doi: 10.1177/ 003368828201300105
Knapp, Annelie. 2009. Issues in certification. In K. Knapp, B. Seidlhofer & H. G.
Widdowson (Eds.), Handbook of foreign language communication and
learning (Vol. 6, pp. 629-662). New York: Mouton de Gruyter.
Mc Donough, Jo. 1984. ESP in Perspective a Practical Guide. London: Collins
Educational.
Piaget, Jean. 1955. Perceptual and cognitive (or operational) structures in the
development of the concept of space in the child. Acta Psychologica
Vol. 11 No., 41-46.
Posner, George J, and Rudnitsky, Alan N. 1986. Course design : a guide to
curriculum development for teachers. New York: Longman.
Course Planning Page 16

Richards, Jack C. 2001. Curriculum development in language teaching.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Robinson, Pauline C. 1980. ESP (English for specific purposes) : the present
position. Oxford: Pergamon Press.
Sharma, V. 2011. Educational Planning: Pinnacle Technology.
Smith, B. Othanel, Stanley, William O, and Shores, J. Harlan. 1957.
Fundamentals of curriculum development. Yonkers-on-Hudson, N.Y.:
World Book Co.
Tyler, Ralph Winfred. 1950. Basic principles of curriculum and instruction :
syllabus for Education 305. Chicago: Syllabus Division, University of
Chicago Press.
Vygotskii, L. S. Cole Michael. 1978. Mind in society : the development of higher
psychological processes. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.