Prva lekcija- neki uvod, Viki nije rekla o cemu prica

We may say that translation is an old activity although translation is a recent study. The
first notable translations of the modern civilization were Roman translations of Greek
texts (odyssey G-L) the most widely translated text of the middle ages was the Bible. In
the period of the renaissance the language which was the most translated from was
Italian. In that period in Serbia the texts which were the most translated were
ecclesiastical, historical texts and texts on nature. Translation studies is a discipline
devoted to the study of the theory and phenomena of translation. It is multilingual and
interdisciplinary and embraces large varieties of languages. A number of linguistic
fields, comparative literature (finding a common ground of numerous languages),
communication studies, cultural studies, psychology, information technologies etc. The
term translation has several meanings. There is a difference between translation
(written) and interpreting (oral). In English translation means both the process of
translation and the product of this process. The text which is translated is the target text
and the language translated into is the target one, and the text which is translated is the
source text and the language from which is translated is the source language. There are
3 types of translation as a process : 1. Intro-lingual (unutarjezicni) rewording, the
translation of verbal signs by means of some other signs within the same language.
(Prevodjenje na znakovni jezik) Occurs when one summarizes a text or rewrites a text. 2.
Inter-lingual (medjujezicni) or translation proper. A translation of verbal signs of one
language by means of the verbal signs of some other language. 3) Intersemiotic it is a
translation of verbal signs by the means of the signs of a non-verbal system. Occurs
when one translates a text into music, film, etc. Translation studies has become an
academic discipline due to the influence and needs and the nature of the G-T teaching
method, comparative literature and contrastive linguistics. In the US it was promoted in
the 60-s especially literary translation through translation workshops, because
comparative literature needed translation since literature is studied across cultures and
literary traditions. Another area which had an impact on translation studies is
contrastive analysis which is the study of two languages in contrast. In an attempt to
identify general and specific similarities and differences between them. The first
profound account of translation studies was given by James Holmes who described the
nature of translation studies (TS). The description of these studies is the following: on a
most general scale TS are divided into pure and applied. Pure TS are divided into
theoretical and descriptive. Theoretical TS is divided into general and partial, and
finally partial theoretical pure TS is divided into 1. Medium-restricted 2. Area
restricted 3. Rank restricted 4. Text-type restricted 5. Time-restricted 6. Problem-
restricted. Descriptive TS is divided into product oriented, process oriented, function
oriented. Finally applied TS is divided into translation training, translation aids, and
translation criticism. General theoretical TS deals with the descriptions which would
involve every type of translation in order to generalize about the translation as a whole.
Partial theoretical is restricted according to the following parameters: medium restricted
TS refers to the medium through which translation is produced which in modern times
usually refers to human and machine or it may also refer to whether the translation is
written or oral and whether oral is simultaneous or consecutive. Area restricted TS is
restricted to specific languages or specific cultures ( zasto se prevode neke knjige a ne
neke druge). This area restricted studies may also relate to cultural studies, contrastive
linguistics and stylistic studies. Rank restricted is restricted by the linguistic level by
which something is translated. There are studies which were primarily concerned with
translating words, some others are concerned with translating sentences and others are
concerned with translating texts. Text type restricted studies deal with specific types of
texts, technological, scientific, literary, poetry, drama, manuals, and specific discourse
register and computers and in that sense the most prominent types of TS are literary,
technological, and business. Time restricted means that it is restricted to specific period
and involves the history of translation. Problem restricted deals with translation
problems such as equivalence or translation universals which may apply to all
languages. Descriptive TS which are product oriented examine existing translations and
it involves the analyzing and describing a pair of source text and target text. Function
oriented descriptive TS deals with the function that translation may have in the
recipient language community and it promotes the study of context, so that they are in a
way sociologically oriented. Process oriented descriptive TS is concerned with psychology
of the translation that is with what is going in the mind of translator while translating.
Applied TS includes translation training such as teaching methods, testing technologies
and circular design. Translation aids includes dictionaries and information technology.
Translation criticism includes the evaluation of translation and reviews of published
translations.

Translation studies week 2

A professional translator has access to:
target language knowledge
text type knowledge (has to be able to discern between different types of texts
linguistic and textual features)
source language knowledge (be fluent in the language he translates from; subject
area knowledge (especially technical translation))
extralinguistic knowledge, encyclopedic, real-world
contrastive (to differentiate the features of 2 languages)

Translation competence involves:
Grammatical competence the knowledge of the grammatical rules of both
languages, including vocabulary, word-formation, spelling, sentence structure
syntax; necessary to express and understand the literal meaning of utterance
Discourse competence the ability to combine form and meaning to produce
unified spoken or written texts in different genres; this competence involves
achieving cohesion in form necessary for producing well-structured sentences by
means of grammatical elements, which facilitates the interpretation of text
(pronouns, logical connectors, discourse markers) and achieving coherence in
meaning the relationship between different meanings in a text which adds to
the logic of the content; also involves achieving communicative functions in
different types of discourse
Sociolinguistic competence the ability to understand and produce utterances in
a specific social context; the context is limited by topic, the social status or roles of
participants and by the purpose of the communicative act or the function of the
text
Communicative competence (in both languages) the translator has to be able to
comprehend the text in the source language and express his ideas in the target
language
Extralinguistic competence the knowledge of the theory of translation,
translation procedures/methods, linguistic fields, cultural knowledge,
encyclopedic knowledge
Transfer competence involves the ability to perform the process of transfer of
form and content from the target language to the source language and vice versa
by choosing the most appropriate translation method and procedure
Professional competence the knowledge and skills related to translation practice
the use of new technologies, dictionaries, machine-readable texts, the use of new
translation policy and professional conduct
Strategic competence the translator has to have a strategy when solving
problems he encounters during the translation process; involves detecting
problems, decision-making in solving the problems and revising his own
translation and correcting errors
Psycho-physiological cognitive faculties (logical thought, memorizing, creativity,
critical judgement
Literary competence the ability needed to interpret literary texts

Translation competence is comprehensive knowledge of the source and target language
including the pragmatic dimensions and the ability to integrate the 2 monolingual
competences on a higher level

Translator
o a born bilingual person is not necessarily a translator because he may lack
analytical skills in analytical and linguistical sense since he may not be well-
acquainted what are and he may not be able to easily decide upon what
linguistical unit should be in a given context or translation process
o In terms of processing the source text there are different types of processing
techniques translators use

Contextual global translators prefer translating texts (both spoken and
written) where minute accuracy is not important but a general appropriateness
escort (?) interpreters prefer literary over technical translation
Linear translator prefer specializing in a specific subject area
Sequential translator prefers translating or interpreting at meetings where
speakers have prepared texts, so that they themselves are prepared and they
avoid spontaneous contexts (for example court interpreting dont know what the
speaker will say)
Abstract translator prefer working in academic contexts where they teach
translation and translation theory
Concrete translators prefer to process the source text on their own and in that
way they learn to translate on their own rather than being taught how to
translate; try to master translation process by learning how to do it, through trial
and error

Translation process:
- translate
- edit
- sublimate

1
st
Translator acts and probably translates intuitively by relying on his translation
competence
2
nd
Translator thinks about what he has done, tests his solutions against what he
knows about the 2 languages (subject matter, reading audience) and corrects errors
3
rd
Translator sublimates what he has learned from the process so that translating
eventually becomes his 2
nd
nature

The phases suggest that the translator is at the same time:
1) a professional as he solves complicated linguistic and translation problems by
applying appropriate procedures
2) a learner who solves problems on a daily bases which ensures personal and
professional growth expertise and interest

The aim of the process of translation it should include reproducing as closely and
accurately as possible lexical and grammatical features at the source text by finding
adequate equivalents in the target language and at the same time preserving factual
information of the source text (he should retain the form and content of the source text)

Translation process:
1) Translation means rendering the meaning of the text into another language in a
way that the author intended the text
2) rendering the source text into the target text to ensure that:
the meaning of the 2 will be similar
the structures of the source text will be preserved as closely as possible,
but not so closely that the target language structures will be distorted

The extent to which the source text features are preserved 2 methods:
semantic translation concentrates on aesthetic values and preserves the
authors individual language and cultural components
communicative translation concentrates on the message and its aim is to retain
the original purpose as closely as possible (uputstva, udbenici)

Textual approach to translation
o originates in the systematic functional linguistics and text linguistics which is
concerned with the analysis of written texts; by the influence of text linguistics
the focus on word and sentence as translation units has moved on to the text
itself

Text linguistics interested in how texts function as internally coherent systems and
how texts function in larger sociological contexts. It is closely related to discourse
analysis and literary criticism ( how texts create meaning and how these meanings
provide insight into other aspects of culture and society
* studies texts in 2 ways:
as a product within text grammar
as a process within the theory of texts
* From the product study they study cohesion, coherence, the organization of the
topic and its communicative function. From the process studies it studies text
production and interpretation

Trece predavanje 01.11.13. Translation errors

The origin of a translation error is usually translation problem which has not been
shown appropriately. This omission can occur at any stage of translation process
meaning that it can occur even in the phase reading comprehension of the source text
and the errors also, indicate the appropriateness of the techniques the translator uses or
competence or incompetence. Very often translator mistakes of linguistic solutions for
translational solution, which means that in translation what is linguistically equivalent
is not necessarily translational equivalent this is because the process of translation is
complex and demanding and involve numerous factors which do not include only
linguistic equivalent. The possible sources of translation errors may be inappropriate
rendering, translations which affect the target text on a larger scale to the extent that it
may be misunderstood, such renderings affect the content of the target text and include
countersense (nonsense, addition/omission of information). Loss of meaning and
inappropriate linguistic variation in style, dialect, register, etc., and to inappropriate
renderings which affect the expression in the target language and they include spelling,
grammar, vocabulary, text and style. By some other criterion errors are divided also into
2 groups into referential and linguistic. Referential mistakes include mistakes related to
information or facts about the real world; whereas, linguistic mistakes stem from the
translators lack of proficiency in the target language. Translation evaluation has
suggested that there are 4 categories of the sources of errors: 1) correct interpretation
and incorrect translation. It suggests that the translator has produced translation which
has errors due to his lack of communicative competence which is required for
comprehension of any text in the source language. 2) Incorrect interpretation and
incorrect translation. This kind of translation that is the target text has errors at 2 levels
and the level of the comprehension of the source text and the level of proficiency of the
target language. 3) Incorrect interpretation and the omission of translation, 4)
relationship, correct interpretation and correct translation no source of errors. In this
case of the correct interpretation and correct translation the translator correctly
interprets the content of the source text and correctly translates into the target
language. Types of translation errors: 1) misinterpretation the information loss or
distortion caused by the comprehension of the source text or the lack of cultural
knowledge, 2) incorrect meaning occurs when meaning is attributed to a word or a
segment of the source text which it doesnt have, 3) false friend which is a word of the
source language in its form resembles the word in the target language but whose
meaning is completely different, 4) interferences (negative) introduction of the feature
of the source language into the target text (structure recenica), 5) loss a disappearance
of an element of meaning of the source text which results in the reduction of the form of
the expression, in the reduction of stylistic features in the target language (kitnjasto
flowery), 6) omission is a failure to translate a necessary element of information from
the source text, 7) undertransaltion is the exclusion of any explanation or amplification
from the source text. 8) Over-translation is the addition of an unnecessary explanation of
a source text segment that should have remained implicit. 9) addition occurs when the
translator adds information or a stylistic feature to the target text which is non-existent
in the source text.
Translation quality assessment
This kind of assessment evaluated the quality of translated texts usually to measure the
efficiency of the text with regard to the syntactic, semantic and pragmatic function of the
source text within the given context either social or cultural, and with regard to
expressive potentials of both the source and the target language. There are several
parameters by which one may access the quality of translation. 1) Text function and
textual features through which one compares the structures of the source text and target
text, the narratives and the function they have. If the source text is didactic the target
text should have the same function. 2) Formal correspondence involves the comparison of
the arrangement of textual elements in both texts, division into paragraphs and
punctuation. 3) Coherence involves a comparison of the logical structure of the elements
of the logical structure of the elements of the content and the logical line or reasoning in
both texts. 4) Cohesion - involves comparison of pragmatic or discoursal elements of
textual organization such as pronouns, demonstrative pronouns, conjunctions, logical
connectors. 5) Pragmatic parameters through which one compares the texts with regard
to their intended effect or purpose so the target text should have the same effect as the
source text. 6) Lexical properties through which the texts may be compared with regard
to the lexical meaning, connotation, emotions, or with regard to social variations: such as
jargon, collocational language formal language, and so on. 7) Syntactic property involves
word order, tense, sentence structure, etc.
Textual approach
Text can be understood as an instance of spoken or written language use and is a
relatively self-contained unit of communication. There are seven criteria of textuality
which are the principles of communication through texts. These are: cohesion, coherence,
intentionality, acceptability, informativity, situationality and intertextuality. There are
also some basic principles of textual communication which are : efficiency, effectiveness,
appropriateness. The principle of efficiency requires that the text should be used with a
minimum effort. The principle of effectiveness requires that the text should leave an
impression on the reader, so that it presupposes the use of creative language whereas
the principle of efficiency presupposes the use of simple language. In some cases however
texts which meet the effectiveness principle may produce the communication breakdown.
The principle of appropriateness requires a kind of balance between the previous two
principles.
Cohesion
It refers to the way in which linguistic elements of a text are meaningfully
interconnected in a sequence. It is carried out by means of preference which includes
personal pronouns and demonstrative pronouns, lexical cohesion / organization which
includes synonymous lexemes of the same lexical field, conjunctions such as but, yet,
because, since, and so on.
Coherence
It is a sub-surface level of textual organization. It is concerned with the way in which
meanings or ideas of concepts are established in a text and developed further. This
includes relations such as cause and consequence manifested by and, so; condition-
consequence relation realized by if, unless; the relation of contrast such as however,
although; the relation of addition furthermore, moreover; instrument and achievement
by, by means of.
Intentionallity
It refers to the intention of the sender of the message of the author. Coherent, reasonable
text to achieve a certain goal so that the text performs a certain function
Acceptability
It relates to the receivers expectations that the text should be of some relevance to them.
Informativity
If the text is acceptable for he receiver than it is in a way informative in the given
situation.
Situationallity
If the text is acceptable and informative, it is applicable to the given situation. If the text
has this feature of situationallity, than the author is concerned with the situation which
the text may be relevant
Intertextuality
Refers to the way in which the use of some texts affects the use and knowledge of some
other texts. It affects the use and acceptance of the given text.
Generally this approach views use text as the minimum unit of communication (narodna
knjizevnost, forma I reci, brzalice) text types the type of a text in translation is
important because it is a kind of a guideline for applying a certain translation strategy.
Functional approach
It is especially dominant with the German translation exports and translators. Within
this approach K. Rei insisted upon the equivalence between the source text and the
target text by viewing the text as the key level at which the communication takes place,
and at which the equivalence may be achieved. She has clarified different types of texts
according to the function they have in the situation they are used. The functions of the
text are the following:
1. Informative based on playing communication of facts. Such texts contain pieces
of information on a subject (scientific knowledge and opinion). The language used to
translate such informative texts should not be metaphorical but logical and referential.
The focus should be on the topic of the source text.
2. Expressive quite opposite to the previous one. Centered around the creative
composition, creativity in expressive texts. the author does not use the referential or
informative potential of the text but its esthetic dimension so focus is not on the content
but on the form to a smaller extent and on the expression on the larger extent
(expression of feelings).
3. Operative texts demand operation. Such texts require some action on the part of
the reader. They appeal to thereader in a sense that they read the text as a kind of
instruction or to do (how to behave) For example recipes, instructions for use, manuals.
Such texts are usually written in a form of imaginary dialog.
4. Audio-medial texts such as films, adds, visual and spoken, in which linguistic
forms are supplemented with images, sound, music and such.
Depending on the text type K. Rei suggests specific methods to apply in translation : 1.
The translation of informative text should transmit the full content of the target text
with all the references and the contents. It should be in plain prose, without redundant
information, and with some explanation if needed, meaning it should use more words if
necessary to preserve the information provided.
2. The translation of an expressive text should transmit the esthetic and artistic form of
the source text in a way that translator should adopt the standpoint or the voice of the
author of the source text.
3. The translation of operative text should produce the desired response in the reader of
the translation just as the source text did in the reader.
4. The translation of audio-medial text should also be accompanied by audio-visual
supplements. The followers of the functional approach to translation developed the so
called Skopos theory. (u prevodu sa grckog znaci purpose). What is important in this
theory is not the form but the purpose the translation has when produced and the
purpose of the translation action taken. This theory specifically applies to technical texts
whose purpose determined the methods and techniques of translation and the translator
should produce the text which is functionally adequate for the given situation/aim. What
is crucial for the translator is not the form / vocabulary / grammar/ the voice of the
author, but the reason why the source text is to be translated, and what is the purpose of
the target text or translation. Within this theory there are certain rules, for example, the
translation text must be internally coherent, the target text must be coherent with the
source text if the purpose of the target text demands so the information of the culture of
the source text may be omitted or left out. The relevance of coherence is indicated by the
so called coherence rule which says that the target text should be interpreted so as to be
coherent with the receivers situation that it must be of semblance, logical, so that in the
given circumstances and in regard to their --- the receivers should be able to understand
it so that the text fulfills its purpose. Nord has discussed 2 types of translation methods
which depend on the function or the purpose of the text. These are documentary and
instrumental. In documentary texts the target text should serve as a document of a
source text culture. It allows for almost no modification of the source text. Documentary
text is used in literary translations, in which the reader of the translation should have
access to the ideas of the source text , and the authors standpoint. In such translations
the linguistic items such as vocabulary are retained and translation retains the local
colour of the source text culture and society. Instrumental translation should serve as a
message which is independent from the source text and its culture. It should fulfill its
purpose without the reader being aware of that it is translation. The text should read as
if it is the original. For example, the translation of the computer manual in Serbian
should also instruct the reader as it did with the English readers. This instrumental
translation is also a kind of functional preserving translation method. This translation is
for example applied to the translation of brochures, travel guides, guide books.
Sometimes the translation is instrumental if it is concerned with adapting the text to the
certain kind of audience (the translation of Gullivers travels for children).

29.11.13. Cognitive Pragmatic Approach
Relevance theory (RT)
From the perspective of RT translation is an example of a communication centered
around a cause and effect model which promotes the processes inter-protection and
inferences (citanje izmedju redova, namece se implicitno). Successful communication
bearing in mind that translation is a kind of communication as well depends on the
speakers or writers making sure that his/her intention to inform is grasped by the
receiver. This is said to be that this is achieved by making the stimulants which is
words, gestures, intonation, optimally relevant to the extent necessary for the receiver to
derive. Adequate effect without spending unnecessary effort to the principle guiding a
successful communication is the maximum effect with minimum effort. Mainly the
speaker or the writer gives the so called communicative clues which make the
inferencing possible. Translators are also faced with the similar situation while
translating and by deciding what is actually relevant in a text they have the following
possibilities: they need to decide whether it is possible and how it impossible to retain
and transfer the informative intention of the writer, whether to translate descriptively or
interpretively and at what the degree is the target text resemblance to the source text
should be. These decisions are based on the translators ability to evaluate the cognitive
environment of the reader to succeed in translation and communication. The translator
must share some basic assumptions with the reader and his intention must agree with a
readers expectations. Regarding the cognitive sight of this approach we can say that the
translation studies and the translation process have shifted its focus from text to mental
process, to cognition, to understanding. Translation is seen as a special instance of
communication which largely depends on the decision making of the translator which
depends on his inferences. The process of inferencing is crucial cognitive activity in any
act of domination such as reading and translating. Inferencing means deriving
conclusions from evidence and ones line of reasoning rather than from explicit
statement. To understand what is on hearers, readers and translators engage in
inferencing speaking of translation. Satisfactory translation must guide the receivers of
the translation towards appropriate inferences and therefore the translator must decide
what to say and how to say to achieve the goal. Example: Dickens: It was the best of
times it was the worst of times. The process of inferencing presupposes the relevance of
context in this case the context is mental, cognitive rather than situational or cultural
and it involves assumptions. So these assumptions make the cognitive environment. If
the writer and the reader or the translator or the writer and the translator share this
cognitive environment it means that they share assumptions on a certain topic, event.
Then the translation will be successful and the translator will not be involved in
unnecessary effort also if translator and the receiver of the translation share relevant
assumptions then the receiver of the translation will not be involved in the unnecessary
effort. When deciding which steps to take that is which strategy to apply the translator
can choose between the direct and the indirect translation. This difference between the
two refers to the situations in which the translator is either free to elaborate or
summarize or he has to stick closely to the content of the text. Translations which are
done by means of indirect translating should survive on their own and involve any
change which the translator considers necessary to maximize the relevance for the
readers. The most important relationship between the source text and the target text is
not in the formal similarities, according to this theory, of their formal features but in the
resemblance of their intended interpretation which is achieved through communicative
clues which the translator has to take notice of, interpret and transfer to the target text
so that the interpretation of the source text is the same as of the target text of the
translation. In guiding the reader in the process of inferencing, i.e. what is relevant,
stylistic features are also important, not in themselves, not as aesthetic or expressive
elements, but as communicative clues. Speaking of communicative clues relevance
theory places great importance on the stimulus which triggers the process of inferencing
and has an effort on the success of the communication. It considers such stimulus as an
element of communication which yields/provides cognitive effect in the sense of applied
meaning. Speaking of language stimulus is regarded important due to its specific
linguistic features or phonic substance as in poetry for example, a communicative clue is
also stress in some languages through which the speaker achieves emphasis. For
example, some communicative clues which are not attainable in the target language can
be substituted by communicative clues of different kind, of different structure. For
example, stress from the source language can be substituted by some syntactic means,
for example, by wh-sentences such as what is important is or what is impaired in him is
his hearing, or cleft sentences - it is his hearing that is impaired. It is the setting of the
scene that is significant.
Iza kolokvijuma

The postcolonial turn in translation theory
In cultural approaches to translation the center of attention of both those who translate
and those who criticize translation as shifted from the text and the speaker and writer
and reader to the larger context of the translation process and translation policy which is
culture and society. The researchers interested in the literature of the most advanced
civilization is piac in the literature of the advancing nations, especially those which were
once the colonies of those advanced civilizations such as India, Latin America and so
on, have taken a postcolonial stand on the translation theory and criticism as well.
Postcolonialism is generally taken to cover studies of the history of the former colonies
studies of powerful European empires. Resistance to the colonizers and to the colonists
powers, political, economical, cultural and finally the studies of the imbalance of the
power relation which is evident also in the translation practice of the colonizers. The fact
is that former colonizing powers such as UK in the US tend to avoid translating texts of
non western civilizations which they cannot adapt to their own and also even when they
translate the literature of those nations they tend to adapt the texts to their own
cultural traditions and values which shows their indirect attempt to colonize through
translation. The most prominent researcher of the translation practice of the former
colonizers is Gayatana Spivak. She has come to the conclusion that generally speaking
the translations of all non American literatures or non English literature and theyre
characterized by a kind of a non natural language which she calls translatese and all
translations of this kind tend to eliminate the identity of politically less powerful
individuals and cultures. In the act of wholesale translation into English there can be a
betrayal of the democratic ideal into the law of the strongest. This happens when all the
literature of the third world gets translated into a sort of translates so that the literature
by a woman in Palestine begins to resemble in the field of the prose by something of a
man in Taiwan. She believes that the politics of translation nowadays gives prominence
to English and other languages, to the former colonizers when translating texts from the
cultures of the less powerful and less developed countries. The translators into English
very often fail to transfer the differences in their views/values/customs because the
translator tends to assimilate the text(s) so that it is more accessible to the English
readers. In that sense she makes a link between the colonization and translation which
is based on the argument that translation plays an important role in the process of
covert colonization and decimating, spreading and ideologically adapted image of the
colonized peoples. She makes a comparison of the process of colonization by depicting the
colony as an inferior translation copy whose identity is overwritten by the colonizer that
is in this place by the translator. The central interest of the postcolonial theory in
general and postcolonial approach is power relations. The researchers into the
postcolonial theory see literary translation as a sample of a discourse which reflects the
colonial rule. In fact, the discourse of the East (in metaphorical sense) has been
rewritten so that it has eventually produced an image of the East, which is false, but
which has come to stand for truth. (some of them, Niranyana has even criticized the
translation theory in general because of the western piac in that sense she has a number
of reasons why this orientation has in a way stained the theory of translation).
1. Translation theory has never taken into account the power imbalance about
different languages to many concepts of translation theory need to be reconsidered such
as the text, the author, the meaning.
2. They are all viewed as unproblematic mainly from the point of view of language
theory.
3. The humanistic nature of translation is questionable since in the colonial context
translation builds the dominating image of the former colonizers that is of the powerful
civilizations, into the discourse of the western cultures.
There is yet another stand on the role of translation and the translator in society
promoted by Venuti. He criticizes contemporary tendencies in translation practice in the
same manner as the postcolonial view does. He uses the term the invisibility of the
translator when he describes the activity of the translator of the contemporary Anglo-
American culture. Anything that this invisibility is produced by piac factors by the
manner in which translators themselves tend to translate fluently into English in the
way they tend to produce readable translation and this invisibility is produced by the
translated text one usually read in the target culture. Translated texts, whether prose
or poetry, whether fiction or non-fiction are judged acceptable by most publishers,
reviewers and readers when it reads fluently. When the accents of any linguistic or
stylistic peculiarities makes it seem transparent giving the appearance that it reflects
the foreign writers personality or intention or the essential meaning of the foreign text
the appearance in other words that translation is not in fact the original. He speaks of
two strategies in translation domestication and foreignization. They concern both the
choice of texts to be translated and the translation method to be applied. He concludes
that domestication is the dominant strategy in Anglo-American cultural translation
policy. This strategy is not to be favored because in his words it involves an ethnocentric
reduction of the foreign text to AA cultural values. This strategy minimizes the
foreigners of the target text, so anything that is foreign or non AA should be concealed.
On the other hand, foreignization entails choosing a foreign text and developing a
translation method along the lines which are excluded by dominant cultural values in
the target language. He says that it is a valuable method of restraining the ethnocentric
balance of translation. In his view this strategy is a kind of resistance and it includes the
style which makes visible the presence of the translator by highlighting his efforts not to
conceal the foreign identity of the source text and his effort to protect the source text
from the influence or the ideological dominance of the target culture. (AA) Some other
sociologically oriented researchers of translation have spoken of some tendencies in
translation which are deforming the target text and reduce variation in the text. These
tendencies are the following:
1. Rationalization involves syntactic structures, sentence structures and word order.
2. Clarification translators into the language of dominant cultures tend to clarify
even those segments of translation which should remain implicit on purpose.
3. Expansion very often the target text is longer than the source text. This is due
to piac translations and additions which reduce the original authors voice.
4. Ennoblement is seen in the tendency of certain translators to write translations
in a more elegant style. This leads to the alienation of the oral rhetoric of the source text
language and culture.
5. Qualitative empowerment which results in translators replacing culturally
specific or ethnically specific words.
6. Quantitative empowerment the translators reduce the lexical variety of the
original.
7. The destruction of rhythms both in poetry and in prose. The destruction of the
vernacular which involves the piac of the local color or speech of the source text or
language patterns which has had an important role in establishing the setting of the
text.
8. Finally the effacement of the super imposition of languages. In this way, the
translator tends to erase the traces of different forms, variety of the language that exists
in the source text (dialects, sociolects, idiolects, reduces them) and in the other variety
peculiar to the individual society subgroups and ethnic minorities.

Court interpreting
It is a kind of legal interpreting. In many countries the right to a translator or
interpreter at court is institutionalized whenever the suspect, a witness, do not speak
the language of the court, even with the minority languages. This is important especially
because ordinary people whose native tongue is not that of the court, stand small chance
of understanding such as specialized language. There are besides court several other
contexts in which legal interpreting may take place such as: police interview, custom
officers, immigration authorities. The first case of court interpreting was the trial which
took place after the Second World War at Ninberg. As far as the strategies which are
important while interpreting in court are concerned, they rely on traslators ethic and
responsibility to maintain fidelity, impartiality and confidentiality which means that the
interpreter does not reveal what has been said in court:
When interpreting the words of a witness, the words of a witness should be preserved
entirely and transferred without being altered and he should render the sentence and
words as closely as possible. What is important in the context of interpreting, the
suspects or the witnesss words is that ones liberty, freedom, dignity or even life is at
stake so the translator should not under/overtranslate or interpret ones words. Finally
the words, whether wrongly or properly translated had a large impact on the judges or
the jurys decision. The right an interpreter belongs to the so called language rights. This
right should be followed even in trials in which the suspect should be both legally
present and also linguistically present (it means that he should at least be able to hear
or understand). His linguistic presence includes his ability to hear or understand what
others are saying so that he can follow the procedures. If he was not linguistically
present, he cannot defend himself only due to his inability to understand what is going
on which in a way violates human rights. Aboriginal populations in Australia and the
US also have a right to an interpreter and this right was actually initiated by instances
in which the linguistic behavior and the pragmatic competence of the Aboriginal people
in Australia was taken to mean that they actually do not speak because they are guilty.
In the US, for example, the rights to read to the one who is being arrested must be
communicated in his own language so that the policeman even carries the cards with the
translations of those rights in various languages. In the proceedings, various types of
interpreting various translation may be used, such as consecutive and simultaneous
interpreting and even the translation of the documents used in the procedure.

Machine aided translation
In machine aided translation, the translator refers to the sources or references or
corpora in dictation or grammar books or software which is machine-readable or
electronic. One of the most important sources of a linguistic data which is useful for the
process of translation are corpora. Several types of corpora:
1. Monolingual contains a set of texts written in one language which are useful in
the piac that the translator may refer to them to check the nature of the phrase. British
national corpus (university in Lancaster, free)
2. Bilingual corpora contains similar texts in two languages which are mainly
useful for researching terminology.
3. Parallel corpora contains a set of source text and translation text pair.
4. Genuine translation corpora the translator may check the translation strategy.
There are also some other tasks performed in the machinated translation, for example,
editing, which is usually done by a special software for word processing, for example,
spelling check, grammar check, punctuation check. Then, finding solutions in a software
such as bilingual dictionaries.