Presentation

Adaptive Control
Adaptive Control Technique

Presented by,
Dr. R. H. Chile
Department of Instrumentation Engineering,
S.G.G.S. Institute of Engineering and Technology,
Nanded-431 606
January 28, 2014
Presented By, Dr. R. H. Chile 1/148
Adaptive Control
Direct Adaptive Control Technique
Current Research on model-reference approach to adaptive

control of linear time-invariant, single-input
single-output(LTI-SISO) system is broadly directed to
simplifying the complicated structure of adaptive controller,
improving the transient-behavior of the closed loop adaptive

system.
There are mainly two approaches for the solution of adaptive

control problems using reference models:
1. Direct model reference adaptive control(DAC)
2. Indirect model reference adaptive control(IAC)
The DAC has the following signicant merits over IAC:
Lack of dependence on plant parameter estimates.
Control calculations do not require adaptive observers.
Ease of implementation.
No necessity of rich external signal.
No stability problem of the estimated plant.

Adaptive Control
Contd...
In DAC, broadly three approaches have been attempted.
Full-state-access method
assumes that all state variables are measurable.
in practical situations, all state variables usually are not

accessible.
The augmented error signal concept
incorporates adaptive observers into controller
overcome the inability to access the entire state vector.
The command generator trackor
Adaptive model follower.
Does not require observers in the feedback loop.
The major limitation-SPR condition on plant transfer function.
This has restricted its practical application.

Adaptive Control
Contd...
Further work on third approach:
Designing a supplementary feedforward lter in parallel with

the original plant resulting in new augmented plant.
SPR condition relaxed.
Tracking error act the true dierence between the plant output
and model output.
Produces steady state error.
Further modication
Incorporation of feedforward lters in the reference models

output as well as the plants output.
yield asymptotic tracking.
eliminated the bias in the steady state error from feedforward

lter only in the plant.
does not satisfy the positive real constraints over a wide range
of plant parameter variations.
Adaptive Control
Contd...
Proposed Modication
Above points show the necessity of developing a direct
adaptive controller which can
relax the SPR condition
give the tracking error of true dierence between the plant and
model outputs (i.e. without augmenting the plant as well as
the reference model).
satisfy a wider class of processes
eliminate the bias in the steady state error.
The adaptive laws for adjusting the parameters become,
1
(k) = .e
c
(k).y
p
(k)
k
1
(k) = .e
c
(k).r (k)
where,
, are constant adaptive gains.
Adaptive Control
Contd...
Adaptive Control
Contd...
The choice of values of adaptive gains are at the discretion of

the designer and then these adaptive laws assure
lim
t0
e
c
(k) = 0
This requires extensive simulations to decide proper adaptive

gains.
Adaptive Control
Solution
Solution
This fact has been discarded in the proposed direct adaptive

control by using the additional terms in the control law.
Use of low pass lters both at the output and input of the
plants.
Generation of two additional signals which give ltered output

and input as y
f
(k) and u
f
(k).
These two additional signals are then used to determine

additional controller parameters
2
(k) and
3
(k), which give
modied controller structure.
This eliminates the need for adjustment of adaptive gains.

Adaptive Control
Features
Features
Filters at input and output of the plant.
Parameters of DAC are generated using reference input, plant

output, ltered outputs of control input and plant output and
tracking error of the plant.
Satises the requirements of dierent rst and second/third

order plants.
Relaxes the SPR condition of plants.
The tracking error is of true dierence between model and

plant outputs.
Robust against unmodelled dynamics.
Works eciently for time-varying plants.

Adaptive Control
Features
Contd...
No requirement of constant adaptive gain in control law like

other DACs do.
A model of the desired behaviour is used in this control.
The control error, e

c
(k) = y
p
(k) y
m
(k), is used to update
the control parameters.
Adaptive Control
Modications
Modications
PROBLEM
The control parameters (k) and k

1
(k) alone in control signal
u(k) can not bring the plant output asymptotically close to
that of the model.
Use of adaptive gains in the control law become essential.

Adaptive Control
Modications
Adaptive Control
Modications
Statement of Problem
The plant is a LTI SISO system, described by a transfer

function,
G
p
(s) = k
p
.y
p
(s)/u(s)
where,
k
p
= the gain of the plant,
y
p
(s)= monic stable polynomial degree m,
u(s)= monic stable polynomial degree n, n>m, and
G
p
(s)= strictly proper transfer function (m<n-1).
The discrete equivalent of the transfer function is,

G
p
(z) = k
p
.y
p
(z)/u(z)
Where,
G
p
(z) is the z-transfer function of the plant.
Adaptive Control
Modications
Assumptions
The sign of k
p
,
the degree of m, n,
the relative degree of plant, i.e., (n-m) is known, and
the coecient of y
p
(z) and u
p
(z) are unknown.
Adaptive Control
Modications
Reference Model
A reference model represents the behaviour desired from the

plant when it is augmented with a suitable controller.
the model has reference input r (t) and output y

m
(t).
the transfer function of the model is represented as,

G
m
(s) = k
m
.y
m
(s)/r (s)
Where,
y
m
(s)= a monic stable polynomial of degree r.
r (s)= a monic stable polynomial of degree q>r.
k
m
= a constant.
Adaptive Control
Modications
Contd...
The discrete equivalent of above transfer function,
G
m
(z) = k
m
.y
m
(z)/r (z)
Where,
G
m
(z) is the z-transfer function.
Assumption on Reference Model
The reference model is strictly proper transfer function.
Input r (k) to the model is uniformly bounded.

Adaptive Control
Modications
The Adaptive Control Problem
To determine a suitable control function, u(k) such that the

tracking error,
e
c
(k) = y
p
(k) y
m
(k) 0 as k
Adaptive Control
Modications
Additional Assumptions
The relative degree of the plant is known.
The reference model has not necessarily the same relative

degree as that of plant.
The proposed controller controller works eciently even when

the relative degree of the model is less than that of the plant.
This may happen in practical application where the prediction

of the plant in terms of model may be dierent than that of
actual plant and where controller should work to track the
output to that reference model output.
Only the plant input and output are used to generate, u

p
(k).
The sign of

k
p
and

k
m
are assumed to be same and positive.
Thus problem is to design a suitable adaptive controller using

only available information w.r.t. input and output of the plant.
Adaptive Control
Modications
Structure of Proposed Controller
Two low pass lters at input and output of the plant,

D/(1 +
i
s) in continuous-time form
where ,
D= the gain of the lter,
i
= the time-constant of the lter.
The controller consists of dierent adjustable parameters

derived from various signals obtained from the plant.
y
f
(k)= ltered output
u
f
(k)= ltered input
y
p
(k)= output of plant
u(k)= input of plant

Adaptive Control
Modications
Contd...
The elements of control parameter vector (k),

(k) = [k
1
(k),
1
(k),
2
(k),
3
(k)]
The vector of dierent available signals from the plant

s(k) = [r (k), y
p
(k), y
f
(k), u
f
(k)]
(k) and s(k) are used to generate control function,

u(k) =
T
(k).s(k)
The parameters of the DAC( the elements of (k)), are

updated as,

k(k) = e
c
(k).r (k)
1
(k) = e
c
(k).y
p
(k)
2
(k) = e
c
(k).y
f
(k)
3
(k) = e
c
(k).u
f
(k)
Adaptive Control
Modications
Contd...
These parameters are to be adjusted at each k

th
instant.
When this controller parameter vector (k) becomes equal to
(k) ( i.e. desired values of the control parameter vector),

the transfer function of the plant together with the controller
matches to that of the reference model and tracking error
e
c
(k) 0.
For rst order plants, the controller output,

u(k) =
1
(k)y
p
(k) +k
1
(k)r (k) +
2
(k)y
f
(k) +
3
(k)u
f
(k)
For dierent second/third order plant, the controller output,

u(k) =
1
(k)y
p
(k) +k
1
(k)r (k) +
1
(k)e(k) +
2
(k)e
c
(k)
where, = = 1
Adaptive Control
Modications
Contd...
Instead of adjusting the adaptive gains , by trial and error,

the constant parameter low-pass lter at input and output
gives the same performance.
Avoids the tedious and lengthy procedure of adjustment of

adaptive gains.
Adaptive Control
Modications
Stability Analysis
Let a Lyapunov function be dened as,
v = 1/2
_
e
2
c
+|k
p
|
2
+|k
p
|
2
k
where,e
c
= control error = y
p
(t) y
m
(t)
k
p
= gain of the process
= controller parameter error,
= desired value of controller parameter,

= actual controller parameter,
k
= k k
= is controller parameter error,

k
= desired value of controller parameter, and

k= actual controller parameter.
Adaptive Control
Modications
Adaptive Control
Modications
Adaptive Control
Modications
Adaptive Control
Modications
Adaptive Control
Modications
Adaptive Control
Modications
Adaptive Control
Modications
Adaptive Control
Modications
Adaptive Control
Modications
Adaptive Control
Modications
Adaptive Control
Modications
Adaptive Control
Modications
Adaptive Control
Indirect Adaptive Control
The plant parameters are estimated.
The control parameters are adjusted on the basis of plant

parameter estimates.
The identication parameters to their true values,

the control parameters their desired values
then, the transfer function of the feedback loop
matches that of the reference model.
Adaptive Control
Structure of Indirect Adaptive Controller
Consider the plant,
y
p
(t) =
p
y
p
(t) + k
p
u(t)
where, the
p
and k
p
= unknown parameters.
To identify
p
and k
p
from observed input-output pair u(t)
and y
p
(t).
If plant parameters
p
and k
p
are unknown, then controller
parameters
and k
= (
m
p
) /k
p
k
= (k
m
/k
p
) .
The controller output

u(t) =
y
p
(t) + k
r (t),
so that
lim
t
(y
p
y
m
) = 0
Adaptive Control
Contd...
The plant parameters

p
and k
p
are estimated as
p
(t) and
k
p
(t) respectively and the control parameters are adjusted,
assuming that these are corresponding to the true values of
the plant parameters.
The controller output,

u(t) =
_
(
m

p
(t)) /

k
p
(t)
_
y
p
(t) +
_
k
m
/

k
p
(t)
_
r (t)
An identication model is used to estimate

p
(t) and

k
p
(t),
and these estimated parameters are used along with
m
and
k
m
to determine the controller parameters.
Adaptive Control
Contd...
This has the form as,

u(t) = (t)y
p
(t) + k(t)r (t)
Obtained as,
(t) = (
m

p
(t)) /

k
p
(t)
and k(t) = k
m
/

k
p
(t)
Adaptive Control
Proposed Study
Proposed Study
Two cases based on prior information regarding k

p
.
Third is the use of closed loop estimation errors (CLEE).
Instead of using single CLEE both CLEEs used in the modied

adaptive control laws.
Use of additional information regarding the plant.
Improvement in tracking performance.

Adaptive Control
Proposed Study
Adaptive Control
Proposed Study
Indirect Adaptive Control-I
IAC-I:k
p
known,
p
unknown
STRUCTURE
Assumption: Gain of the process is known.

An identication model is of the form,
y
p
(t) =
m
y
p
(t) + (
p
(t)
m
) y
p
(t) + k
p
u(t)
The output identication error and
the parameter estimation error,
e
i
(t) = y
p
(t) y
p
(t)

p
(t) =
p
(t)
p
(t)
The identication error is dened as,
e
i
(t) =
m
e
i
(t)
p
(t)y
p
(t)
The adaptive identication law used is

p
(t) = e
i
(t)y
p
(t)
The control input is then implemented as,
u(t) = ((
m

p
(t)) /k
p
) .y
p
(t) + (k
m
/k
p
) .r (t)
Adaptive Control
Proposed Study
Contd...
Stability:
It is a globally stable adaptive system as well as asymptotic
model following as shown below:
A Lyapunov function candidate for IAC-I is
V(e
i
,
p
) = 1/2
_
e
2
i
+
p
2
This function evaluated using the signals e

i
and
p
as IAC-I
based on these signals.
The time derivative of Lyapunov function v(e
i
,
p
)
v =
m
e
2
i
0
Hence, e
i
(t) and
p
(t) and
m
are uniformly bounded.
Adaptive Control
Proposed Study
Contd...
The estimator expressed as,
y
p
(t) =
m
y
p
(t) + k
m
r (t)
which is parallel to reference model equation
y
m
(t) =
m
y
m
(t) + k
m
r (t)
Choosing,
y
p
(t
0
) = y
m
(t
0
),
y
p
(t) = y
m
(t),
and hence, y
p
(t) is uniformly bounded.
Then, the output of the plant , y
p
(t) = y
p
(t) + e
i
(t) is also
uniformly bounded.
The time derivative of Lyapunovs function alongwith the
identication error,
v =
m
e
2
i
< 0.
Adaptive Control
Proposed Study
Contd...
Thus the origin in Eqns. of identication error and adaptive
identication laws is uniformly stable in the large.
Thus e
i
(t) is bounded.
hence,
lim
t
|y
p
(t) y
m
(t)| = lim
t
|y
p
(t) y
p
(t)| = 0
i.e. lim
t
|e
c
(t)| = lim
t
|e
i
(t)| = 0
Adaptive Control
Proposed Study
Indirect Adaptive Control-II
IAC-II:k
p
and
p
unknown
STRUCTURE
To control the plant when k
p
is unknown and indirect
approach is to be used.
Thus k
p
has to be estimated on line as

K
p
(t) and u(t)
depends on 1/

K
p
(t).
The control input becomes unbounded as

K
p
(t) assumes
values closed to zero.
Hence, a lower bound on k
p
is k
p
> k
p
Assumptions:
(i) sgn(k
p
)=+1
(ii)k
p
> k
p
An Identication model used
y
p
(t) =
m
y
p
(t) + [
p
(t)
m
]y
p
(t) +

k
p
(t)u(t)
Adaptive Control
Proposed Study
Contd...
Adaptive laws for adjusting
p
(t) and

k
p
(t) are chosen as

p
(t) = e
i
(t)y
p
(t)
and,

k
p
(t) = f
_
e
i
, u, k
p
_
k
p
(t
0
) > k
p
where, e
i
(t) = y
p
(t) y
p
(t) and
Adaptive Control
Proposed Study
Contd...
The adaptive laws assures that k
p
(t) > k
p
for all t > t
0
Using estimated plant parameters
p
(t) and

k
p
(t), the control
input is determined.
Adaptive Control
Proposed Study
Contd...
Stability:
The Parameter errors

p
(t) =
p
(t)
p
and

k
p
(t) =

k
p
(t) k
p
The error equation is derived as
e
i
(t) =
m
e
i
(t)
p
(t)y
p
(t)

k
p
(t)u
choosing a quadratic function using e
i
,
p
and

k
p
of IAC-II,
v = 1/2
_
e
2
i
+
p
2
+

k
p
2
_
and its time derivative,
v =
m
e
2
i
e
i

p
y
p
e
i

k
p
u +
p
e
i
y
p
+

k
p
f
_
e
i
, u, k
p
_
From the choice of f (e
i
, u, k
p
), it follows that
Adaptive Control
Proposed Study
Contd...
From the choice of f (e
i
, u, k
p
), it follows that
v =
_
m
e
2
i
, if

k
p
(t) > k
p
m
e
2
i
, if

k
p
(t) = k
p
and e
i
u > 0
m
e
2
i

k
p
e
i
u, if

k
p
(t) = k
p
and e
i
u < 0
Hence, v 0 and e
i
,
p
and

k
p
are bounded
and
lim
t
e
i
(t) = 0
and
lim
t
|y
p
(t) y
m
(t)| = 0
Adaptive Control
Proposed Study
Indirect Adaptive Control-III
IAC-III: Use of closed-loop estimation errors
STRUCTURE
Stable indirect control is possible without assuming a lower
bound on |k
p
|
The approach is based on adjusting the control parameters
dynamically.
The plant,
y
p
(t) =
p
y
p
(t) + k
p
u(t)
The identication model,
y
p
(t) =
m
y
p
(t) + [
p
(t)
m
] y
p
(t) +

k
p
(t)u(t)

p
(t) and

k
p
(t) can be determined as

p
(t) = e
i
(t)y
p
(t)
k
p
(t) = e
i
(t)u(t)
where, e
i
(t) = y
p
(t) y
p
(t)
Adaptive Control
Proposed Study
Contd...
At any instant t, the objective is to adjust (t) and k(t) based on
the estimates
p
(t) and

k
p
(t).
It is desired that,

p
(t) +

k
p
(t)(t)
m
and

k
p
(t)k(t) k
m
The closed-loop estimation errors,
(t) =
p
(t) +

k
p
(t)(t)
m
k
(t) =

k
p
(t)k(t) k
m
The control parameters adjusted using the modied adaptive laws
where both C.L.E.E. are used.
Those are as follows:
(t) = sgn(k
p
)(
(t) +
k
(t))
k(t) = sgn(k
p
)(
k
(t) +
(t))
Adaptive Control
Proposed Study
Contd...
The rules for adjusting the estimation parameters are given as

p
(t) = e
i
(t)y
p
(t)
(t)
k
p
(t) = e
i
(t)u(t) (t)
(t) k(t)
k
(t)
The control input is given by,
u(t) = (t)y
p
(t) + k(t)r (t)
The adaptive estimation laws together with the adaptive laws
determine the indirect adaptive scheme
Assure the boundedness of all the signals in the system and that
lim
t
|y
p
(t) y
m
(t)| = 0
The C.L.E.E.s are computed based on the estimates of the plant
and controller parameters.
Then are used directly in the adaptive laws for updating all the
parameter estimates.
Adaptive Control
Controller Algorithms
To test the algorithms on a CFHE which is a rst order

process.
IAC-I:k
p
known and
p
unknown.
The steps in its implementation:
1. Set up a reference model with input r(t) and calculate the
reference model output.
2. Set up the identication model.
3. Set up a controller.
4. Initialize the identication model and controller parameters.
5. Sample reference model output y
m
(t), the process output
y
p
(t) and input u(t).
6. Calculate the identication error e
i
(t) = y
p
(t) y
p
(t) and
control error e
c
(t) = y
p
(t) y
m
(t).
7. Estimate the identication model parameter
p
(t).
Adaptive Control
Contd...
8. Compute the controller parameters,
(t) = (
m

p
(t)) /k
p
(t)
k(t) = k
m
/k
p
9. Compute the control input u(t) and apply to the process.
10. Repeat the procedure from step (5) to (9) and observe the
ISE for a given period of time.
Adaptive Control
Contd...
IAC-II:k
p
and
p
unknown
The steps in the implementation of this algorithm
1. Set up a reference model with input r (t) an calculate the
4. Initialize the identication model parameters and controller
parameters.
m
(t), the process output,
y
p
(t) and input u(t).
6. Calculate the control error e
c
(t) = y
p
(t) y
m
(t).
p
(t) and

k
p
(t).
8. Compute the controller parameters,
(t) = (
m

p
(t)) /
k
p
(t)
and k(t) = k
m
/
k
p
(t)
Adaptive Control
Contd...
9. Compute the control input u(t) and apply to the process.
10. Repeat the procedure from step (5) to (9) and observe the
ISE for a given period of time.
Adaptive Control
Contd...
IAC-III: Use of closed loop Estimation Errors

This algorithm is implemented as
1. Set up a reference model with input r (t) an calculate the
4. Initialize the identication model parameters and controller
parameters.
m
(t), the process output,
y
p
(t) and input u(t).
c
(t) = y
p
(t) y
m
(t).
p
(t) and

k
p
(t).
8. Determine the C.L.E.E.
(t) and
k
(t).
9. Compute the controller parameters (t) and k(t).
10. Compute the control input u(t) and apply to the process
11. Repeat the procedure (i.e. step 5 to 9) and observe the ISE for
a given period of time.
Adaptive Control
Adaptive Control
Adaptive Control
Adaptive Control
Adaptive Control
Combined Direct and Indirect Adaptive Control
The research work in the adaptive control of LTI SISO systems

using model reference approach has mainly two objectives:
1. To simplify adaptive schemes.
2. To modify the adaptation mechanism to cope with the
nonstandard cases of unmodelled dynamics and the bounded
disturbances.
The ultimate aim is to bound the tracking and parameter

errors.
Two approaches followed to solve the adaptive control

problem.
Direct and Indirect control methods.
Identication error in the indirect control, and control error in

the direct control are used to update the control parameters.
Adaptive Control
Contd...
The principal aim is to reduce the error between the plant and
model outputs asymptotically.
To improve the response of an adaptive control system in

terms of speed and accuracy both direct and indirect methods
are combined.
Such a strategy is known as Combined Direct and Indirect

Adaptive Control (CDIAC) and aims at taking advantage of
both the direct and indirect adaptive control techniques.
Adaptive Control
Contd...
The main features of combined approach:
At every instant, the plant parameter estimates and the

controller parameter estimates are adjusted continuously.
At every instant, assuming that the plant and controller

parameter estimates are constant, the closed loop estimation
errors (CLEE) are determined.
CLEE are the errors between the reference model parameters

and their estimated values, based on current values of
estimates of both identication and control parameters.
In the indirect adaptive control, the identication parameters

are adjusted using identication adaptive laws based on the
identication error between plant and identication model
outputs.
In the direct adaptive control, direct adaptive control laws are

used to adjust control parameters. Both sets of adaptive laws
are modied in this approach using CLEE.
CLEE provides coupling between direct and indirect methods.

Adaptive Control
Proposed Work
PROPOSED WORK
A combinations of adaptive control methods are modied to
control low-order plants.
Proposed modications:
MODIFICATION#1 CDIAC-1
The combined approach for rst order process modied
by using an alternate identication model.
by making use of modied control adaptive laws.
by using both i.e. alternate identication model and modied

control adaptive law.
Adaptive Control
Proposed Work
MODIFIED CDIAC STRUCTURES
Modication# 1: CDIAC-1
A rst-order linear time-invariant plant,
y
p
(t) =
p
y
p
(t) + k
p
u(t) (1)
where,
k
p
,
p
= plant parameters,
y
p
(t)= the output of the plant and
u(t)= the input to the process.
The reference model,
y
m
(t) =
m
y
m
(t) + k
m
r (t) (2)
where,
m
,k
m
= reference model parameters,
y
m
(t)= the output of the reference model and
r (t)= the reference input.
Adaptive Control
Proposed Work
Contd...
The control error is obtained as,
e
c
(t) = y
p
(t) y
m
(t) (3)
The control input is generated as,
u(t) = (t)y
p
(t) + k(t)r (t) (4)
where,
(t), k(t)= controller parameters.
Let,

p
(t), k(t)= the estimate of the plant parameters
The identication model proposed by earlier workers,
y
p
(t) = a
i
e
i
(t)
p
(t)y
p
(t) +

k
p
(t)u(t) (5)
where,a
i
> 0,
y
p
(t)= the estimate of output of plant.
and e
i
(t) = y
p
(t) y
p
(t)= the identication error.
Adaptive Control
Proposed Work
(a) AN ALTERNATE IDENTIFICATION MODEL
From Eqs. (1) and (4),
y
p
(t) =
p
y
p
(t) + k
p
[(t)y
p
(t) + k(t)r (t)]
= [
p
+ k
p
(t)]y
p
(t) + k
p
k(t)r (t) (6)
p
+ k
p
(t) =
m
(7)
k
p
k(t) = k
m
(8)
Control parameters as,
(t) = (
p
m
)/k
p
(9)
and k(t) = k
m
/k
p
(10)
As
p
and k
p
= the parameters of the plant and are not known,
(t) and k(t) determined by using estimates of
p
and k
p
as
p
(t)
and

k
p
(t).
Adaptive Control
Proposed Work
Contd...
Eqs. (9) and (10) are rewritten as,
(t) = [
p
(t)
m
]/

k
p
(t) (11)
and k(t) = k
m
/

k
p
(t) (12)
The control input,
u(t) = [{
p
(t)
m
} /

k
p
(t)]y
p
(t) + [k
m
/

k
p
(t)]r (t) (13)
DERIVATION FOR ALTERNATE IDENTIFICATION

MODEL
y
p
(t) = a
i
e
i
(t)
p
(t)y
p
(t) +

k
p
(t)[(
p
(t)
m
)/

k
p
(t)]y
p
(t) + [k
m
/

k
p
(t)]r (t) (14)
= a
i
e
i
(t)
p
(t)y
p
(t) + y
p
(t)[
p
(t)
m
] + k
m
r (t)
= a
i
e
i
(t)
m
y
p
(t) + k
m
r (t)
Adaptive Control
Proposed Work
Contd...
= a
i
[ y
p
(t) y
p
(t)]
m
y
p
(t) +
m
r (t)
= [a
i
y
p
(t) + a
i
y
p
(t)
m
y
p
(t) + k
m
r (t)]
= (a
i

m
)y
p
(t) a
i
y
p
(t) + k
m
r (t) (15)
By choosing, a
i
=
m
,
y
p
(t) =
m
y
p
(t) + k
m
r (t) (16)
Adaptive Control
Proposed Work
(b) Modied Adaptive Control Laws
The identication adaptive laws determined as follows,

p
(t) = e
i
(t)y
p
(t) +
(t) (17)
k
p
(t) = e
i
(t)u(t) (t)
(t) k(t)
k
(t) (18)
where,
(t) =
p
(t) +

k
p
(t)(t)
m
(19)
k
(t) =

k
p
(t)k(t) k
m
(20)
(t) = sgn(k
p
)[e
c
(t)y
p
(t) +
(t) +
k
(t)] (21)
k(t) = sgn(k
p
)[e
c
(t)r (t) +
(t) +
k
(t)] (22)
Adaptive Control
Proposed Work
STABILITY
The Lyapunov function,
V = 1/2(e
2
c
+|k
p
|
2
+|k
p
|
2
k
+ e
2
i
+
p
e
2
+ k
p
e
2
),
where,
,
k
= k k
,
p
e =
p

p
and k
p
e = k
p

k
p
The time derivative
V =
m
e
2
c
a
i
e
2
i

2
2
k
0
Thus, the uniform boundedness of all the signals involved in the
scheme and
lim
t
e
i
(t) = 0
lim
t
e
c
(t) = 0
lim
t
(t) = 0
and
lim
t
k
(t) = 0
Adaptive Control
Proposed Work
Adaptive Control
Proposed Work
Adaptive Control
Proposed Work
CDIAC FOR SECOND ORDER PROCESS
Let a second order plant be,
y
p
(t) = k
p
.z
p
(s)/R
p
(s) and
y
m
(t) = k
m
z
m
(s)/R
m
(s)
where,
z
p
(s) = z
m
(s) = 1,
R
p
(s) = (s
2
+ a
2
s + a
1
) and
R
m
(s) = 1/(s
2
+ a
m2
+ a
m1
)
In modied adaptive controller structure u
f
(t), y
f
(t) are obtained
as ltered signals of input and output of the plant.
The vector of the dierent available signals from the plant,
s(t) = [c(t), w
2
(t), w
1
(t), r
p
(t)] (23)
Adaptive Control
Proposed Work
Contd...
where,
c(t)=the ltered reference signal,
w
2
(t)=ltered y
f
(t),
w
1
(t)=ltered u
f
(t) and
r
p
(t)=ltered y
p
(t)
The closed-loop estimation errors,
1
(t) =
0
(t) +
1
(t) (24)
0
(t) = k
m
1
(t) + k
p
(t)
0
(t) (25)
2
(t) = k
p
(t)
2
(t) + k
m
0
(t) (26)
k0
(t) = k
p
(t)k
1
(t) k
m
(27)
where, k
p
(t)=the estimated gain of the plant,
k
1
(t),
0
(t),
1
(t),
2
(t)= the controller parameters,
and,
0
(t),
0
(t),
1
(t)=constants
Adaptive Control
Proposed Work
Contd...
The estimated gain of the plant,
k
p
(t) =
i
(
0
(t)
0
(t) +
2
(t)
2
(t) + k
1
(t)
k0
(t)) (28)
The parameters of the controller,
k
1
(t) = (
c
sgn(k
p
)e
c
(t)c(t))/k
m
c
sgn(k
p
)
k0
(t) (29)
0
(t) = (
c
sgn(k
p
)e
c
(t)r
p
(t))/k
p
c
sgn(k
p
)
0
(t) (30)
1
(t) = (
c
sgn(k
p
)e
c
(t)y
f
(t))/k
m
1
(t) (31)
2
(t) = (
c
sgn(k
p
)e
c
(t)w
2
(t))/k
m
c
sgn(k
p
)
2
(t)(32)
other constants,
0
(t) =
i
(t) (33)
0
(t) =
i
k
m
2
(t) (34)
1
(t) =
i
k
m
0
(t) (35)
Adaptive Control
Proposed Work
Contd...
where,
c
,
c
=constant positive adaptive gains in the laws of
control
i
=constant positive adaptive gain in the laws of identication
The adaptive controller output is,
u(t) =
0
(t)r
p
(t) + k
1
(t)c(t) +
1
(t)w
1
(t) +
2
(t)w
2
(t) (36)
Adaptive Control
Proposed Work
Modication# 2: CDIAC-2
Proposed and applied for adaptive control of rst and second

order processes.
In this approach, the estimated plant parameters along with

reference model parameters are used in controller parameter
estimation.
The error between the plant output and the reference model
output is used in the control law of controller.
Thus, both the output error and the plant parameter estimates
are used simultaneously in control law of controller.
It has been developed for adaptive control of rst and second

order processes.
The control strategy has been tested for a time-varying plant

including the inuence of a sensor noise, constant disturbances
and transients.
Adaptive Control
Proposed Work
Assumptions in the design of a stable MRAC

i . The plant zeros are stable.
ii . The relative degree of the plant is known exactly and
matches with that of the reference model.
iii . The sign of the high frequency gain is known.
iv . An upper bound for plant order is known.
CDIAC-2
requires only the knowledge of an upper bound for the relative

degree(n
) of the plant.
relaxes the assumption [ii] by considering relative degree of the

reference model not necessarily the same as that of plant.
is a controller whose numerator and denominator coecients

are changed as soon as the plant parameters are changed.
eectively tracks the plant output to model output.
is applicable to plants having relative degree = 2.
assures the closed-loop stability and zero residual tracking

error at the expense of updating some additional parameters
compared to conventional direct or indirect control methods.
Adaptive Control
Proposed Work
Adaptive Control
Proposed Work
CDIAC-2
IDENTIFICATION
FIRST ORDER PLANT

A rst-order plant,
y
p
(t) =
p
(t)y
p
(t) + k
p
u(t) (37)
A reference model,
y
m
(t) =
m
y
m
(t) + k
m
r (t) (38)
To identify
p
and k
p
, the identication model proposed,
y
p
(t) = a
i
e
i
(t)
p
(t)y
p
(t) +

k
p
(t)u(t) (39)
where, a
i
> 0
The tracking error,
e
c
(t) = y
p
(t) y
m
(t) (40)
The identication error,
e
i
(t) = y
p
(t) y
p
(t) (41)
The identication of plant parameters,

p
(t) = e
i
(t)y
p
(t) +
(t) (42)
Adaptive Control
Proposed Work
Contd...
k
p
(t) = e
i
(t)u(t) (t)
(t) + k(t)
k
(t) (43)
where,
(t) =
p
(t) +

k
p
(t)(t) +
m
(44)
k
(t) =

k
p
(t)k
c
(t) k
m
(45)
Here,
(t) = sgn(k
p
)[e
c
(t)y
p
(t) +
(t) +
k
(t)] (46)
k
c
(t) = sgn(k
p
)[e
c
(t)r (t) +
k
(t) +
(t)] (47)
Adaptive Control
Proposed Work
SECOND ORDER PLANT

A recursive least square method
(t) =

(t 1) + k(t)[y(t) y(t)](48)
k(t) = P(t 1)(t 1)/
_
+
T
(t 1)P(t 1)(t 1)
_
(49)
P(t) =
_
I k(t)
T
(t 1)
_
P(t 1)/(50)
where,
(t 1) = parameter vector
= ( a
1
, a
2
,

b
1
,

b
2
) (51)
T
(t 1)= regression vector
= [y(t 1), y(t 2), u(t k), u(t k 1)] (52)
Adaptive Control
Proposed Work
Contd...
[y, u] = Measurement Vector
P(t) = covariance matrix of the estimation error of the
parameter estimate,
= exponential forgetting factor,
I = identity matrix, and
k(t) = Kalman lter gain
Adaptive Control
Proposed Work
OBSERVATIONS
Large values of the diagonal elements of P(0) have indicated

the poor condence in

(0) but rapid changes in

(t).
Small values have indicated that

(0) is good estimate but
cause slow changes in
(t).
An exponential forgetting or weighing factor is included to

weigh new data more heavily.
When = 1, all data are weighted equally.
For < 1, more weight is placed on recent measurement than

an earlier measurements.
From Eq.(50), it can be seen that the forgetting factor
prevents the elements of the covariance matrix P from

becoming too small.
This maintains the sensitivity of the algorithm and allows new

data to continue to aect the parameter estimates.
Adaptive Control
Proposed Work
Contd...
In Eq.(50), if y = 0 and u = 0,
then, P(t) = P(t 1)/, hence P grows exponentially untill
changes.
This causes the algorithm to become over sensitive to

parameter changes and noise, resulting in large uctuations
(parameter bursting) and drifting in the parameter estimates.
Larger values of P cause sudden changes in (t) when new

information comes in the estimator.
This causes a controlled system to react severely.
Then P is kept small.
This causes much condence in the model parameters and

thus they tend to change little when new information comes
in.
Adaptive Control
Proposed Work
Contd...
However, there is no change in the model parameters, i.e. no

longer the capability to adjust to changes in the process
operation, and thus indicating that adaptive nature of the
algorithm is lost.
Hence, in order to improve the sensitivity of an estimator, the

forgetting factor is kept variable.
(t) =
_
n(t) +
_
(n(t))
2
+ 4(t)
_
/2.0 (53)
in which,
n(t) = 1 (t) (e(t))
2
/
0
(54)
(t) =
T
(t 1)P(t 1)(t 1) (55)
where,
0
= tuning parameter, and
e(t)= prediction error.
The value of the (t) satises 0 < < 1,
Adaptive Control
Proposed Work
Contd...
When the parameters

(t) are close to their correct values and
the tuning parameter
0
is large, the is found close to unity.
The parameters of the CDIAC-2 derived using the estimated

plant parameters

(t) and reference model parameters.
Adaptive Control
Proposed Work
THE CDIAC-2 STRUCTURE
OBJECTIVE
To determine a control input u(t) such that
all signals in the overall system remain bounded, and the
tracking error, e
c
(t) = y
p
(t) y
m
(t) tends to zero.
REFERENCE MODEL
1. First order Reference Model
The transfer function,
W
m
(s) = k
m
(s)/R
m
(s)
= k
m
/(1 +
m
s)
W
m
(z) = B
m
(z
1
)/A
m
(z
1
)
= b
m1
z
1
/(1 + a
m1
z
1
) (56)
Adaptive Control
Proposed Work
Contd...
2. Second Order Reference Model
The transfer function,
W
m
(z) = B
m
(z
1
)/A
m
(z1)
= (b
m1
z
1
+ b
m2
z
2
)/(1 + a
m1
z
1
+ a
m2
z
2
) (57)
where, a
m1
and a
m2
= coecients of denominator polynomial
of reference model transfer function.
Adaptive Control
Proposed Work
PROCESS
1. First Order Process
The transfer function is given by,
G
p
(s) =

k
p
e
Ls
/(1 +
p
s)
G
p
(z) = (

b
1
z
1
+

b
2
z
2
)/(1 + a
1
z
1
)
= B
p
(z
1
)/A
p
(z
1
) (58)
2. Second Order Process
The transfer function for this process is given by,
G
p
(s) = k
p
/(s
2
+ a
22
s + a
11
) (59)
G
p
(z) = (

b
1
z
1
+

b
2
z
2
)/(1 + a
1
z
1
)
= B
p
(z
1
)/A
p
(z
1
) (60)
where, a
11
and a
22
= parameters of given continuous-time
process, and a
1
, a
2
,

b
1
and

b
2
= identied parameters of
discrete-time process.
Adaptive Control
Proposed Work
Contd...
The closed-loop transfer function relating the reference y

m
(k)
and the output y
p
(k) is
H(z
1
) =G
c
(z)G
p
(z)/ (1 + G
c
(z)G
p
(z))
=
B
p
(z
1
)R
c
(z
1
)/(A
p
(z
1
)S
c
(z
1
))
1 + B
p
(z
1
)R
c
(z
1
)/(A
p
(z
1
)S
c
(z
1
))
(61)
=B
p
(z
1
)R
c
(z
1
)/(A
p
(z
1
)S
c
(z
1
)) + B
p
(z
1
)R
c
(z
1
)
=B
p
(z
1
)R
c
(z
1
)/P(z
1
) (62)
The characteristics polynomial of closed-loop system is

1 + G
c
(z)G
p
(z) = A
p
(z
1
)S
c
(z
1
) + B
p
(z
1
)R
c
(z
1
) (63)
Adaptive Control
Proposed Work
Contd...
Taking the characteristics polynomial of a closed-loop transfer

function (Eq.63) equal to the denominator polynomial of
reference model transfer function,
P(z
1
) =A
m
(z
1
)
i.e.A
p
(z
1
)S
c
(z
1
) + B
p
(z
1
)R
c
(z
1
) =1 + a
m1
z
1
+ a
m2
z
2
(64)
and from Eq.(60),
A
p
(z
1
) =1 + a
1
z
1
+ a
2
z
2
(65)
B
p
(z
1
) =

b
1
z
1
+

b
2
z
2
(66)
The structure of R
c
(z
1
) and S
c
(z
1
) of adaptive controller
is as follows:
R
c
(z
1
) =r
0
+ r
1
z
1
+ r
2
z
2
(67)
and,S
c
(z
1
) =(1 z
1
)(1 + s
1
z
1
) (68)
Adaptive Control
Proposed Work
Contd...
In order to obtain the parameters r

0
, r
1
, r
2
and s
1
of this
adaptive controller, in terms of identied plant parameters
and given reference model denominator polynomial, by using
Eqs.(65), (66), (67) and (68) in Eq.(64), we get,
1 + a
m1
z
1
+ a
m2
z
2
= (1 + a
1
z
1
+ a
2
z
2
)(1 z
1
)(1 + s
1
z
1
)
+(

b
1
z
1
+

b
2
z
2
)(r
0
+ r
1
z
1
+ r
2
z
2
)
(69)
Simplifying and solving this Eq.(69), we get
a
m1
=

b
1
r
0
+ s
1
+ a
1
1 (70)
a
m2
=

b
2
r
0
+

b
1
r
1
+ s
1
( a
1
1) + a
2
a
1
(71)
0 =

b
2
r
1
+

b
1
r
2
+ s
1
( a
2
1) a
2
(72)
0 =

b
2
r
2
a
2
s
1
(73)
Adaptive Control
Proposed Work
Contd...
By using Eqs.(70) to (73), CDIAC-2 parameters r
0
, r
1
, r
2
and s
1
are
determined.
From Eq.(70),
r
0
= (a
m1
s
1
a
1
+ 1)/
b
1
(74)
Substituting Eq.(74) in Eq.(71), we get,
a
m2
=

b
2
[a
m1
s
1
a
1
+ 1] /
b
1
+

b
1
r
1
+ s
1
( a
1
1) + a
2
a
1
(75)
By solving this equation, we get
r
1
= a
m2
/
b
1

b
2
/
b
1
2
.a
m1
+

b
2
/
b
1
2
.s
1
+

b
2
/
b
1
2
.a
1

b
2
/
b
1
2
s
1
. a
1
/
b
1
+ s
1
/
b
1
a
2
/
b
1
+ a
1
/
b
1
(76)
Adaptive Control
Proposed Work
Contd...
By substituting r
0
and r
1
i.e. Eqs.(74) and (76) in Eq. (72) and by
simplifying we get,
s
1
= 1/D[(a
m2
+ a
1
a
2
)

b
1
.
b
2
2
(1 + a
m1
a
1
)

b
2
3
a
2

b
1
2
b
2
]
(77)
where,D = ( a
1
1)

b
1

b
2
2

b
2
3
[ a
2
a
1
]

b
1
2
b
2
a
2

b
1
3
(78)
Similarly, from Eq. (73)
r
2
= ( a
2
/
b
2
)s
1
(79)
By substituting Eq. (77) and (78) in Eq. (79) and then by
simplifying we get,
r
2
= 1/D
_
a
2
( a
1
+ a
m2
a
2
)

b
1

b
2
] + [ a
2
( a
1
a
m1
1)

b
2
2
] a
2
2

b
1
2
_
(80)
Adaptive Control
Proposed Work
Contd...
From Eq. (70),
r
0
= (a
m1
s
1
a
1
+ 1)/
b
1
(81)
By substituting s
1
from Eq. (77) in Eq. (81) and then, by
simplifying we get,
r
0
=1/D[a
m1
( a
1
1) a
m2
+ a
1
1 a
1
2
+ a
2
]

b
2
2
+ a
2
( a
1
1 a
m1
)

b
1
2
+ [a
m1
( a
1
a
2
) + a
1
a
1
2
+ a
1
a
2
]

b
1

b
2
(82)
The adaptive controller parameters r
0
, r
1
, r
2
and s
1
are in terms of
identied process parameters and given reference model
denominator polynomial parameters.
Adaptive Control
Proposed Work
Stability of CDIAC-2
The stability of the adaptive system
The process input and output values of an unknown plant with

a particular estimation and control law, remain bounded for all
values of k.
The tracking error e

c
(k) 0 as k .
The key stability issues applicable to CDIAC-2.

The assumptions:
An upper bound on the order of the process is known.
The process delay is known.
The unknown process is minimum-phase.
The control input signal is persistently exciting.

Adaptive Control
Proposed Work
Contd...
The following properties are true if the identication algorithm

presented is combined with the control law of CDIAC-2 and
applied to unknown process.
For a bounded reference input, the regressor vector is always

bounded i.e. stability is assured.
lim
t
e
c
(k) = lim
t
[y
p
(k) y
m
(k)] = 0 i.e. asymptotic
tracking property.
As the control input is persistently exciting the parameter

convergence is assured.
Adaptive Control
Proposed Work
CDIAC-1 for rst order process

The main steps in the implementation of CDIAC-1:
1. Give reference signal and reference model parameters.
2. Initialize the identication model parameters, controller
parameters and CLEEs.
m
y
p
(t) and input u(t).
c
(t) = y
p
(t) y
m
(t).
5. Estimate the identication model parameters
p
(t), k
p
(t) and
then determine the output of the identication model.
6. Compute the identication error e
i
(t) =

y
p
(t) y
p
(t).
7. Determine the CLEEs
(t) and
k
(t).
8. Calculate controller parameters (t) and k(t).
Adaptive Control
Proposed Work
Contd...
9. Compute the controller output u(t) and apply to the process.
10. Observe the ISE for a given period of time.
Adaptive Control
Proposed Work
Contd...
CDIAC for second order process

The main steps in the implementation of CDIAC for second
order process are as follows:
1. Give reference signal and reference model parameters of second
order reference model.
2. Initialize the controller parameters and CLEEs.
3. Sample the reference model output y
m
y
p
(t) and input u(t).
c
(t) = y
p
(t) y
m
(t).
5. Compute the ltered plant output y
f
(t) and input u
f
(t).
6. Compute the ltered reference signal, ltered y
f
(t), ltered
u
f
(t) and ltered y
p
(t).
7. Calculate the closed-loop estimation errors
0
(t),
1
(t),
2
(t) and
k0
(t).
Adaptive Control
Proposed Work
Contd...
8. Calculate controller parameters k
1
(t),
0
(t),
1
(t) and
2
(t).
9. Estimate the gain of the process k
p
(t).
10. Compute the other constants
0
(t),
0
(t) and
1
(t).
11. Compute the controller output u(t) and apply to the process.
12. Observe the ISE for given period of time.
Adaptive Control
Proposed Work
CDIAC-2 for rst/second order process
The main steps in the implementation of CDIAC-2:
1. Give reference signal and parameters of second order reference
model.
2. Initialize
min
,
0
, P(0) of recursive least square identication
algorithm and parameters of control algorithm.
3. Sample the reference model output y
m
y
p
(t) and input u(t).
c
(t) = y
p
(t) y
m
(t).
5. Compute the parameters (t) and (t) required in calculation
of variable forgetting factor.
6. Compute variable forgetting factor (t).
7. Calculate the Kalman gain for updating the model parameters
k(t).
Adaptive Control
Proposed Work
Contd...
8. Calculate the updated model parameters (t).
9. Update the covariance matrix P(t).
10. Estimate the CDIAC-2 parameters r
0
, r
1
, r
2
and s
1
using
estimated plant parameters (t) and reference model
parameters.
11. Calculate the control signal u(k).
12. Observe the ISE for given period of time.
Adaptive Control
Adaptive Control
Adaptive Control
Adaptive Control
Self Tuning Control
Self Tuning Control
Regulator
Parameters
Command
Signal
u
Control
Signal
y
Output
The inner loop is the conventional feedback control loop

consisting of the plant and the regulator.
The parameters of the regulator are adjusted by the outer

loop,which is composed of a recursive parameter estimator
and design calculations.
Adaptive Control
Self Tuning Control
A self - tunning regulator
Consists of a recursive parameter estimator (Plant identier )

coupled with a control design procedure, such that the
currently estimated parameter values are used to provide
feedback controller coecients.
At each sampling , an updated parameter estimate is

generated and a controller is designed assuming that the
current parameter estimate is actually the true value.
The approach of using the estimate an if they were the true

parameters for the purpose of design is called certainty
equivalence adaptive control.
Only requirement being a recursive parameter estimation

scheme and a design procedure.
Adaptive Control
Self Tuning Control
Contd...
There is an array of
Parameter estimation schemes
stochastic approximation
Least Square(L.S.)
Extended L.S.
Generalised L.S.
Instrumental Variables
Extended Kalman ltering
Maximum likelihood
Controller design methods
(for plants with known
parameters)
PID control
Phase-lag and phase-lead

compensators
Pole placement methods
minimum variance control
Linear-quadratic gaussian
(LQG) control.
Adaptive Control
Self Tuning Control
Contd...
All the possible combination may not have self-tunning

property , which require that the performance of the regulator
coincides with the performance that would be obtained if the
system parameters were know exactly.
In some circumstances a combination of simple least square

estimation and minimum variance control has the self tunning
property.
Adaptive Control
Self Tuning Control
Identication Problem
To design controls for a dynamic system, it is necessary to

have a model describing system behavior.
Choice of model
Linear (for preliminary analysis and control design)
Time-invariant (for preliminary analysis and control design)
Complex(non-linear)(for detailed check on performance of

control system)
Specic objectives for its use.
Control design objectives leads to the requirement of a more

detailed model.
Choose right model for each specic purpose.

Adaptive Control
Self Tuning Control
Types of Model
Parametric model
State model
Pole-zero transfer function
Non parametric models
Obtained from frequency response curves(Bode,polar), time

response curves e.g. PRC
Plant models can be obtained from physical knowledge of the

process on its mathematical description etc.
However, it is not possible to make a complete model only

from physical knowledge.
Then, only choice in the hands of designer is to collect data

from experiments directly conducted to excite the plant and
to measure the response.
Adaptive Control
Self Tuning Control
System Identication
The process of constructing models from experimental data is
called System Identication.
Analog parametric models
Discrete parametric models

Steps in discrete parametric models
1. Experimental planning.
2. Selection of model structure.
3. Parameter estimation.
1. Experimental Planning:
On-line experimentation: gives estimates recursively as the

measurements are obtained and are only alternative if the
identication is going to be used in an adaptive controller or if
the process is time varying.
O-line: gives estimates with higher precision more reliable in

terms of convergence.
Adaptive Control
Self Tuning Control
Selection of Model Structure:
The model structures are derived from prior knowledge of

plant.
in some cases the only prior knowledge is that the plant can
be describe as a linear system in a particular range.
Consider a dynamic system with input {u(t)} and output

{y(t) }.The sampled value of there signal can be related
through the linear dierence equation.
y(k + n) +
1
y(k + n 1) +... +
n
y(k) =
1
u(k + m) +
2
u(k + m 1) +... +
m+1
u(k) n m
(1)
i
and
j
are constant (unknown) parameters. The parameter
vector,
= [
1
2
...
n
,
1
2
...
m+1
]
T
(2)
Adaptive Control
Self Tuning Control
The no. of parameters to be identical depends on order of selected
model i.e.n in equation (1). The T.F. is obtained as:
H(z) =
y(z)
u(z)
=

1
.z
m
+
2
.z
m1
+... +
m+1
z
n
+
1
.z
n
1 +... +
n
(3)
Normalizing H(z) to obtain a monic (The leading coecient unity)
characteristic polynomial , we get,
H(z) =
y(z)
u(z)
=
z
d
(
1
) +
2
z
1
+... +
nd+1
z
(nd)
1 +
1
z
1
+... +
n
z
n
; d = nm 0
(4)
d=relative degree or control delay.
Let q
1
=Backward shift or delay operator
q
1
(y(k)) = y(k 1) (5)
Then equation (1)becomes,
Adaptive Control
Self Tuning Control
A(q
1
y(k)) = (q
1
).u(k) (6-a)
where, A(q
1
and (q
1
are polynomial in the delay operator.
A(q
1
) = 1 +
1
.z
1
+... +
n
q
n
(6-b)
(q
1
) = q
d
1
(q 1) (6-c)
= q
d
(
1
+
2
.q
1
+... +
nd+1
q
(nd)
); d = n m (6-d)
For, d=1, we get the input output model structure,
A(q
1
)y)(k) =(q
1
)x(k) (7-a)
A(q
1
) =1 +
1
q
1
+... +
n
q
n
(7-b)
B(q
1
) =
1
q
1
+
2
q
2
+... +
n
q
n
(7-c)
Adaptive Control
Self Tuning Control
In the presence of disturbance, model of equation (7) takes the
form
A(q
1
)y(k) = (q
1
)u(k) +(k) (8)
where, (k)=some disturbance of unspecied character. the model
(8)describe the dynamic relationship between the input and output
signals, expressed in terms of parameter vector,
= [
1
...
n
,
1
...
n
]
T
(9)
Introducing the vector of lagged input output data,
(k) = [y(k 1)... y(k n), u(k 1)...u(k n)]; (10)
equation (8)can be written as
y(k) = (k). +(k) (11)
Adaptive Control
Self Tuning Control
This model describe the observed variable y(k) an unknown linear
combination of the component of the observed vector (k) plus
noise, such a model is called a linear regression in statistics and the
component of (k) are then regression variable or aggressors. If no
input is present in equation (8) and {(k) } is considered to be
white noise, then equation (8) become a signal of model of the
signal {y(k)}
y(k) +
1
y(k 1) +... +
n
y(k n) = (k)
Such a signal is commonly known as autoregressive process of
order n or an AR(n) process. Equation (11) is an incomplete
description of the model structure the character of the disturbance
(k) is still unspecied. suppose the {(k)} can be described as a
moving average (MA)of a white noise sequence {v(k)};
(k) = c(q
1
).v(k) (12-a)
Adaptive Control
Self Tuning Control
c(q
1) = 1 + (c
1
)(q
1
) +... + (c
n
)(q
n
) (12-b)
Then the resulting model is
A(q
1).y(k) = B(q
1).u(k) + C(q
1)v(k) (13)
This is known as ARMAX model : a combination of
autoregretion(AR) part A(q
1).y(k), a moving average(mA)part

C(q
1)v(k) and a control part B(q
1)u(k) when no input is

present the use of above equation means that we are describing the
output signal y(k) as ARMA process. A state space representation
of the input-output model is given by
Adaptive Control
Self Tuning Control
x
1
(k + 1)
x
2
(k + 1)
x
3
(k + 1)
.
.
.
x
n1
(k + 1)
x
n
(k + 1)
1
1 0 0
1
1 0 0
1
1 0 0
1
1 0 0
x
1
(k + 1)
x
2
(k + 1)
x
3
(k + 1)
.
.
.
x
n1
(k + 1)
x
n
(k + 1)
B
1
B
2
.
.
.
B
n
u(k) +
C
1

1
C
2

2
.
.
.
C
(
n 1)
(
n 1)
C
n

n
v(k)
(14-a)
y(k) =
1 0 0
x(k) + v(k) (14-b)

Adaptive Control
Self Tuning Control
What should be model Structure?
Thus a model structure :
having minimal set of parameters & yet equivalent to the

assumed plant description,
Where parameters are uniquely determined by the observed

data and
Which will make subsequent control design simple, should be

selected.
Adaptive Control
Self Tuning Control
Parameter Estimation:
For solving the parameter estimation problem requires the

techniques for for selecting a particular estimate

, which
least represents the given data.
For this we require some idea of goodness of t of a proposed

value of to the true
0
which is unknown.
Hence it is unrealistic to dene a direct parameter error

between and
0
as
0
is unknown.
We cannot dene a error in a way which can be computed

from y(k) & u(k).
Adaptive Control
Self Tuning Control
The Criteria for discrete time systems are obtained as
J() =
N
k=1
f (e(k, ))
where, e is the error which may comprise of :
1. The extent to which equation of motion fail to be true for a
specic value of when used whith the specic actual data
(equation error) or
2. The error between the actual output y(k) of the plant and the
output y
m
(k) of a referance model ; the output y
m
(k) of the
refernace model is a function of in the same way as the
actual output is a function of true parameter value
(Output
error).
Adaptive Control
Self Tuning Control
Least Square Method
Based on the minimization of the sum of the square of errors
Simple method of parameter estimation
Method restricted to model structures that are linear in the

unknown parameters.
We all discuss a parameter estimation method for the

ARMAX model (Eq..13) which in combination with a
appropriate controller design procedure yields a regulator with
a self-tuning property.
Adaptive Control
Self Tuning Control
Principle of Least Squares
Let the dynamic relationship between the input and output of
scalar system is assume to be given by ,
y(k) = (k). (15-a)
(k) =
_
y(k 1) y(k n) u(k 1) u(k n)
(15-b)
=
_
1

m

1

n
T
(15-c)
Using the observations,
{ x(0), x(1), , x(N),y(0),y(1), , y(N)}
We wish to compute the values of
i
and
j
in parameter vector ,
Which will best t the observed data.
Adaptive Control
Self Tuning Control
Let e(k,)= equation error = y(k)-(k).
Since y(k) depends on past data upto n periods earlier, the rst
error we can form is e(n,);the subsequent errors being
e(n+1,), , e(N,):
e(n, ) = y(n) (n)
e(n + 1, ) = y(n + 1) (n + 1)
.
.
.
e(N, ) = y(N) (N)
Adaptive Control
Self Tuning Control
In vector matrix notation,
e(N, ) = y(N) (N) (16-a)
Where, e(N, ) =
_
e(n, ) e(n + 1, ) e(N.)
T
(16-b)
(N) =
_
(n) (n + 1) (N)
T
(16-c)
y(N) =
_
y(n) y(n + 1) y(N)
T
(16-d)
Note that,
e is (N-n+1)x 1 vector,
y is (N-n+1)x 1 vector,
is (N-n+1)x 2n vector,
is (2n x 1) vector,
Adaptive Control
Self Tuning Control
The principle of least squares says that the parameters should be
selected such that the performance measure,
J() =
N
k=n
e
2
(k, ) = e
T
(N, )e(N, ) (17)
is minimized .
The performance measure J()can be written as
J() = [y(N) (N).]
T
[y(N) (N).]
= y
T
(N).y(N)
T
T
(N).y(N) y
T
(N)(N)
+
T
T
(N).(N)
Adaptive Control
Self Tuning Control
Taking derivative of J w.r.t. ,
J
=
T
(N).y(N) [y
T
(N).(N)]
T
+ 2
T
(N)(N).
= 2
T
(N).y(N) + 2
T
(N).(N).
J
= 0[for =

]
therefore,
T
(N).(N).
=
T
(N).y(N) (18)
This is called normal equation.
Adaptive Control
Self Tuning Control
The solution of above euation(18) provides us with least suare
estimate

.However, this equation will have a solution the the
input x(k), is persistently exciting.
To expalin this point , let us consider an identication problem
where the system is excited by a constant inputu and assume
model structure is,
A(q
1
)y(k) = B(q
1
)u(k)
A(q
1
) = 1 +
1
.q
1
+
2
.q
2
B(q
1
) =
1
.q
1
+
1
.q
1
The equation error are given by,
e(2) = y(2) +
1
.y(1) +
2
.y(0) (
1
+
2
).u
.
.
.
e(N) = y(N) +
1
.y(N 1) +
2
.y(N 2) (
1
+
2
).u
Adaptive Control
Self Tuning Control
As the parameters
1
and
2
always apperas as sum
1
+
2
and
that the separation of them is not possible when constant input u
is used ; the constant u thus fails to excite the entire dynamics of
plant. The input u(k) should uctuate enough to avoid the
possibility that only linear combination of elements of will show
up in error equations.Such inputs have been called as persistently
exciting inputs.
If the selected model structure has minimal number of parameters
and input u(k) is persistently exciting, then [
T
(N).(N)] is
non-singular and the parameter estimate i.e., equation..17
= [
T
(N).(N)]
1
.
T
(N).(N) (19)
Adaptive Control
Self Tuning Control
Weighted Least Square
The performance measure i.e.(17) is essentially based on the view
that all the errors are equally important.
In the experiment data taken later in experiment may be more
important than the data taken early on and it seems reasonable to
weight the errors accordingly.Such a scheme is reered to as the
weighted least square and based on the performance measure.
J() =
N
k=n
w(k).e
2
(k, ) = e
T
(N, )w(N)e(N, ) (20-a)
Adaptive Control
Self Tuning Control
Adaptive Control
Self Tuning Control
Adaptive Control
Self Tuning Control
Adaptive Control
Self Tuning Control
Adaptive Control
Self Tuning Control
Adaptive Control
Self Tuning Control
Adaptive Control
Self Tuning Control
Adaptive Control
Self Tuning Control
Adaptive Control
Self Tuning Control
Adaptive Control
Self Tuning Control
Adaptive Control
Self Tuning Control
Adaptive Control
Self Tuning Control

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Adaptive Control

Adaptive Control Technique

Current Research on model-reference approach to adaptive

simplifying the complicated structure of adaptive controller,

improving the transient-behavior of the closed loop adaptive

There are mainly two approaches for the solution of adaptive

The DAC has the following signicant merits over IAC:

Lack of dependence on plant parameter estimates.

Control calculations do not require adaptive observers.

No necessity of rich external signal.

No stability problem of the estimated plant.

In DAC, broadly three approaches have been attempted.

assumes that all state variables are measurable.

in practical situations, all state variables usually are not

The augmented error signal concept

incorporates adaptive observers into controller

overcome the inability to access the entire state vector.

The command generator trackor

Adaptive model follower.

Does not require observers in the feedback loop.

The major limitation-SPR condition on plant transfer function.

This has restricted its practical application.

Further work on third approach:

Designing a supplementary feedforward lter in parallel with

SPR condition relaxed.

Produces steady state error.

Incorporation of feedforward lters in the reference models

yield asymptotic tracking.

eliminated the bias in the steady state error from feedforward

relax the SPR condition

satisfy a wider class of processes

eliminate the bias in the steady state error.

The adaptive laws for adjusting the parameters become,

The choice of values of adaptive gains are at the discretion of

This requires extensive simulations to decide proper adaptive

This fact has been discarded in the proposed direct adaptive

Generation of two additional signals which give ltered output

These two additional signals are then used to determine

This eliminates the need for adjustment of adaptive gains.

Filters at input and output of the plant.

Parameters of DAC are generated using reference input, plant

Satises the requirements of dierent rst and second/third

Relaxes the SPR condition of plants.

The tracking error is of true dierence between model and

Robust against unmodelled dynamics.

Works eciently for time-varying plants.

No requirement of constant adaptive gain in control law like

A model of the desired behaviour is used in this control.

The control error, e

The control parameters (k) and k

Use of adaptive gains in the control law become essential.

The plant is a LTI SISO system, described by a transfer

The discrete equivalent of the transfer function is,

the relative degree of plant, i.e., (n-m) is known, and

A reference model represents the behaviour desired from the

the model has reference input r (t) and output y

the transfer function of the model is represented as,

Assumption on Reference Model

The reference model is strictly proper transfer function.

Input r (k) to the model is uniformly bounded.

To determine a suitable control function, u(k) such that the

The relative degree of the plant is known.

The reference model has not necessarily the same relative