Tallest Buildings of the World:

Economies of Kilwa and the other Islamic Lands in 14th

Century (A.D)

Ismail Yurdakok

ismailyurdakok@gmail.com

Abstract:
14th century was a recovery for global trade. After
Crusade Wars in 11th 12th and 13th centuries and tragical invade of Mongols
Baghdad and Central Asian historical centers in the middle of 13th century; the
Islamic lands had begun to repair. Mamluks as powerful administration in Egypt
and Syria, Mali a welfare state in West africa, Arab and Persian muslim
businessmen in Western cities of India; export of raisin and fig from Malaga of
Spain to India; lively trade between city-states of Italy and Islamic countries.
Also, after long centuries Western World had begun to mint gold coins in 1252 and
impacts of this to world trade was seen in 14th century. Italians prepared
dictionaries and brochures for their businessmen who go to Islamic countries.
Cairo had got a population of 500,000 and Lahejan (silk-city) on the Caspian shore
was producing silk. Ceramic industry of Kashan between Isfahan and Tahran was
selling ceramics to a lot of countries of the world. Free trade was the main
characteristics of Islamic world. In the second part of the paper two famous
scholar of 14th century Ibn Qayyim and Ibn Khaldun were studied. Zad-al Maad of
Ibn Qayyim was followed and interesting notes about economics were recorded. No
doubt Ibn Khaldun is a much studied scholar. But a re-reading on trading passages
of Muqaddima was done and, in general not-written subjects were focused and
original results were put at the end.

Tallest Buildings of the World: Kilwa and the Other Islamic Lands in the 14th
Century

1-Kilwa: Singapore’s of Medieval Ages

Kilwa was a sultanate between 10th-18th centuries. Three settlements; a small

island Kilwa Kisiwani (capital city) on Indian Ocean near Tanzania (that is seen
from main land) and the other two cities on the main land, Kilwa Masoko and Kilwa
Kiwinje. Muslim settlements on the east cost Africa was established in the period
of the third caliph Uthman R.A beginning the year of 648. Mogadishu (Maqdishu),
Sofala, Malindi, Mombasa, Brawa and Zanzibar saw muslim tradesmen in the first
century of Islam. A group from Shiraz city of Iran came to Kilwa Kisiwani. The
owner of the island was Amuli a black muslim, and there was a small muslim
population from Yemen that they had got a small mosque, another group from
polytheists. Muriri Wabarey a muslim native of island introduced Ali b. Husayin
(head of Shirazi group) to Amuli. Amuli sold the island to Ali b. Husayin. Ali
paid the amount giving cloths to Amuli that he had brought from Shiraz and married
the doughter of Amuli.

First; Defence for a Powerful Economy

Ali b. Husayin and his men settled the north of island and dig the canal deeper
between main land and island because when the sea-water is pulled, it used to
become low and men used to walk to island that’s why sometimes neighbour city-
states used to attack the island. Ali b. Husayin’s son Ali b. Husayin established
Kilwa Kisiwani as one the most powerful cities and transformed it to the greatest
port of Indian Ocean trading-net. He evolved good realtions with the other islands
like Zanzibar and went to Zanzibar and collected men from Zanzibar and returned to
Kilwa as a very powerful man against to polytheists of island. In the 12th
century, Sultan Dawud b. Sulayman (his reign 1130-70) took Sofala city (Nova
Sofala, now in the south of Mozambik) that there was a gold-trading between
Mogadishu and Sofala and then Kilwa met abundance and wealth. Because 10 tons gold
was being produced a year in Zimbabve and this production had brought a high
income to the peoples of the region.

Kilwa Sultanate had established good trading relations with the indian tribes of
inner regions of South Africa, surroundings of Lake Malawi and today’s Zimbabve.
We have to notice that ‘good trading relations’ and especially ‘trading’, not
‘exploitation’ of future centuries of imperialist powers. Kilwa was selling cloths
and taking gold. Ivory and slave was coming from inner regions of today’s Tanzania
and Malavi. Kilwa was buying kitchen tools from Arabian peninsula, ceramics from
India, porcelains from China and selling gold, ivory and slaves.

“Abu’l Mawahib”

Approximately one century after Ali b. Husayin, the boundaries of Kilwa Sultanate
reached Pemba Island in north, Sofala in south. Kilwa was the most powerful state
of thirty-five city-states on the shores of Indian Ocean, and in the period of
Sulayman b. Ali except Mogadishu all of these cities had been provinces of Kilwa
Sultanate. Especially in 14th and 15th
centuries Kilwa reached the highest welfare level. The greatest buildings on the
south of equator before British colony period were seen on this island. In general
wooden buildings were being preferred. But great buildings were being built from
stones. Some 14th century’s Chineese sources mentione buildings of four and five
storeys in the island. Ibn Battuta visited Kilwa Kisiwani in 1331 and writes that
the island is one of the most beautiful and rendered prosperous cities of the
world. Wooden houses, much raining and powerful army were taken attention of Ibn
Battuta. The Sultan Abu’l Muzaffar Hasan b. Talut was entertaining the guests from
Iraq, Hijaz, Yeman and the other regions of the world, in his palace. And he was a
generous and courteous man that used to help poors and show kindness to scholars
that’s why the nation named him “Abu’l Mawahib.” (the father of the gifts)

Tragical Collapse

Portuguese visitors, first, came to Kilwa. Vasco de Gama in 1498 and 1502 and
Pedro Alvares Cabral visited the region. After their returning to Portugal and
telling the high income level of the region to Portugal administrators, regent of
Portugal Francisco d’Almeyda appeared in the island with 500 soldiers in 1505.
Kilwa was invaded. Portugal’s power destroyed the island completely in eight
years. Kilwa was a ruin in 1513. Ambition and envy of Portugueses depleted, put
the end of the greatest and liveliest trading center of the world in 8 years. This
was not the end of only Kilwa but the end of active trading life of East, West and
South Africas.

The sovereignty of Portuguese on Indian Ocean lasted approximately two centuries.

This period passed with the revolts of the peoples of Kilwa and other city-states
to Porgutal administration. At the end of this tragical period all of the
important centers were destroyed and burned and the region and especially trading
life lost old lively activities. In 1886 Germans invaded Kilwa and in 1916 Kilwa
became a British colony. In 1981 Unesco declared Kilwa as world heritage site. In
14th century’s Kilwa was a country that the cargos was being carried with the
ships their tonnages were 50 tons. Do 5,000 population of today’s Kilwa know that
once upon a time their island had got the highest per capita of the world ?

Ibn Battuta as a Bridegroom and Judge of Maldives

Maldives are in a distance of 650 km of south-west of Sri Lanka in Indian Ocean a

group of 2,000 islands. Also was a place like Kilwa that muslim tradesmen and
seamen came to Maldives in the first century of Islam. Qadi (judge) Hasan Tajuddin
(d. 1139 A.H./1727 A.D)
wrote a book about Maldives that in 548/1153 King of Maldives became muslim.(2)
Ibn Battuta visited Maldives in 1343-44 and 1346. He stayed here 1,5 years and
married and was appointed as qadi (Islamic judge). He mentiones the trading
traditions of the islands. (3) Famous Arab seaman of 15th century Ibn Majid and
after him Sulayman b. Ahmad al Mahri also mention Maldives in their studies and
they give useful knowledges especially for seamen. Portugal also invaded Maldives
between 1558-73 but at the end of a strong resistance of people, they were
dismissed from the islands.(2)

High Trading Ethics of Malabar Muslims. Ibn Battuta also visited Malabar lands in
the first part of 14th century. He writes there were native muslims in every
cities of Malabar. And in some cities the population of these Arab and Persian
muslims were more than one or two thousands.(3) Arabs and Persian sailors used to
name Malabar the south-west shores of India. Even in the pre-Islamic period Arabs
had got much trading relations with this region. After hegira (622) muslims began
to come to Malabar cities. These first groups were nucleus of Mappilla (Mopla)
muslim community of India. They had not got any political or military support
(like future centuries of North India) but Islam spread the region very easily.
This achievement was the result of high trading ethics of muslims.

How Malwa Developed? Internal Peace Means Economic Growth

As a region in central India, Malwa entered muslims’ sovereignty in 1305. The

capital city was Dahr and the region saw a rapidly muslim immigration to the
region. But Khalaji and Tugluk Dynasties did not interfere to the Indian tribes.
Indian rajas and chieftains got bored civil wars of perivious periods. They were
now at ease under muslim governments. That’s why Malwa became quietest region of
Delhi Sultanate in a long time and this situation contributed for development of
Malwa. Dhar, Ujjayn and Chandari regions saw a great increasing in population and
progress in cultural life; Abu’l Fadl says, there were 14,000 houses, 384 market
place and 360 caravanserai (free hotels for tradesmen and visitors) and a huge
castle in Chandari.(4)

On the other part of Indian Ocean, in Africa, Mogadishu was also in a lively
trading life. Ibn Battuta was there in 1331 and says under the administration of
Sultan Abu Bekir b. Umar, the city showed a great performance in business life and
as a transit center in the middle of North and South Africa had got powerful
commercial relations with Egypt and Arabian peninsula.(5)

A Learned Savant King

Yemen saw scholar-kings in 14th century. Abbas al-Rasuli (his reign 1363-77) and
his grandfather Sultan Ashraf Umar were great scholars. Sultan Abbas al-Rasuli
governed Zabid and Ta’iz regions. As a good administrator he was busy with Islamic
law, language, literature, knowledge of genealogy and history. Scholars of history
of science are interested in his bok Bugyatu-l Fallahiyn fi-l Ashjar-al Muthmira
wa-l Rayahin. The book has got 17 parts and the author emphasizes soil, water
reclamation, seasons, seeds, vegetables and fruits and protect the crops from
damages. Abbas al-Rasuli quoted some pasages from the sources of Greek and
Nabatians and his grandfather Sultan Ashraf Umar’s book Milh al-Malaha fi
Ma’rifati- al- Filaha. (6)

Iran in 14th Century

Kashan is a historical city on the Iran plateou, 945 mt. high from the sea-level
and had been established on the Isfahan-Tahran historical road. Historian
Hamdullah al-Mustawfi records that Harun al-Rashi’s (famous philanthropist) wife
Zubayda built the city.(7) But we have to understand that Zubayda re-established
the city (because in the southwest of the city there is Tepe Siyalk ancient
center that its history goes to 5.000 B.C) After the beginning years of Salchuk
Empire, Kashan’s importance increased. A lot of Kashanians was appointed as
statesmen in the Salchuk administration. Geographer Yaqut al-Hamavi says, in 13th
century (7th A.H) Kashan was famous for its green bowls sold to the other
countries.(8) But the city lost its active trading life in the second part of
this century because of Mongol attacks. After a short time the city gained former
importance again in the İlhanians’ period. Al-Mustavfi mentiones cisterns and
canals of the city in the 14th century. Kashan was a handiwork center in all
periods of history. Today it is also especially one of the most important centers
of Iran, in carpet, velvet, silk cloths, jewellery and coppersmith industries.The
most famous craft of Kashan, known by world, was ceramic industry but now dead.
This craft was very famous between 12th-19th centuries and was at the peak in 14th
century. This craft as “Kashi” was being named and in ceramics generally
turquoise, sky blue, green and rarely red, yellow colours were dominant and
(especially green) pots in different forms; they were being carried to markets of
the world with caravans. (9)

Lahijan, in the north of Iran and very near to Caspian Sea was a middle size city
in 14th century. But its importance was coming from silk. ‘Lah’ was ‘silk’ in old
Persian, and ‘jan’ (gan) (points place) that meaning of Lahijan was ‘Silk-city.’
Producing silk and selling to the world was the main job in the city. (10) If we
go on from cold-north of Iran to hot-south Iran, Laristan had got sub-tropical
climate. A Turkuman dynasty was reigning when Ibn Battuta visited this state in
1347. Inner parts of Laristan was hot and arid, and shores hot and humid. There
was a great market place in the city-center. But the most important characteristic
of Laristan that it had got a steady currency unit in medieval ages.(11)
Approximately successive 15 sultans had tried for steadiness of sikke (coin) of
Laristan. That’s why sikkes of Laristan were reliable coins in every ports of
Indian Ocean in four centuries of 13th-16th. And last point Lur-i Buzurg was an
emirate in south-west of Iran; a regional emirate between 12th and 15th centuries.
In general, emirs preferred to be as a depending state to Ilhan (Mongol) Dynasty
and sent their taxes to Ilhanian Khans. Emir Nusrat al-Din Ahmad (his reign 1296-
1339) after sending the share of Ilhans, he used to divide the taxes to three: one
part to religious institutions, one part to army and last part to his family and
servants. (12)

The Richest Trading Centers of the World: in Africa and Middle East

It is obvious that 14th century (and also 15th) is the brilliant century of Africa
in business life. Mamluks gave importance to the international trade that they
were aware of its useful in general incomes (for nation) and revenues (for the
state budget.) They encouraged trade with Europe and especially city-states of
Italy and South France.The consequence of this, trade points of Europeans appeared
in some ports and cities of Mamluks especially in Damascus, Beirut and Alexandria.
Mamluks also encouraged India and Far-East trade.And Egypt became the center of
this active world-economy. The great part of this trade was on the way of Red-Sea.
And ports on Red-Sea, and Yemen and Umman gained great incomes from this trade.
At the end, in 14th century, trade increased in Egypt and Syria; and cities like
Alexandria, Damascus and Aleppo entered the richest commercial centers of the
world. (13) Another important factor that increased the international trade in
Middle East is the return of international Spice-road to Syria and Egypt that
Mongols had prevented the working of this way from Syria and Egypt and they had
encouraged another route from East-Iran to Armenia and Asia Minor (Turkey) to
Mediterranean Sea.

At the beginning years of 14th century, Sultan of Mamluks Muhammad b Qalawun built
the Boulaq harbor at the north-west of Cairo and this harbor played an important
role in the economic life of Cairo to the beginning of 15th century. In the middle
of the 14th century Fustat and Cairo became united and as a great metropol (with
Qal’at al-Jabal) great Cairo’s population reached 500-600,000.(14) But in the
second part of the century city saw two plagues in 1348 and 1374 and a lot of men
had died.

Another great richness in this century in Africa was seen in Mali in the west part
of the continent. Mali lived one of most brilliant periods under the
administration of sultan Mense Kanku Musa (his reign 1312-37) and the boundaries
of sultanate from the forests of Guinea to Saharan Desert, from Atlantic Ocean to
the country of Hawzas (in the today’s Nigaria). Sultan Mense Musa’s hajj
(pilgirimage) visit to Mecca in 1323-25 began with 60,000 men, but majority of
this group stayed Tuwat city in the south of Algeria and sultan went on with a
smaller crowd his way to Mecca. Sultan Musa gave 20,000 gold coin to the poors in
the Holy Lands. Sultan’s prestige was very high in Egypt and Hijaz and he became a
renowned man in all of the Islamic lands. After death of Sultan Musa; in the reign
of another sultan Mense Sulayman (1341-60) Sultanate of Mali protected its power,
and level of welfare became higher and there was a full security in all over the
country. Ibn Battuta visited Mali 1352-53. He mentiones that sultan was a pious
man and he was striving to apply the rules of Islam. The boundaries of the country
expanded and reached to Niamey today’s capital city of Niger to Valata-Aravan and
Atlantic Ocean, and in the north from Tishid, Tadmakka and Takadda to the equator
forests in the south. After reading of Ibn Battuta’s Rihla, a lot of merchants
from North Africa and Egypt went and settled Mali and they went on their busines
in this rich country. This shows that there was a highly active communication in
Africa and world trade in that days.(15)

Europe-Islamic World Trade Relations in 14th Century

Europeans had named as Levant Eastren part of Mediterranean from the 10th century.
In the course of the time political conditions changed but general commodities of
international trade between Europe and Islamic world did not change. In 10th-16th
centuries, Islamic world exported to Europe as transit commodities spices, crude
silk, and fur. And Europe bring to Levant ports a lot of kind woven tissues, silk
thread, soap, glass, crystal,mirror and paper. There was a “muda” system that to
protect and for security of the sea-trade, all of the ships used to go to Levant
all together one or two times in a year, like caravans in the deserts. Especially
the profit of Venice is very high that in 1423, this country’s sales had reached
10 million ducat (gold coins) and 4 million of this was profit.(16)

Italians had prepared dictionaries and books for their merchants who went to
Levant. Codex Cumanicus was prepared in Sugdak in 1303. There were 2,500 Kumanish
words used in commerce in this Latin-Persian-Kumanish Dictionary. After Ottomans
came to the region, this time Turkish-Italian dictionaries were prepared. And
Venice did not see sufficient this studies, they began to teach their youth
Turkish. These Turkish-speaking youngs were named “language-boys.” Apart from
dictionaries, different books were written about the measurements, coins and
export-import commodities of East Mediterranean cities. Most famous of them F.
Balducci Pegolatti’s book La Pratica della Mercatura was written in 1324 that
Pegolatti had been sent to Levant by Bardi Company.(17)

Rise of Venice

14th century witnessed the rise of Venice in Levant commerce. Anatolia (Turkey)
Salchuk State now had collapsed. Different small-states (principalities) were
sovereign in their regions. In the beginning years of the century, Venetians
obtained a decree that gave vast trade rights for them in Egypt (and probably
Syria) from the biggest power of the region (Mamluks) in 1302. Venice also made a
commercial agreement with Ilhans (Mongols that (they became muslims gradually from
1295 and they were governing Anatolia) in 1320 and trade agreements with
Aydinogullari and Menteseogullari (two principalities in the west of the region on
Aegean Sea). In the last quarter of the century, Ottoman Empire began to expand
and Genoeses signed a friendship and trade agreement with Murad I (Ottoman Sultan)
and obtained the right of trade in Ottoman lands; after three years Venetians
reached similar result with a decree of Ottoman Sultan Yildirim Bayazid.

Genoeses were expelled from Trabzon (the biggest south port of Black Sea, now in
Turkey) in 1306 by Trabzon Greek King, and they were obliged to leave Kefe (port-
city on the north of Black Sea, now in Crimea, Ukraine); but they went on their
commerce activities partly in Black Sea.Venice evolved the relations with Turkman
principalities (that they were dominant on the shores of Black Sea) and began to
settle Black Sea ports. Rivalry of Venice-Genoese lasted in the region and
Ottomans reached south ports of Black Sea at the end of the century.(18

Commerce and Industry 3,000 Years Ago

In the other part of Mediterranean Sea, Malaka was under the administration of
Nasris dynasty. In the southern Iberian peninsula, today’s Malaga was under muslem
rulers in eight centuries. But more interesting, ten centuries before Christ,
Phoenicians had come from Lebanon to Malaga and built a salted-fish plant, and
established a commerce-point there.Romans developed Malaga and it became an
important port and commerce center. Malaga was a city under the different Islamic
states between 711-1487. Banu Ahmar dynasty governed the city aproximately 250
years, from 1230 to 1487. Malaga worked as a second capital city in Benu Ahmar
Emitare (Nasris) and as economic and commerce center of the region.The city was
also the main base of Nasris Navy; and sea traffic in the port had highly
increased with the efforts of Genoeses. All of the history and geography authors
of Mediavel Ages mentione Malaga with admirations. Idrisi, Ibn Galib, Ibn Said al-
Magribi, Ibn Abd al-Mun’in al Himyari, Yaqut al-Hamawi, Makkari, Ibn Izari, Ibn
Battuta and Lisan al-Din Ibn al Khatib are who take the lead. Abundants of fruits
around the city especially takes attention in all of the books. Dried fruits
especially raisins, dried fig and almond were being sent to Egypt, Syria, Iraq
even India. Ibn al-Khatib notes Malaga was also rich in sea-prpducts. The city had
seen big progress in textile after 11th century. In different colours of silk
production with golden tasseled was very famous in the world that Europeans used
to name it “alguexi, albeci, alveici, oxi.” In addition, leather, iron, ceramic
and precious stone industries had developed in Malaga. (19 )

Asia Minor (Turkey) in 14th Century

The biggest principality in Asia minor was Karamanogullari (sons of Karaman) that
this dynasty continued its sovereignty in central Turkey from 1256 to 1474, in the
provinces of Karaman, Nigde, Konya, Ic-Il, Tash Eli and Alanya (Alaiya). In 1341,
the envoy of Karamanoglu Ibrahim Bey was returning from Cairo with flags of sultan
(of Mamluks) and caliph and casting-mold for minting gold and silver coins. The
name of Mamluk Sultan would be carved in the coins of Karamans. Ibrahim Bey had
wanted it. Alauddin Bey was on the throne of Karaman in 1361 and silver coins
minted in this period are exhibited today in the Istanbul Archaeology Museum
(Tasheyr No. 1345) Farming in the vast plain of Karamans was the main activity and
wheat, barley, oats and cotton were being planted. Sheep and horses were being
growed. Egyptian historian Ibn Fadlullah had praised these horses. Karaman carpets
and velvets were being weaving. Arabs used to say ‘Turk velvet’ for this kind of
velvet and the other kind (of Europe) was ‘Franc velvet.’ Bertrandon de la
Broquiére says “this country is rich, developed and fine” and mentiones big cities
of Karamans: Konya and Larende that they were important commerce centers. Karaman
principality used to export wheat, wool, leather, carpet and horse to Kingdom of
Cyprus, Venice and Genoes. (20)

Another proof that there was a very active commerce life in the central Asia Minor
is Kirsehir’s economic life. Kirsehir is 990 mt from sea level was under the
Ilhans (Mongol) invade in the first half of the 14th century. Hamdullah Mustawfi
notes that there were great imarats (soup-kitchen for the poor) and in 1336
Kirsehir had sent 57,000 dinar (gold coin) to capital city of Ilhans (Tabriz) as
annually tax. (21) Kirsehir’r mint was working continuous.(22) And the other
region, western part of Turkey; Kutahya (city) was on the crossroads and a center
of high trading activity. ‘Kutahya alum’, horses and rice were the export products
in the period of Germiyanogullari principality. Another source of richness of the
city was silver production from silver mines around the city. Commodities from
Central Turkey and Aegean Sea were passing Kutahya and going to Bursa (city, in
that period Bursa was the (first) capital city of Ottomans) that there was a big
trading activity between these two cities. Characteristic of a commerce center
lasted under the Ottomans rule and one of the two bedestan (vaulted covered
market) of Kutahya was built in this century as a building of Timurtash Pasha
Foundation. (23)

Industry Brings Wealth. Mardin (city, in the soth-east of Turkey) is on a hill at

an elevation of 1,000 mt. It joined Islamic lands in the period of caliph Umar in
640, with a way of peace, without any war. In long Islamic centuries Mardin has
been on the highway of comes from Iran and Azarbaijan and goes to Syria and al-
Jazira.Three centuries, the city was under the admistration of Artuks in 12th,
13th, and 14th (from 1106 to 1409. Mardin became the political, social and
economic center of Diyarbakir province in 12th century and it protected its
position in 13th and 14th centuries. In this period the city lived the most
brilliant term of its history with its khans (large commercial buildings), market
places, bazaars, shopping districts. Although the city was attacked by neighbour
states and even Mongols but its great castles 800 mt. lies from east to west
prevented these attacks. Ibn Sa’id al-Magribi records high quality of weaving
industry. Ibn Battuta also mentiones the bazaars of Mardin and different workshops
of weaving.The other author of this period Mustawfi notes that Mardin was highest
tax payer in the cities of Diyarbakir province. (24)

Some parts of Bulgaria and Greece were joined to Ottoman lands in 14th century and
Lala Sahin Pasha the first governor-general of Ottomans started rice growing in
Plovdiv (central Bulgaria.)(25) Another western principality was Karesiogulari,
silk and resin cistus plants (labdanium) was being produced in capital city
Balikesir and its around and was being sent to European markets. Cloths of
Istanbul (Byzantium Empire) was being weaving from Balikesir silk. Silver and
copper coins minted in the first half of 14th century of this principality are now
in exhibition in the museums. (26)

Futuwwat and Akhi Organizations

Though the history of Futuwwat organizations goes to 9th century but Abbasid
Caliph Nasir Li Dinillah systemized them in the first quarter of 13th century.
And in 14th century Akhi organizations were completely transformed to guild unions
and their economic actions became the dominant aspect of these unions. In the
middle of the 14th century, Ibn Battuta was in Turkey and he states akhi unions
(trade guilds) were handicraft bodies organized in
cities and towns.It was impossible for akhi apprentices to open a shop if they did
not learn very well their profession. Number of artisans and shops were limited
and the main principal was “production for only needs(no more).” The honest and
‘worthy to respect’ of them and probably oldest of them was their head and he used
to be named akhi and these heads were influential persons on the guild’s
artisans. And in every guild there was a second man named yigitbashi or server he
was responsible for carrying out the regulations of a guild. Every craft branch
had got an akhi and there was a chief of these akhis that his title was ‘akhi
baba’ means ‘father akhi.’ (27) Some Akhis established a semi-independent state
in Ankara between 1290-1354. Great name of Ottoman Empire history in 20th century
Yilmaz Oztuna records that “They established Ankara a center and founded an Akhi
government as a derwish-artisan state like Italian city-states in the Middle Ages.
This government depended to Salchuk State to 1308, Ilhan Dynasty to 1335 and then
Eratna principality and Karamanli principality.They joined to Ottomans in 1354.
(28)

2-Ibn Qayyim

In this part, some interesting notes of 14th century’s famous scholar-jurist Ibn
Qayyim about economics, will be given. He says trade is difficult and that’s why
Islam put a minimum zakat (official-religious tax) on this sector: (Because) “If
increasing of poperty requires working of the owner continuously and sometimes
going to abroad for selling and sometimes to guard it for protecing..because of
these, to pay ‘one in forty’ became an obligatory. Undoubtly difficulty of this
(trade sector) is more from fruit (production) and agriculture. And (the other
factor is) increasing and multiplying of fruit and agriculture is more than trade.
That’s why necessary obligatory (for agriculture and fruit) is more from commerce.
(29)

Ibn Qayyim also mentiones the changing rate of sadaqa-i fitr in the period of
‘rightly-guided calips’ and explaines that “Hasan al- Basri said that Ibn Abbas
gave a sermon in Basra mosque and said: ‘The Prophet (Muhammad) did an obligatory
(to all muslims) one sa’ from date and barley and half sa’ from wheat.’ But later,
(caliph) Ali came to Basra and saw that prices had become cheaper and he said:
“Allah gave you abundantly and that’s why you have to give one sa’ from every
thing’ and in a similar sentence with clearer words: ‘..Give from wheat and the
other things one sa’ ” ( 30)

When (funeral) undertakers and pharmacist get credits?

Although they had not got written datas but (funeral) undertakers and pharmacist
used to take into consideration the seasons. This situation was also noticed by
Ibn Qayyim as a man of his community in the 14th century and noted that:
“strongest and most deadliest illnesses are seen in summers. Spring is healtiest
and rate of death is at the least in this season. The tradition of pharmacists and
undertakers is borrowing debts in springs and summers and give them in autumns.
When the spring comes they are very happy..” (31) He also discusses the using of
prohibition of silver pots by the Prophet (Muhammad) and produces thoughts on the
aspects
of monetary and psychological effects of this prohibition. (32) He also notes the
warning of Aesha (wife of the Prophet) to Zayd b. Arkam for a transaction that it
was a secret interest (bay’ al-ina) that it is also forbidden (33) Ibn Qayyim
warns the community for the rights of parents. In reality, in long Islamic
centuries, the concept of insurance did not evolve. The reason was strong
solidarity of Islamic communities. And scholars always used to warn the nation for
charity. Ibn Qayyim also does this duty: “Person when he lives in richness,
abundance and in vast means but his father works as sweeper in public toilets or
as stoker in stokehall of a bath or carries load on donkeys; this behaviour of a
son is not appropriate. And it is not true that saying of a son: ‘my father/mother
is healthy and able to work, they are not a blind or paralyzed.’ Most astonishing!
Did Allah and His Prophet put a condition to help to parents that they would be a
blind or paralyzed?” (34) For duties of muhtasib Ibn Qayyim writes these
sentences: “the chief of the hisba oragnization prohibits the frauds in industry,
and he always inspects foods and artisans who do tools and garments” in the other
famous book Turuq al-Hukmiyya (35)

Celal Yeniceri says Ibn Qayyim -although in some covered statements- touches the
supply-demand law. Yeniceri quotes Ibn Qayyim’s sentences about ‘tas’iyr=to set a
fixed price’ on commodities: “It is not lawful to set a fixed price (by government
or court) if the owner of the commodity presents his merchandise to the market in
a normal way but the customers increase its price.” And he emphasizes this
subject in another passage: “If the men offer their merchandises to the market in
a way that known by everybody without a cruelty (wrongdoing) but the prices
increase because of the merchandises are few or the people is much, this increase
is left to Allah (that is interference of state or court is not appropriate), and
in this position to oblige the (business)men to sell the same(previous) price is
an unjust compelling.” (36)

Ibn Khaldun One of the Brilliant Stars of 14th Century

Islamic history saw great scholars in 13th, 14th and 15th centuries as as a
passing of stars. From Nawawi to Ibn Hajar a lot of big names, in this period,
produced interdisciplinary magnum opus studies. Ibn Khaldun lived in the middle of
this term. Ibn Khaldun opposes economic actions of state. If the state does
economic actions this is an attack to the rights of the nation. “He explains his
theory with two reasons: If the state is busy with trading and agriculture with
its great financial and political power against traders and farmers this is an
unfair competition. It is possible that tradesmen and farmers can not carry this
unbearable financial burden (competition) and they leave economic arena. This is
an aggression the rights of tradesmen and farmers that they improve the lands (of
the country). And this act of state cuts (injures) the love of the production and
working of the people, and at the end, the economic life of the country comes to
an impasse and to collapse. And, the working of state at trading sectors causes
the rising of the prices of commodities. And the state loses.Because of decresaing
of economic actions in the country causes lost of taxes and this lost is much more
than the probable earnings of state. On the other hand an added economic power on
the political power of the state causes despotic applications of (more powerful)
state and this is a dangerous for the individual rights and freedoms. If the state
and administrators begin to do farming; after a period, they prevent (with their
political power) the formation of the free prices, they force the nation to
buy/sell the foods (and goods) on the prices that they fixed. These applications
upset the economic situation of the nation and causes unjustly and cruelty
behaviours. At the end, tax revenues decreases.” (37)

In the teaching of Ibn Khaldun, the thories of ‘No Fixed Prices’, ‘Free Market’,
‘Reason of Decreasing Taxes’ are very clear. Wicked Capitalists. According to Ibn
Khaldun there are two kinds of tradings/tradesmen. One carries the goods from the
place of production to the places that the costumers are in need of this goods and
this kind of capitalist (tradesman) endures a lot of difficulties, risks and he
produces widespread advantage/profit for consumers and producers. Ibn Khaldun
praises this kind of capitalist. But the other kind that they are inclined to
speculation, trick and deception, Ibn Khaldun denigrates them and he estimates
this kind of trading is a kind of gambling and they seduces the ethics of the
other tradesmen...In general ‘trading’ may be defined as ‘to buy property and
goods in a cheap price and to sell with a higher price and to gain a profit in
this way.’ That’s why tradesman either hides the commodities that he bought and
waits raising of prices and sells when he finds a good price for him or he takes
away the goods to the places that they are very scarce there and sells. But in the
second way the profit is not much and requires great difficulties and risks. But
greed of earning much money makes incline (some) men to speculation and that’s
why the trading is transformed a defective occupation like a gambling.(38)

But we see in the other pages of Muqaddemah that the type of Ibn Khaldun’s
tradesman has not got the other characteristics ‘overstruggle’ ‘overcompetition’
and ‘to spend all of his life like a monk with a great greed following the
profit.’ (39) Encouragement For Overseas Trade/Business. Ibn Khaldun looks for
bravery in tradesmen and it is understood that his purpose is a type of
enterprising that indures the risks, he is not-static, not-hesitant, but dynamic
and daring. He encourages the tradesmen to go distant cities and countries
pointing the importance of bearing risks and law of supply-demand in economic
life.(40) Demonstration Effect of Rich Classes. Ibn Khaldun looks at rich classes
that they are a group that degenerates the societies in all of the history and
impels the nations to the collapse in economics, sociological and political
aspects. Doubtless he is not an enemy to the wealth and owners of properties. He
reached an opinion for the reason that accumulating of richness in some classes,
in the history, and using of this wealth in some ways that exceeds the natural and
lawful limits. Ibn Khaldun frequently emphasizes that luxury, prodigality and
show off begin first in rich classes and with their influences spread to all of
the nation and this causes the collapse of the communities. (41)

Apart from his the other contributions, Ibn Khaldun brought a positive and realist
comprehend to world of thought. Muqadddamah as a ‘detailed investigation of human
society’ (42), Ibn Khaldun is an important critic of his time. Even he criticized
famous philosophers of ancient and middle ages for their theories of madina-al
fadılah (virtuous city), saying: “ this ‘no need to a judge city’ is only an
imaginated and only in the tongues and books of philosophers, but remote in
occurence in the world..” (43) City is important for Ibn Khaldun, because he is
(also) a historian of city-economics. And historiography of city-economics is a
long and tiring struggle.

Kasad And Fasad

We frequently see the words of kasad and fasad in Muqaddemah. Kasad means
‘stagnant in market trade, stagnation, stagnancy; time of scarcity or
unemployment, and ‘kasid’: not in demand, dull (market)’ (44) and fasad:
‘intrique, sedition, disorder, mischief..’; in Muqaddemah: “..ragabat-al nas
qaliylun ila eshya wa amwal-al tujjar, wa suq-un kasid wa hal-al baldah
fasidun ..” (when the desire (demand) of the people is very few to goods and
commodities of tradesmen, (at the end) a dull market and the city is in a
disorder position, a not-tranquilly situation” (45)

Scarcitiy and abundance were concepts that everybody used to know these in the
long precapitalist centuries of the history. Even thousands years ago; in the time
of Prophet Joseph, Egyptian people had seen seven scarcity and seven abundance
years (Quran,12:43-49) History of humanity saw a lot of cyclic periods before
the cyclic theorists put their theories. Adam Mez mentiones an interesting
speculatice action of traders of grain in the 9th century (CE) that they earned at
first 12 million derhams (silver coin) but at the end a sudden low in prices they
lost 66 million derhams. (46)

Economic fluctuations were noticed by Ibn Khaldun that he was drawing a completed
table of city civilization with the elements of shocks and depressions in the way
of rise-grow and collapse. His studies were historical but also empirical. He
wathced, first, the stagnation in the market and dull seasons and beginning of
dull years and collapse of cities, he saw ghost towns and ghost cities, before the
years of abandoned towns of United States, in the 19th century.
Harms of excessive abundant and very cheap prices (hasb and rakha.) (47) Harms
of abundant spreads from villager to miller and baker. This situation shocks the
position of tradesmen and causes stagnant, and investments are delayed. Stock
surplus also in sugar, honey and textile give harms to artisans and businessmen.”
We remember in this point a verse in Quran: “..Every thing is in (due) proportion
in His (God’s) presence” (13:8) That is God gives every thing to the humanity in
a well-calculated, mesaured, planned. The man also have to plan his
trading/production according to the needs of market.

Ibn Khaldun mentiones an ‘unbroken prosperity (affluence) period’ (first time in

the history) and puts necessary conditions of this period. “When the earnings and
goods (and foods) circulate rapidly and easily, without any impediment. This is a
time and a condition between scarcity and abundant as ‘mutawassit’ (that
intervenes, intermediate, middle term)” Thus, he puts two opposite polars
(overproduction and under consumption) in economic disequilibrium and separates
these two with definite lines. His giving importance especially to
‘overproduction’ before industrial capitalism is (the first in history of
economics) and with the sentence of Prof. Sabri Ulgener: “only this topic is
enough for Ibn Khaldun to say for him he is the head of theorists of crisis” (48)

The Father of City Theorists

Saying: “Constructing of buildings and cities is the characteristics of

civilizaton that reason of this is affluence and welfare. Great buildings could
not be built but only with a big cooperation and help of different sectors to each
other.” Ibn Khaldun adds: “When the cities begin to collapse in the arts and
crafts (industry), embroiderers, goldsmiths, scribers (professional writer of
letters and petitions) disappear from these cities.(49) But some cities go on to
live. If the hinterland of these cities is crowded, rich men of this hinterland
come these cities and these (new) rich men become civilized citizens of the (old)
city.

Environment.“City has to be built on a geography has got a convenient climate and

good weather, wind for protect the calamities and illness. Because if the weather
of the city is heavy and dirty or the city is in the near of a lake or river that
its water has got a bad smell the bad impacts spread rapidly to the city and
causes to the illness for the all of the creatures of the city. These are the
knowledges that are obtained with observations.”(50)

Mega-Cities Metropolitans. Muslims are not foreigner the concept of mega-cities

from the early days of Islam; because in Quran they saw destroyed cities of
ancient nations. Antioch had got a population of one million and three prophets
had been sent to this mega city, mentioned in Quran: (36:13-27) Ibn Khaldun
mentiones a note from the ‘History of Baghdad’ of Khatib Bagdadi that “In the
period of caliph Ma’mun, the numbers of bathes had reached to sixty-five
thousands and in that time Baghdad used to include more than forty cities and
towns adjacent and near each other. That’s why it was impossible to rampart
Baghdad with one city wall. Ibn Khaldun also adds city’s defence is very easy with
this wall. A wall is equal a lot of soldiers that without a powerful army a city
can defence itself with protecting of this ramparts. The citizens of the city use
this ramparts as a castle.Differences Among Cities. We see ‘empirical method in
historiography’ of Ibn Khaldun. It is also ‘to use empirical methods in
economics.’ He observes the differences in the beggars of different cities and
takes out scientific results from these: “(Differences in the positions of the
cities) are observed in the conditions of poors and beggars. For example the
condition of a beggar of Morocco is better than a beggar of Telamsan or Wahran. I
watched beggars of Morocco were asking money for killing a sacrifice (sheep or
goat) in the days of Festival of Sacrifice. And they was asking meat, butter,
spices, garments, pots and pans that they may be added luxury; if a beggar wants
these in Telamsan or Wahran he/she is rejected even is scolded.”

High Income Level of Islamic Countries. We also see these sentences in Muqaddima:
“In our era, we hear some news about the richness of Cairo and Egypt that we are
astonished at a high degree of the luxury and richness. Even because of listening
these news a lot of poors in Morocco they begin to immigrate to Egypt. Ordinary
people believe that this high condition of Egypt is from the generosity and
charitable of the nation of Egypt and they have got very much wealth. But this is
not true. The only reason is ‘umran’ of Cairo is much populated than the cities
of Morocco. If the incomes and expenses increase, the inhabitants of the city meet
the affluence and welfare and city becomes larger. And the result of the excess
in labor and overproduction the aid to the others becomes very easy.”(51)

Town and City in the Formation of Prices

Philip K. Hitti had said: “...In the Muqaddima he (Ibn Khaldun) discusses social
cohesiveness and its basis, climatic and occupational influences on group
character, “laws” of social change, economic and religious determinism –all in
an original way. No such approach or treatment had been known before; it is almost
modern, and he has therefore been called the father of sociology and of the
philosophy of history.” (52) ‘City’ is in the center of Ibn Khaldun’s theories.
“Chapter Four (of his Muqaddemah) covers on the societies of urban civilization
(‘umran hadari), that is of the most developed and sophisticated forms of
civilization; and Chapter Five: on industries and economic affairs in general.”
(53) When Ibn Khaldun’s name is said, the life of bedouinism is remembered for
his theory of ‘asabeyya’ and when the word of ‘asabeyya’ is mentioned even (some)
academicians think and suppose that the thesis of Ibn Khaldun are about rural
affairs, thinking tribal traditions in Arabic communities, but on the contrary Ibn
Khaldun (even) encourages urbanization: “...essentially these settlements are not
accepted even a city. The position of these small towns is very bad and who live
in these places are nearly in poverty. Their works (labours, strugles) are not
enough even for their necessary expenses. It is impossible also fort them to
increase in their earnings or to do savings. That’s why except very rare
positions, dwellers of these small towns are in poverty and neediness.” (54)

We have to remember that Islam is also a city civilization. The Prophet Muhammad
was born and began his duty in the most famous city of Arabia. Not only the
prophet Muhammad but all of the prophets before him were sent to city centers.
(“And your God did not destroy the cities, till He had sent to their mother city a
prophet...” (28:59) In the early centuries of Islam ‘friday prayer’s were not
performed (in the villages and towns) but only in the cities. We see in the
history that muslims began to build great (even mega) cities (even) in the first
century of Islam.

Ibn Khaldun also is the first who searched and followed price fluctuations and
price differences in small and big cities. He says prices of goods and foods and
demands and supplies of these goods and foods change according to the bigness and
smallness of cities. “If a city becomes rich and prosperous and its population
increases; the prices of foods and necessary things like these become cheap; but
the prices of fruits and like these increase. And on the contrary if the ‘umran’
(being cultivated and prosperous) of the city decreases and the population goes
down the prices of necessary things for living increase and the prices of ‘second
degree needs’ (fruits etc.,) become cheap. The production of necessary things in
these small towns is vey few that’s why the people do stocks (hide, bury,
accumulate)
these things and this action increases the prices. It is difficult to find these
necessary things in small towns and this situation increases the prices.”(55)

Saying “public bathes are only seen in overpopulated civilized cities because
public bathes is a need that required luxury, richness, and to be in comfort.
That’s why public bathes are not seen in middle size cities. But sometimes some
sultans (kings) and amers (princes, rulers) build these (as their generosity) in
the small cities. But if a (necessary) demand for working of these bathes is not
found, these bathes are left and ruined. No one wants to rent (run, operate) these
places because of very few income”(56), Ibn Khaldun as an Islamic scholar was
pointing that ‘(at least some of) economic crisis are not a destiny for humankind
and (also some of (may be majority of) economic crisis are preventable.(57) The
matter of ‘public bathes in small cities’ is also an example for non-useful
investment of state(STO state owned enterprises).

We see another example in Muqaddemah that: “You have to know that if labor and
working cease to exist with decreasing of umran (state of good or flourishing
cultivation, urban civilization) God permits the loss of earnings there. What
people says is true: “The places that decrease their umran, sustenance of their
cities also lose” Look at some rivers in the deserts. Some rivers disappear when
the communities leave around of this river because the waters of these rivers come
from the wells. And these wells dry also these rivers dry. This is similar to milk
the teats of animals. When we do not milk a milch animal, the teat dries.” (58)
This is a good example for the impact of working for getting sustenance that in
Quran we see: “And that each (man/woman) can have nothing save what he strives
for, And that his/her effort will be seen” (53:39-40)

Psychological And Sociological Effects On Economics

“Initially, in fact, Ibn Khaldun was preoccupied with epistemology. Then

gradually, meditating on the method and the matter of history, he was led, in full
consciousness of what he was doing, to create what he refers to as his “new
science” (‘ilm mustanbat al-nash’a), which itself turned out to contain more or
less implicitly the starting points of several avenues of research leading to the
philosophy of history, sociology, economics and yet other disciplines...He
considers that the basic causes of historical evolution are in fact to be sought
in the economic and social structures...Moreover the explanation he gives is not
exclusively a socio-economic one but also psychological.” . M. Talbi writes above
sentences and quotes N. Nassar’s sentence: “The Prolegomena (Muqaddemah) do not
contain only a general sociology but also a very detailed and subtle social
psychology which may be divided into political psychology, economic psychology,
ethical psychology and general psychology.” (59)

Harms of Demonstration Effect. Let’s go on from Muqaddemah: “...Because the

nation follows the state and the ethics of nation is appropriate to the
(administrators of) state..(Especially) The notables of the capital city (although
they are not the founder fathers of the state but) act in different behaviours
with the (establishment of the) state..In densely populated cities the prices are
high. Because all of the tradesmen and artisans reflect all of the expenses (that
they did for their goods and products) to the prices. That’s why the taxes also
are added to the prices. Thus, the expenses of citizens (who live in the cities)
reach from the reasonable measures to the degree of prodigality. These luxurious
habits and living conditions of civilized life transform these citizens like
slaves of this high societic life. It is impossible to escape from this (new)
life. So all of their earnings go to the expenses (and even after a period) they
can not pay the expenses and they fall in poverty. Demands for the commodities in
the markets decrease, and markets go to stagnation and the position of the city
is spoiled.”

Psychology of Corruption And Its Sociology and General Ethics and Effect of Demand
for Luxury to the Crime “Yes, the thoughts of these men, any more, are
intensified that which tricks are useful for their needings and they begin to lie,
gamble, to deceive the people, theft, to perjure oneself, to give-take interest
and usury that they dare to do every evil. And they know very well the
wickednesses and their ways because of their desires that born from their luxury
and pomp.” No Heredity Effect. “Because, the men are human kind and resemble
each other. Difference among them is only from good ethics. So bad ethics becomes
dominant in a man and good ethics are spoiled in him, to be a nobility or
aristocracy and to come from a pure and honourable ancestors is no use. We see a
lot of men like these they enter the community of disgraced and do every bad
actions. If this kind of people increase in a nation, God permits the destroying
of this country. This verse indicates this: “When We (God) decree that a
city/country should be destroyed, We (first warn and) command those of them that
live in comfort, and yet they persist in sin so that the word (of destroy) is
proved true against them, and then We destroy them utterly.” (17:16) At the
beginning, with the impact of luxury, the position of men are go bad and then city
is destroyed.”(60)

A Practical Man and Always a Pragmatic. The sentence of big name of 20th century
orientalism Albert Hourani indicates that Ibn Khaldun had put the subject
(definition) of ‘scarcity’ four centuries ago from western economists: “...once
more there was controversy about this among the learned. Ibn Khaldun believed that
it was possible to produce gold and silver by sorcery or by a divine miracle, but
not by human craft; even if it were possible it would be undesirable, since, if
gold and silver were no longer scarce, they could not serve as measures of value.
(61)

Global Economics Vision’s of Ibn Khaldun

Louis Baeck searches Ibn Khaldun’s economic thoughts and says: “Ibn Khaldun is the
first
Arab author draws a global economics picture.Baeck in his paper: “Global Economics
Vision’s of Ibn Khaldun” writes: “Muqaddemah is a ‘socio-economic evolution
theory’ of Ibn Khaldun. ‘Asabeyya’ as in the center of Ibn Khaldun’s theory is a
‘group solidarity.’ Production theory according to Ibn Khaldun is an activity of
human kind that we see it as sociological and international. Labor is the most
important factor in production. But man can not produce his every needings. He is
in need of sociological cooperation.And to specialize in different occupations and
division of labor occur. But this time overproduction becomes a problem.
According to Ibn Khaldun, reserves (of money) is not a measurement for
affluence/welfare of a country, but degree of expertise and high degree in
division of labour that these give a more production to a country, and at the end
a high welfare.

Independent Central Banks

Louis Baeck mentiones the sensitivity of Ibn Khaldun the values of gold and
silver. Ibn Khaldun offers a ‘religious institution’ has got an authority to
control of values and weights of (gold and silver) coins. The price of gold and
silver should not change. These are measurements of value. But the prices of the
other goods may be fluctuated. It is seen that Ibn Khaldun is supporter of fixed
currency and a powerful Central Banks theory. Louis Baeck also mentiones that Ibn
Khaldun’s approach to a ‘national accounting concept’ with his theory on
dividing. He says a price of a product is formed by three elements: the right of
producer, the right of tradesman, the right of authorities (tax). The prices are
influenced by ‘supply and demand’ and tax policies of governments. More
Population. Baeck sees the population policy of Ibn Khaldun. Ibn Khaldun says more
population means high division of labor and high welfare degree. More population
stimulates the process of accumulation. But at the end of this process some
problems begin. Immigration to big cities causes two bottle-necks. One cities
becomes more populated and collapse begins. Two, escape from countryside regions
causes the decreasing of agricultural products. The result is famine and illness
and decreasing of population.

Optimal Point of Taxes. Baeck, at last, estimates the tax policy of Ibn Khaldun.
“...At the end the limit of taxes reach a high degree that this tax burden prevent
the stimulant of production and consumption. This position decreases the revenues
of the state and impacts the power of the state. Ibn Khaldun claims that there is
an optimal interest between total capacity of income and level of taxation. If
this point is passed with the forced tax takings, the sociological structure
breaks down or the community comes treshold of a revolution.” Baeck ends his
study saying: “We can say as a result, Ibn Khaldun formulated the useful of
division of labor long ago than Adam Smith, he evolved a cyclic population theory
than Malthus and formulated opinions on financial economics before supply-side
economists.(62)

Great Investments of State

Tennessee Valley project was a great project in US in 1960s that a lot of dams had
been built. Pipelines, high ways, big international airports, great education
projects, or great health projects.. and great infrastructure investments are
encouraged also by Ibn Khaldun, but he says a ‘determination’ is necessary for
this projects: “Sometimes to complete big buildings is necessary a non-stop and a
long period and cooperation and energy. So one (stateman) begins to build this
building and the second or third goes on. Every one does his duty to complete this
project.” He gives an example from the history of ancient times: “Historians say
that Dam of Ma’reb was built in a long period. Yashjub began to build the dam and
canalized the waters of seven (small) valleys to this dam. But he died before
completing and king sog Hemyar completed it.” (63) No Ideological Approaches in
Economics. Ibn Khaldun adopts an economics that ‘administrators (governments)
should relinquish some projects if these projects cost very much expenses’ and
gives two examples that they both show he does not adopt an ideological viewpoint
in economics: “Harun Rasheyd wanted to demolish great palace of Chosroes (kings of
old Sassanian Empire) and he assigned a lot of workers for this. Great axes were
prepared and the great (old) palace was burnt and vinegar was poured on the
building for destroying. But the palace could not be destroyed and Harun Rasheyd
gave up from this project. Also another Abbasid caliph Ma’mun decided to pull down
the pyramids. He collected a lot of men and they began to drill the pyramids and
reached the cavity between exterior walls and interior walls. But the work is
ended in this point.(64)

Supply-Side Economics Theory

In the last years of 1970s, Demand-Side Economics met a lot of problems. American
economist Prof. Arthur Laffer offered reductions in taxes. This policy would
increase total market production and total tax revenues. This policy became famous
in academic environments as Laffer Curve and some of the other economists
contributed valuable knowledge to this theory and Laffer’s opinions entered to
literature of economics as Supply-Side Economics or Supply-Side Tax Policy. Prof.
Coskun Can Aktan defends this hypothesis (Laffer Effect), declared at first in the
history, by Ibn Khaldun. That’s why, Prof. Can Aktan named this theory as
‘Khaldun-Laffer Effect.’ Can Aktan quotes the sentences of Ibn Khaldun: “ At the
beginning years of the state, tax bases are low but tax revenues are high. But, in
the course of time, state becomes bigger but tax revenues drop. Lower tax rates
increases desire of tax payers to do more works. Low tax rates make bigger the
cultural enterpreneurship in persons.” In 18th and 19th centuries some
economists and philosophers said similar opinions on taxes. David Hume said:
“Heavy taxes destroy industry. High taxes increase the prices of products.” (Hume,
1955, IXXX/1) And Adam Smith: “High rate taxes, sometimes decrease (production
of) some products and sometimes encourage illegal trading (without giving taxes).
The solution is to decrease the rates of taxes.”(Smith, 1976, 414)

In 1831, Henry Parnell also defended low rate taxes. (Keleher and Orzechowski,
1982, p,140) But P. Miller and A Struthers said ‘The Uncertainities of Laffer
Effect’ and they added “ Mellon tax reductions in 1920s, Kennedy reductions in
1960s and Reagan reductions in the beginning 1980s have been not sufficient.”
But the other group of economists replied these claims that “if we do not decrease
the expenses of state, the lower rate taxes will not be sufficient.” In Great
Britain and (West) Germany, good results were seen with lower tax policies.
Buchanan and Lee’s contributions to lower tax policy is important that they said:
“Supply-Side Economics is a long period macro economics policy. It is not true to
expect an increase in tax revenues with lower tax policy in short periods. And
more important instrument that the nation should believe that these lower rate tax
policy will not change in a certain period. The main point of the subject is: to
change the rates of taxes, is now, in the authority of parliaments. That’s why
nation do not trust these policies that may be (even) tomorrow a bill changes the
rates. And western economists have gone to a policy (especially) in last twenty
years) ‘a constitutional tax policy.’ Some economists in US evolved a ‘Public
Choice Theory’ put a new discipline of search as ‘constitutional economics.’ The
Nobel Laureate of 1986 James M. Buchanan expressed a ‘Tax Constitution’ and
said: “Tax system may only be discussed in ‘Constitutional Perspective.’
(Buchanan, 1978, p, 105) (65) Islamic Tax Policy and..In this point, we have to
remember that Ibn Khaldun took out his opinions from vast Islamic culture. And
lower tax policy is the main tax policy from the early days of Islam. The Prophet
Muhammad took only a tax of 2.5 % in his life, as a zakat (religious tax, and
not any other tax.) And Islamic jurists have been sensitive (in long Islamic
centuries) the rates of zakat that were put by the Prophet. That is we can say
Islamic Tax Policy had got a ‘Constitutional Perspective’ 14 centuries ago.

A Divine Aspect of Trading is also seen in the opinions of Ibn Khaldun: “God
taught man knowledges and skills about agriculture and basic handicrafts by
teachings of prophets... Economic actions are command of God. In Quran: ‘..So
seek your provision from God,(Look for your sustenance.)’ (29:17) Economic action
is muqaddas (sacred, holy, sanctified) and mubarak (blessed, bountiful,
auspicious)”(66) But Ibn Khaldun and other Islamic scholars have not idolazed
economic actions.

Last Sentences on Ibn Khaldun

And Ajit K. Dasgupta says: “the writings of Ibn Khaldun in the fourteenth century,
contain some of the clearest statements, before modern times, of price theory in
terms of an interaction of supply and demand curves. Islamic learning in India did
not follow that path. Insistence on ortodoxy and aversion to innovation remained
its basic characteristics. Even the highly sophisticated culture of Mughal
India,...” (67 39) But Prof. Celal Yeniceri defends opposite opinions that he
shows Shah Waleyyulah al Dahlawi (in Hujjatullah al-Baligah) and Ibn Kaldun defend
the similar opinions and Dahlawi is under the impact of Ibn Khaldun in a lot of
economic subjects.(68) And Ibrahim M. Oweiss writes “Ibn Khaldun’s thoughts were
transmitted from one generation to another, from one century to another, from one
country to another.” (69 41) Especially in last 50 years, scholars from Japan
(Jitsuzo Tamura gives an economist’s view on Ibn Khaldun, in Japanese, in Ajia
kazai, September 1963) to France (G. H. Bousquet, Les textes sociologiques et
économiques de la Mukaddima (1375-1379), Paris, 1965) have been busy with Ibn
Khaldun. The coming years will be the harvesting season of these efforts.

Conclusion

14th century is a fruitful period for theorizing of Islamic economics and applied
economics of muslim countries and to find useful thoughts for the global economy
of 14th century. Absolutely to follow the studies in the western world and Islamic
lands will open new doors for us. For example, Adam Sabra’s new study “Poverty and
Charity in Medieval Islam: Mamluk Egypt 1250-1517” or studies in French also
useful: Robert Mantran(1917-99) as the director of Centre de Recherche sur
l’Afrique Méditerranéenne [IREMAM] and editor of Revue l’occident musulman et de
la Méditerranée put good studies about Mediterranean Africa and Western Islamic
World; Georges Marçais (1876-1962) he studied on economic formation of Islamic
countries and nations of North Africa and left a lot of articles and books; famous
French orientalist Louis Massignon (1883-1962 studied on financial system of
muslim countries of Middle Ages and searched artisan and guild organizations of
Islamic society, he looked at akhi and futuwwat organizations as labor sociology
that researchers who know French may study on works (of the last hundred years, in
books and journals) produced in this language. Hamdullah al Mustawfi, Ibn Battuta,
Egyptian historian Fadlullah, geographer Ibn Said al-Magribi and Ibn Khaldun are
the living-witnesses of this century and a reading-through study on their texts is
necessary to reach a complete study on 14th century. On the other hand this study
neglected economic conditions of Arabian peninsula, Far East and some parts of
Africa for example, in the North-west of Africa, Masmuda tribe was producing iron,
copper and silver in this century and in Sus city of this region there was sugar
production and big trading roads were passing on this region that Ibn Khaldun
records and gives more knowledge. The other important region is Central Asia.
Mawara al-Nahr was also in the highest wealth level in 14th century as Samarkand
had reached its greatest heights in this period as the capital of the great empire
of Tamerlane that this region also should be searched. Egypt and Syria are lucky
regions for deeper studies because of much sources. History of cities of Islamic
world that were studied on them in Islamic and western worlds are also a vast
source for 14th century. But if we summarize in one sentence ‘Islamic world was
highly rich in the 14th century from Samarkand to Mali from muslim Spain to India
and a very active business life among intermuslim states and global international
commerce was dominant characteristics

1-Ibn Battuta, Seyahatname, I, 280-83; Arthur Serong; “The History of Kilwa”,

JRAS[April 1895],p, 405-30, its translation by Ministry of Culture Of Oman, al
Salwa fi Akhbari Kilwa (pub. M.Ali al-Salibi), Matrah 1985; Ahmet Kavas-Mustafa
L. Bilge, “Kilve”, Türkiye Diyanet Vakfi İslam Ansiklopedisi (DIA), v, 26, p, 24-
25
2-Ibn Battuta, al-Rihla, IV, 53-57; Casim Avci, “Maldivler”, DIA, v, 27, p,484-85;
3-S. Sulaiman Nadwi, “The Muslim Colonies in India Before the Muslim Conquests”,
IC,VIII, p, 478-87; Muhammad Nainar, Arab Geographers’ Knowledge of Southern
India, p, 19; Azmi Ozcan, “Malabar”, DIA, v, 27, p, 465-66
4-Iqtidar Husain Siddiqui, Malva, DIA, v, 27, p, 547-48; U.N. Day, “The
Independent Kingdoms of Malwa”, A Comprehensive History of India, (ed. M.Habib-
K.A.Nizami, p, 898-937
5-Ibn Battuta, al-Rihla, p, 253-57
6-Mustafa Fayda, “Abbas er-Rasuli”, DIA, v, 1,p, 117
7-Hamdulah al-Mustawfi, Nuzhat-al Qulub, p, 72
8-Yaqut al Hamawi, Mu’jam al-Buldan, v, IV, p,336
9-Riza Kurtulus, “Kasan”, DIA, 25, p, 3-4
10-Hamdullah al-Mustawfi, Nuzhat al-Qulub, p, 162; Riza Kurtulus, “Lahican”, DIA,
v, 27, p, 51-52
11-Ibn Battuta, Travels in Asia and Africa, tr. H.A.R. Gibb, London 1953, p, 120-
21; Riza Kurtulus, DIA, “Laristan”, DIA, v, 27, p, 104-5
12- Erdogan Mercil, Fars Atabegleri, Ankara 1975, p, 36-37; Riza Kurtulus, “Lur-i
Buzurg”, DIA, v, 27, p, 225-26
13- Abdulaziz al Duri, Muqaddima fi al-Tarikh- al-Iqtisad al-Arabi (tr. Sabri
Orman), p, 147
14-Maqrizi, al-Khitat, v, I, p, 365; 339; Ayman Fuad Sayyid, “Kahire”, DIA, v, 24,
173-75
15- Ibn Battuta, al-Rihla, p, 691-98; Ahmad al Shukru, al-Islam wa’l Mujtama’ al-
Sudani Imbaraturiyatu Mali, 1230-1430, Abuzabi, 1999; Ahmet Kavas, DIA, v, 27, p,
493-504
16-J. Sottas, Les messageries maritimes de Venise, Paris 1938, p, 36-51;
Serafettin Turan, DIA, v, 27, p, 145-47
17-for advanced searches: M. Cortelazzo, “La Conoscenza della Lingua Turca in
Italia nel 500”, Il Veltro, XIII/2-4, Rome 1948, p, 133-41; F. Balducci Pegolatti,
La Pratica della Mercatura, (ed. A. Evans, Cambridge 1936); F. Braduel, La
Méditerranée et le monde méditerranéen a l’époque de Philippe II, Paris 1966, I-
II; E.A. Zachariadou, Trade and Crusade, Venice 1983
18- Serafettin Turan, “Italya” DIA, v, 24, p, 448-52;
(19) Yaqut al-Hamawi, Mu’jam al-Buldan, V, 52; Isabel Calero-Secall, “Maleka”,
DIA, v, 27, p, 485-86
(20) Ismail Hakki Uzuncarsili, Anadolu Beylikleri, p, 10
21- Mustawfi, Nuzhat al-Qulub, p,99
22-Ilhan Sahin, “Kirsehir”, DIA, v, 25, p, 481-85;
23-Mustafa Cetin Varlik, Germiyanogullari, p, 24, Ankara 1974
24-Ibn Battuta, al-Rihla, p, 238-39; Mustawfi, Nuzhat al-Qulub, 105; Mehmet
Tastemir, “Mardin” DIA, v, 28, p, 43-48
25-Abdulkadir Ozcan, “Lala Sahin Pasa”, DIA, v, 27, p, 77
26-Zerrin Gunal Oden, “Karesiogullari”, DIA, v, 24, p, 488
27- Ziya Kazici, “Ahilik” , DIA, v, 1, p, 540-41
28-Yilmaz Oztuna, Buyuk Turkiye Tarihi, v, 2, p, 50
29-Ibn Qayyim, Zad al-Maad, v, 2, p, 7
30- ibid, v, 2, p, 20
31-ibid, v, 4, p, 41
32-ibid, v, 4, p, 352
33-ibid, v, 3, p, 424
34-ibid, v, 5, p, 551
35-Turuq al-Hukmiyya, p, 219
36- Celal Yeniceri, Islam Iktisadinin Esaslari, p, 345
37-Ibrahim E. Kozak, Insan Toplum Iktisad, p, 249-50 (from Muqaddima, Ugan’s
translation, v, 2, p, 63-7, 74, 126-8, 289-91, 376; Rosenthal’s translation, v, 2,
p, 93-6)
38- Muqaddima, Ugan’s translation, v, 1, p, 368; v, 2, p, 354, 359, 364-6

39-Ibrahim E. Kozak, “Ibn Khaldun”, DIA, v, 23, s, 313

40- Muqaddima, Ugan’s tarnslation, v, 1, p, 368; v, 2, p, 354, 359, 364-6
41-ibid, v, 1, p, 366, 511, 427, 530;v, 2, p, 300
42-Grolier Encyclopaedia, v, 5, p, 338
43- Muqaddima, Pirizada’s translation, v, 2, p, 174
44- Redhouse Dictionary
45-Muqaddima, Pirizada, v,2, p, 277
46-Adam Mez, The Renaissance of Islam (Die Renaissance des Islams , p, 454, 1922)
47- Muqaddima, Pirizada, v, 2, p, 311
48-Sabri Ulgener, Tarihte Darlik Buhranlari ve Iktisadi Dengesizlik Meselesi
(Crisis of Scarcity in the History and the Problem of Economic Disequilibrium), p,
57
49-Muqaddima (Halil Kendir’s translation, part 4, fasl, 20)
50-ibid, part 4, fasl, 5
51-ibid, part, 4, fasl, 10
52-Philip K. Hitti’s entry in the Encyclopedia Americana 1989, Danbury,
Connecticut,
53- M. Talbi’s entry in Encyclopedia of Islam 1986, New Edition, E. J. Brill,
Leiden
54-Muqaddima (Kendir’s translation, part 4, fasl, 10)
55-C. Yeniceri, p, 302(from Muqaddima, v, 2 , p, 275-77)
56-Muqaddima (Kendir’s translation, part, 4, fasl, 1)
57-Ahmet Guner Sayar, (Biography of) Sabri Ulgener, p, 354-57
58-Muqaddima, (Kendir, part, 5, fasl,1)
59-Encyclopaedia of Islam, “Ibn Khaldun”
60-Muqaddima, (Kendir, part, 4, fasl, 19)
61-Albert Hourani, A History of Arab Peoples, p, 204
62-Louis Baeck, Economic Thought of Classical Islamic Era, (ed. Mustafa Ozel), p,
77-103
63-Muqaddima (Kendir, part 4, fasl, 4)
64-ibid, (part, 4, fasl, 4)
65-detailed knowledge:Prof. Coskun Can Aktan’s web pages: www.canaktan.org
66-Ibrahim E. Kozak, (from Muqaddima, v, 2 , p, 322-27)
67-Ajit K. Dasgupta , A History of Indian Economic Thought, p, 175
68-C. Yeniceri, p, 158
69-www.georgetown.edu/oweiss/ibn.htm :(the father of economists)

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