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Ismail Yurdakok
ismailyurdakok@gmail.com
Introduction. Although ancient Greece, Indian and Sassanian books and texts were
used at the beginning in classical Islamic sciences; but even from the translation
period, critical method was applied on these texts by Islamic education milieu.
When they were teaching sciences, scholars corrected these texts and developed the
programs. Interdisciplinary but detailed science education is mentioned in the
first part of the paper. Critical Thought in Science Education was studied in the
second part. Courses in Medical Education and Curricula and Sub-Disciplines of
Sciences in Ottoman Madrasas are the other parts.
When first Islamic philosophers were searching Greece (and Indian) philosophy they
also investigated mathematics, chemistry, physics, medicine, astronomy that these
disciplines were in the philosophy in that days.(1) Kindi was saying “it is
impossible to be successful in philosophy unless you know mathematics, and Farabi
“You can enter philosophy with geometry and logic and it is impossible to be
successful unless you know physics. Because physics is the easiest and nearest
discipline to us”(2) Farabi (d.339A.H/950 A.D) had written Risala fima yanbaghi
an yuqaddam qabla taallum al-Falsafa (Booklet on Necessary (Topics) Before
Learning Philosophy) as a guide-book for students of philosophy. Syriacs did not
read the sources in Syriac after Farabi wrote his kulliyyat on logic. His
classification of knowledge influenced to muslim and latin authors.The third part
(fasl) of Ihsa al-Ulum of Farabi is on mathematics. Arithmetics, geometry, optics,
astronomy, mechanics and cranks are seen in this part. Physics is in the fourth
part. Concept of tawhid (unity of knowledge) is clearly seen in this book.
Political philosophy, natural sciences, ethics, (Islamic) law, (Islamic) theology
are studied together.
Ihsa al-Ulum is like a handbook that reflects the disciplines and researches and
education of 10th century Islamic world. Ihsa al-Ulum became the source of
inspiration for this kind of studies after it, like Rasail al-Ikhwan al-Safa,
Kharizmi’s Mafatih al-Ulum, Ibn Sina’s Aqsam al-Ulum al-Aqliyya, Fakhraddin Razi’s
Jami al-Ulum, Ibn al-Akfani’s Irshad al-Qasid ila Esn al-Maqasid, Ibn Khaldun’s
Muqaddimah, Tashkoprizada’s Miftah al-Saadat, Katib Celebi’s Kashf al-Zunun, and
Siddiq Hasan Khan’s Abjad al-Ulum. Researchers L.Baur, Moris de Wolf and P.
Maurice Bouyges showed the influence of Ihsa al-Ulum on Latin authors. Ihsa al-
Ulum was brought to England at late years of 12th century by Daniel Morlayer. (3)
Diploma (Degree) of Science. In eastern Islamic world, Nasirudin Tusi made begun
the education of rational and mathematical science and after a short time with the
influence of this teaching style, the other Islmaic countries followed the same
way. Qutbuddin al-Shirazi had given an ijazat (diploma) in science to Najmuddin
Abdurrahman al-Mawsili in Rabi al-Awwal 708(September 1308.) This new kind of
education system was carried to madrasas of Tabriz, Shiraz and Samarkand and then
to Ottoman lands. Qadizade had given an ijazat of rational and mathematical
sciences to Fathullah al-Shirwani in Samarkand in the first half of 15th century.
Al-Shirwani had followed the courses of chief professor (dean and chair) Qadizada
in methodology of Islamic law, Islamic theology, jadal and khilaf (science of
disputation as a branch of jurisprudence), astronomy, geometry and the other
mathematical sciences. The date of Qadizada’s ijazatnama to Fathullah al-Shirwani
is Rabi al-Akhir 15, 844(September 13, 1440 A.D) and the textbooks were followed
by al-Shirwani were written in ijazatnama: Sharh al-Tazkiratu al-Nasiriyye fi al-
Hay’a (Sharhu Nizamuddin al-A’raj al-Nisaburi), Sharhu Mukhtasar Ibn Hajib fi
ilmay al-Usul wa al-Jadal (Sayyid Sharif Jurjani) Sharhu al-Mawaqif(Jurjani),
Sharhu Mulakhkhas fil al-Hay’a (Qadizada), Sharhu Ashkal al-Ta’sis (Qadizada).
After returned to Turkey, Shirwani gave courses to his students from the textbooks
of Qadizada’s Sharhu al-Mulakhkhas and Sharhu Ashkal al-Ta’sis that there were a
lot of students that followed these courses even some scholars like Muhyiddin
Muhammad al-Niksari, Kamaluddin Mas’ud al-Shirwani. Fathullah al-Shirwani was
giving courses of mathematics, astronomy and geography with the courses of Arabic
grammar and Islamic subjects. (4) And Jalaluddin al-Dawwani had given an ijazat to
Muayyadzada Abdurrahman Amasi in 888(1483 A.D.) Shamsuddin al-Ushi had taken an
ijazat from Haja Muhammad Parsa after completed the science and religious courses
as a full diploma (ijazatnama-i umumi) in Rabi al-Awwal 796(March 1394.) Sometimes
one scholar was teaching all of the sciences and religious courses and giving one
diploma; sometimes student was following different courses from different scholars
and taking different certificates.(5)
Empirical method, objectivity and critical thought were the main characteristics
of classical Islamic sciences. Jabir b. Hayyan (d. 200 A.H/ 815 A.D) as one of the
pioneer names, his studies spreaded from mathematics, astronomy, medicine to
philosophy, chemistry. But he is the first degree chemist. E. J. Holmyard first
saw Jabir’s distinguished position in chemistry and Jabir had shaped the
chemistry as a systematic empirical science. E.O. Lippmann says: “Jabir’s place in
chemistry is equal to the founders of modern chemistry Boyle, Priestley and
Lavoiser. As a reality that Jabir had comprehended exactly the importance of
empirical method in (natural) sciences and had applied this method in all of his
studies. His statement: “We only mentioned in this book, ‘knowledges that after we
tested the characteristics of what we observed’ not we (only) listened or not
(only) was said to us or not we (only) read” shows his giving importance to
empirical method. Every medieval chemists had been influenced by Jabir, even Roger
Bacon had said for him: “master of the masters.”(6)
Fargani (d. 247 A:H/ 861 A.D) is the famous mathematician-astronomer in the
periods of caliphs Ma’mun, Mu’tasim Billah, Vathiq Billah, and Mutawakkil Ala-
Allah. His book Jawamiu Ilm al-Nujum wa Usul al-Harakat al-Samawiyya became
famous in Islamic world but especially in Europe. Fargani put objections against
Ptolemy (Ptolemaios) in this book. After translated the book into Latin by
Johannes Hispalensis in 1134 and by Gherardo Cremonese in 1175 a great acceptance
was seen because Fargani’s book was excellent in its content and in its systematic
design.(7)
Jabir b. Aflah’s Kitab al-Hay’a fi Islah alMajasti gave a big reputation to him
that he had written it to correct the mistakes of Ptolemy’s. He died probably in
the middle of 12th century and his book was translated into Hebrew in 1274 by
Moses b. Tibbon and then Jokob b. Mahir and Samuel b. Judah corrected the
translation in 1335. Gherardo of Cremonese translated the book into Latin and
published in Nurnberg, in 1534. Jabir put the knowledges
on spherical trigometry in the introduction part of his book that especially this
section is very important. R.P. Lorch prepared a doctorate dissertation Jabir b.
Aflah and His Influence in the West in 1970.(10) Muslim physicians had written
refutations against the books of Hippocrates and Galenos and these refutations
were being read with the original texts of Hippocrates and Galenos. (11) Famous
physician Fakhruddin al-Mardini had corrected some sentences of Ibn Sina’s al-
Qanun fi al-Tib with the helps of his teacher Ibn al-Tilmiz in Baghdad. (12) Al-
Qanun fi al-Tib was also criticized by Ibn al-Nafis famous physician of 13th
century that Ibn al-Nafis criticized the anatomy part of Ibn Sina’s book and wrote
a book Sharhu Tashrih al-Qanun li Ibn Sina (13) All of the famous physicians of
the Bimaristani (Hospital) of Nuruddin in Syria in 13th century: Abu al-Majd b.
Abu al-Hakam, Dahwar, Ibn Abu Usaybia, Ibn al-Nafis, Ibn al-Quf had got critical
thought and produced a lot of original books and papers on medicine.(14) Another
famous physician of 13th century Abdullatif al-Baghdadi (d. 1231) that he was
graduated from the Madrasa of Nizamiyya of Baghdad that he had showed the mistakes
of Galenos on osteology (science of bones.)
Andalusian scholar IbnTufayl had suggested to his student Bitruji to criticize the
astronomical system of Ptolemy and changed the system depending on the datas of
Aristotle’s philosophy of physics, in 12th century. Bitruji put a (different
system from the model of Ptolemy) new system using eccentrics and episics.Before
Bitruji, in one of his books, Ibn Tufayl had promised to develop like a this
system but it is understood that he could not realize it. But F.J.Carmody claims
that there was a book of Ibn Tufayl that did not reach today that the sources of
Bitruji’s system of astronomy and thoughts of Ibn Rushd on this topic were taken
from Ibn Tufayl. Ibn Rushd, Ibn Tufayl and Bitruji lived in the same years.
Bitruji studied in the way that his teacher Ibn Tufayl advised him and he wrote
Kitab al-Hay’at. To write this book, Bitruji, first, read Ja’bir b. Aflah’s Islah
al-Majasti and learned the criticisms on Ptolemy’s system that done (by muslim
scholars) before, and then defended his thesis. Bitruji’s astronomy system caused
a big reaction in Europe in 13th century. British astronomer William took
quotations from Bitruji and Grosseteste took Bitruji’s system as a base for his
studies when he rejected the system of Ptolemy. In the second half of 13th
century, there were great disputes between the defenders of Ptolemy and Bitruji.
Isaac Israeli of Toledo was saying for Bitruji: “Man who shakes the world with his
theory.” Criticisms of Andalusian scholars like Ibn Bajja, Ibn Tufayl, Ibn Rushd,
Bitruji, Ibn al-Aflah against Ptolemy’s theory, became a sources of inspiration
for critics of Ptolemy for European scholars in the Renaissance period.(15)
Ibn Rushd as a great scholar in religious studies and sciences and an Islamic
judge, he explains the disputed popular problem of that days of Islamic world that
‘is it permissible to learn a science that non-muslims established (or/and
developed) it. Kindi had mentioned this topic before Ibn Rushd. Ibn Rushd (and
Kindi) says “continuity is the base in the knowledge; the successors uses the
knowledges of the formers. It is a natural and historical necessity that to profit
from the accumulated knowledge and to develop it that it is the common good of all
of the humanity. Ibn Rushd approoaches the knowledges of non-muslims with an
eclectic attitude. He reaches a result that to use the thoughts of former thinkers
is wajib (necessary.) As a famous Islamic jurist Ibn Rushd says. “It is not a
justification to say ‘some men become heretic because of they read philosphy’ that
we can say also some men (in the Islamic history) become heretic although they
read (only) fiqh (Islamic law) that we do not say ‘fiqh is harmful and should be
prohibited’” (16)
Scientists of Islamic world when they were rewriting and correcting the mistakes
of old ancient books but they also produced Arabic terms and established an
original Islamic sciences terminologies. The books of the renowned Greek
mathematician Apollonios (Pergaeusan) were translated into Arabic. His famous book
Konika (on geometry) was translated as Kitab al-Makhrutat. The first four parts of
this book was translated by Hilal al-Himsi, the others were translated by Thabit
b. Qurra and Banu Musa corrected some parts of this book as Ilmu Ashkal Qutui al-
Makhrutat. Different muslim scholars wrote expoundings on this book pointing their
criticisms and saying their original opinions. Tasaffuh al-Makhrutat of Abdulmalik
al-Shirazi, Maqala fi Tamami Kitabi al-Makhrutat of Ibn Haytham and Sharhu Kitab
Abuluniyus fi al-Makhrutat are from them. Apollonius’s booklet on arithmetic that
it had been written on irrational quantities, it was translated into Arabic as al-
Maqalat al-Ula min Kitab Biyus fi al-A’zam al-Muntaqa wa al-Sum; his the other
book on pulleys was translated as Kitab fi al-Bakra and his booklet on making of
hydrological instruments was translated as Risala San’atu al-Zamr. (17)
12th century phyician Aynzarbi is famous with his rational approach in scientific
researches, his high ability for collecting the datas and dominance on scientific
terminology. He presents his comments with objectivity and depends on sound
foundations and he uses his clinical experiments. He described the diseases of
(large) carbuncle and furuncle, as a first physician in the history of medicine
and put the differences between them that is appropriate to today’s medical
understanding. (21)
Ibn al-Quf (630-85 A.H/ 1233-86 A:D) was the student of famous scholar Ibn Abu
Usaybia. Ibn a-Quf followed the courses of theoretical and practical medical
education of Ibn Abu Usaybia. Texts of Hippocrates like Kitab al-Fusul,Taqdimat
al-Ma’rifa and Hunayn b. Ishaq’s Kitab al-Masail fi al-Tib li al-Mutaallimin and
books of Abubekir Razi were the main textbooks that Ibn Abu Usaybia was giving his
courses from these books. After then, Ibn al-Quf went to Dimashq and followed the
courses of scholars of philosophy Khusrawshahi and Izzuddin Hasan al-Darir and
courses of Muwaffaquddin Ya’qub al-Samiri on medicine; and followed the course of
Muayyiduddin al-Arazi on Kitab al-Oklidis. (23) The famous oculist and historian
of medicine of 13th century Ibn Abu Usaybia describes the medical education in
Bimaristani Nuruddin in Dimashq Syria that Abu al-Majd b. Abu al-Hakam the chief
physician of this hospital (every morning) used to visit the ills with his
assistans and advises necessary diets and drugs for the sicks and then chief
physician used to come to
aywan (three-walled vaulted antechamber, open at the front) and begin to give his
course (that lasts three hours every day) that explains the conditions of the ills
according to the books of Galenos, Abubakir Razi, Ibn Sina and says his personal
thoughts in a course of theoretical but depends on practical applications (of
every mornings.)(24)
In 12th and 13th centuries in Turkey, some madrasas had been specialized on (only)
Islamic law or (only) medicine or hadith or geometry. Ince Minareli Madrasa in
Konya(City) was a madrasa of hadith, Sircali Madrasa was an Islamic Law College.
Cifte Madrasa in Kayseri (city) was a Medical College; Madrasa of Cacabey in
Kirsehir (city) and Madrasa of Vajidiyya in Kutahya (city) were giving (only)
astronomy and geometry educations. (27)
Mathematician and astronomer Abdulqadir al-Fayyumi (d. 1022 A:H/ 1613 A:D) first
learned Islamic law of Shafii school from Shamsuddin al-Ramli in Cairo.And then he
took courses from Shahabuddin al-Sunbati, Abu al-Naja al-Sanhuri, Salih al-
Bulquni. He followed the mathematics courses of Sayyid Sharif al-Tahhan. At the
end, he became a renowned scholar in religious subjects and mathematics, astronomy
and ilm al-miqat(science of choronological
or astronomical times(for calculating ephemerides). He wrote books on astronomy
and
mathematics and religious topics that the curricula of 15th and 16th centuries may
be learned from his books and it is also understood that there was an intensive
education on mathematics and astronomy in Egypt: Jadawilu Makhlul al-Matali al-
Falaki: depending on the Ulug Bey’s tables of astronomy, Fayyumi explains the acts
of signs of the zodiac. Jadawilu Ikhtilafi Manzar al-Qamar: different shapes of
moon are searched according to the tables of Ulug Bey. Nazm al-Jawahir wa al-
Yawaqit: about to fix the times. Sharhu Murshidat al-Talib:an expounding on Ibn
Haim’s mathematics book. Sharhu Nuzhat al-Nuzzar: also an expounding on his book
Sharhu Murshidat al-Talib. Sharh ala al-Muqni: an expounding on Muqni (Ibn Haim’s
algebra book).(30)
‘Allamah’ (very learned, exceedingly learned) type scholars are seen to the first
half of 19th century. Indian scholars Fadl Imam al-Khayrabadi (d. 1244 A.H/ 1829
A.D) took all of the religious and other courses from famous scholar of North
India Abdulwajid Kirmani. Khayrabadi was an expert in different disciplines from
Islamic law to medicine. He used to give courses of logic and philosophy and he
had written Talkhis al-Shifa as a book, it contains summary of Ibn Sina’s al-
Shifa. Al-Mirqat al-Mizaniyya as a textbook on logic and Amadnama as a textbook
for beginners of Persian were also writen by Khayrabadi.(31)
Alauddin Fanari (903 A.H/ 1497 A.D) was the chief judge of Ottoman Empire. He
first was the faculty member in the madrasas of Bukhara in Central Asia and then
returning to home he also went on his teaching duties in different madrasas of
Ottoman Empire. More than twenty years he worked as a judge in Bursa city and as
qadiasker (chief judge) in Istanbul. He was a renowned scholar in Islamic law and
methodology of Islamic law but also in mathematics and he used to go on teaching
duty when he was a judge. He had written an expounding on book of al-Tajnis in
mathematics.(32)
Tashkopruluzada (Taskopruluzada) (d. 968 A.H/ 1561 A.D) notes which sciences were
being taught in Ottoman madrasas in 16th century:
Conclusion. New researches are putting very original findings in Islamic science
education in classical period. Influence of classical Islamic sciences to western
world is more than guessed to today. From the early days of translation period, at
least five centuries(even more), critical thought and empirical method are the
main instruments of muslim scientists. A non-stop study and very systematic
education developed the curricula of Islamic sciences; always newest findings used
to be added to scientific textbooks of Islamic madrasas (academies); muslim
scientists always to be busy with rewriting the textbooks that this approach
gained well trained assistants, students and junior scholars and at the end
produced senior powerful scholars. Inter-disciplinary or/sometimes/ in some
madrasas unidisciplinary approach was applied in the curricula but detailed
scientific study was not neglected.
19-Ahmet Hulusi Koker, “Gevher Nesibe Darussifasi ve Tib Medresesi”, DIA, v, 14,
pp, 39-42
20-Ali Durusoy, “Fahreddin el-Mardini”, DIA, v, XII, pp, 86-87
21-Hasan Dogruyol, “Aynizerbi”, DIA, v, IV, pp, 278-79
22-Ramazan Sesen, “Eyyubiler”, DIA, v, XII, pp, 20-31
23-Omer Mahir Alper, “Ibnul-Kuf”, v, XXI, pp, 115-17
24-Arslan Terzioglu, “Bimaristan”, DIA, v, VI, pp, 163-78
25-ibid(from:Ahmad Isa, Tarikh al-Bimaristanat fi al-Islam, Dimashq 1357)
26-ibid(from: Pascha M. Herz, “Die Baugruppe des Sultans Qalaun in Kairo”,
Abhandlungen des Hamburgischen Kolonial-Instituts, 42, hamburg 1919, pp, 1-43)
27-Mehmet Ipsirli, “Anadolu(Egitim ve Ogretim)”, DIA, v, III, pp, 128-30
28-Ibrahim harekat, “Fasi, Abdurrahman b. Abdulkadir”, v, XII, pp, 210-11
29-Sami Selhub, “Farisi, Muhammed b. Ebu Bekir”, DIA, v, XII, pp, 170-71
30-Salim Ogut, “Feyyumi, Abdulkadir b. Muhammed”, DIA, v, XII, pp, 515-16(from:
Suter, Die Mathematiker, p, 171, 193-94
31-A. S. Bazmee Ansari, “Fazl-i Imam Hayrabadi”, DIA, v, XII, p, 274
32-Hamdi Donduren, “Fenari, Alaeddin”, DIA, v, XII, p, 337
33- Cevat Izgi, Osmanli Medreselerinde Ilim, v, I, pp, 193-97
34-ibid, v, I, pp, 265-68
35-ibid, v, I, pp, 334-40
36-Ismail Hakki Uzuncarsili, v, I, pp, 520-41
Bibliography
Uzuncarsili Ismail Hakki, Buyuk Osmanli Tarihi, I-VI, 7th edition (no date),
Publications of Turkish History Association