Numerical Methods in Electromagnetics

Many problems in electromagnetics cannot be solved analytically and

require a numerical solution. The governing equations in these problems
(Maxwells equations or related equations) can take the form of either a
differential equation or an integral equation.
Finite difference technique - a numerical method used to solve partial
differential equations (PDEs).
Example PDE Y Poissons equation
Method of moments technique - a numerical method used to solve
integral equations (IEs), or integro-differential equations.
Example IE Y Conductor held at a constant potential
Numerical solutions to electromagnetic problems invariably result in
some type of numerical approximation. Care must be taken to ensure
that the approximation used yields an accurate solution to the problem.
Finite Difference Technique
Given the governing PDE for a particular electromagnetics problem,
the steps involved in the application of the finite difference technique are:
(1) Divide the domain of interest into a grid (usually rectangular)
in one, two or three dimensions. For example,
V(x,y,z) - three dimensional (3D) solution
V(x,y) - two dimensional (2D) solution (no z variation)
V(x) - one dimensional (1D) solution (no y or z variation)
(2) Develop algebraic equations which approximate the partial
derivatives in the governing equation (difference equations).
(3) Solve the set of algebraic equations.
Example (Poissons equation)
The 3D Poissons equation in rectangular coordinates is
Consider a rectangular region defined by 0 # x # a and 0 # y # b enclosed
by conductors of known potential [V(x,y)] and a known charge distribution
throughout [D(x,y)]. Assuming no z-variation in the potential or charge
yields a 2D form of Poissons equation.
The region of interest can be divided into a rectangular grid over which the
difference equation approximations to the second-order derivatives are
defined. The grid points located on the boundary represent fixed nodes
where the potential is known. The grid points internal to the boundary are
defined as free nodes where the potential must be computed. The indices
on the grid nodes range from 0 to N
i+1
in the x-direction and 0 to N
j+1
in the
y-direction. This indexing scheme yields a total of N
i
N
j
free nodes.
The required derivatives in the given 2D Poissons equation are:
The first order partial derivatives with respect to x and y can first be defined
on either side of the grid point (i ,j).
The approximations for the first derivatives on either side of grid point (i ,j)
can then be used to approximate the second order partial derivatives with
respect to x and y.
Inserting the first order derivative approximations and collecting terms
yields the second order derivative approximations.
Inserting the second derivative approximations into Poissons equation
gives
(2D Poissons equation, rectangular grid)
Given a square grid ()x = )y = h), the equation above reduces to
(2D Poissons equation, square grid)
In a source-free region (D = 0), Poissons equation reduces to Laplaces
equation.
(2D Laplaces equation, rectangular grid)
(2D Laplaces equation, square grid)
Note that the 2D Laplaces equation on a square grid illustrates how the
potential at any given point is described as the average of the four
surrounding points. This principle can easily be extended to three
dimensions where the potential is described as the average of the six
surrounding points.
2D 3D
(3D Laplaces equation, square grid)
Solution Techniques
(1) Direct Technique - The N equations in N unknowns (where N
is the total number of grid points) are solved directly. This
technique requires the solution of a linear system of equations
(very inefficient as N grows large).
(2) Indirect Technique - (iterative technique) An initial guess is
made for the node voltages. The finite difference equations are
applied again and again, updating the node values, until the
node values converge to a solution.
Example (Jacobi iteration)
A square grid is shown below for the 2D solution of Laplaces
equation based on the given boundary conditions.
1
st
Iteration (k =1)
2
nd
Iteration (k =2)
!
25
th
Iteration (k = 25)
The number of iterations required for a given problem depends on the
geometry of the conductor system, the number of grid points, and the
required accuracy for the computed potentials. The voltages to which the
node values converge are approximations based primarily on the accuracy
of the difference equations used to approximate the derivatives in the PDE.
More grid points (smaller grid point separation) yields more accurate
solutions given better approximations for the derivatives in the PDE.