Magnetic Materials

by Ron Kurtus (revised 11 October 2007)

Materials respond differently to the force of a magnetic field. A magnet will strongly attract
ferromagnetic materials, weakly attract paramagnetic materials, and weakly repel
diamagnetic materials. The orientation of the spin of the electrons in an atom, the
orientation of the atoms in a molecule or alloy, and the ability of domains of atoms or
molecules to line up are the factors that determine how a material responds to a magnetic
field. Ferromagnetic materials have the most magnetic uses. Diamagnetic materials are
used in magnetic levitation and MRI.
Questions you may have include:
• What are ferromagnetic materials?
• What are paramagnetic materials?
• What are diamagnetic materials?
This lesson will answer those questions. There is a mini-quiz near the end of the lesson.
Useful tools: Metric-English Conversion | Scientific Calculator.

Ferromagnetic materials
Ferromagnetic materials are strongly attracted by a magnetic force. The elements iron (Fe),
nickel (Ni), cobalt (Co) and gadolinium (Gd) are such materials. (See the Periodic Table in
the Chemistry section for more information.)
The reasons these metals are strongly attracted are because their individual atoms have a
slightly higher degree of magnetism due to their configuration of electrons, their atoms
readily line up in the same magnetic direction, and the magnetic domains or groups of
atoms line up more readily. (See Factors Determining Magnetic Response for more
information.)
Iron and steel
Iron is the most common element associated with being attracted to to a magnet. Steel is
also a ferromagnetic material. It is an alloy or combination of iron and several other metals,
giving it greater hardness than iron, as well as other specialized properties. Because of its
hardness, steel retains magnetism longer than iron.
Permanent magnets
Alloys of iron, nickel, cobalt, gadolinium and certain ceramic materials can become
"permanent" magnets, such that they retain their magnetism for a long time.
Temperature effect
Strongly magnetic ferromagnetic materials like nickel or steel lose all their magnetic
properties if they are heated to a high enough temperature. The atoms become too excited
by the heat to remain pointing in one direction for long.
The temperature at which a metal loses its magnetism is called the Curie temperature, and
it is different for every metal. The Curie temperature for nickel, for example, is about
350°C.

Paramagnetic materials
Paramagnetic materials are metals that are weakly attracted to magnets. Aluminum and
copper are such metals. These materials can become very weak magnets, but their
attractive force can only be measured with sensitive instruments.
Temperature can affect the magnetic properties of a material. Paramagnetic materials like
aluminum, uranium and platinum become more magnetic when they are very cold.
The force of a ferromagnetic magnet is about a million times that of a magnet made with a
paramagnetic material. Since the attractive force is so small, paramagnetic materials are
typically considered nonmagnetic.

Diamagnetic materials
Certain materials are diamagnetic, which means that when they are exposed to a strong
magnetic field, they induce a weak magnetic field in the opposite direction. In other words,
they weakly repel a strong magnet. Some have been used in simple levitation
demonstrations.
Strongest
Bismuth and carbon graphite are the strongest diamagnetic materials. They are about eight
times stronger than mercury and silver. Other weaker diamagnetic materials include water,
diamonds, wood and living tissue. Note that the last three items are carbon-based.
The electrons in a diamagnetic material rearrange their orbits slightly creating small
persistent currents, which oppose the external magnetic field.
Uses
Although the forces created by diamagnetism are extremely weak--millions of times smaller
than the forces between magnets and ferromagnetic materials like iron, there are some
interesting uses of those materials.
Levitation
The most popular application of diamagnetic materials is magnetic levitation, where an
object will be made to float in are above a strong magnet. Although most experiments use
inert objects, researchers as the University of Nijmegen in the Netherlands demonstrated
levitating a small frog in a powerful magnetic field.
 Levitated Frog
MRI
Another important application of diamagnetic materials is magnetic resonance imaging
(MRI). In this useful diagnostic tool in medicine. The way it works is that when carbon-
based atoms in the body are exposed to a strong magnetic field, they are slightly repelled
by the field. This movement of the atoms can be detected and used for analysis.

Summary
Magnets will strongly attract ferromagnetic materials, weakly attract paramagnetic
materials, a nd weakly repel diamagnetic materials. Ferromagnetic materials have the most
magnetic uses. Diamagnetic materials are used in magnetic levitation and MRI.

Factors Determining Magnetic

Properties
by Ron Kurtus (revised 6 October 2006)
The factors that determine the magnetic property of a material are the configuration of the
electrons in the material, the ability of the atoms or molecules in the material to align
magnetically, and the alignment of domains or sections in the object. Since alignment is so
important in the magnetic properties of materials, liquids and gases are typically not
magnetic because their molecules aren't held in place as they are in solids. An exception is
in rotating fluids.
Questions you may have include:
• What are electron orientation factors?
• What are molecule factors?
• What are domain factors?
This lesson will answer those questions. There is a mini-quiz near the end of the lesson.
Useful tools: Metric-English Conversion | Scientific Calculator.

Electron orientation
Electrons can behave as tiny magnets, each with north (N) and south (S) poles. When an
atom's electrons are lined up in the same orientation, with most having their N pole facing
one direction, the atom becomes like a magnet, with N and S poles. It is also possible for
the electrons to be in various directions, making the atom not magnetic.
Moving electrons create magnetic field
The reason that electrons can behave like tiny magnets is the fact that when electrons
move, they create a magnetic field. Placing a compass near a wire carrying DC electrical
current can show that a magnetic field is created due to the electrons moving through the
wire.
A magnetic field is also created when electrons rotate around a nucleus and when they spin
while in orbit.
(Note that modern theories of the atom no longer accept the Bohr or solar system model. In
the new theories, electrons are thought of as clouds or strings. You should be aware that
there are new explanations, but for the sake of understanding we will still follow the Bohr
model of spinning electrons rotating around a nucleus, similar to planets rotating around the
Sun.)
Spinning electrons
Electrons have a property called spin. This spinning creates a magnetic field with N and S
poles, just as the spinning Earth has magnetic poles. Note that the N pole on an electron is
really a North-seeking pole, just as in a magnet.
If electrons in the shells of an atom spin in the same direction, the atom will exhibit a
magnetic field and will respond to the forces of a magnet. If half of the electrons spin one
way and the rest spin the other way, they will neutralize each other and the material will
not be affected by a magnetic field

This atom is barely magnetic because all its electrons are not aligned

Strong and weak electron alignments

Atoms such as iron have most of their electrons aligned in the same direction. Thus, iron or
nickel would be attracted to a magnet. Aluminum only has a few electrons aligned, and thus
it is only weakly magnetic. An element with half of its electrons oriented one way would not
be attracted to a magnet.

Atomic and molecular alignment

Although some atoms may be highly magnetic, they really need to be aligned to make a
material magnetic. If magnetic atoms are facing different directions, their fields will cancel
out each other.
Solids and fluids
Since the atoms or molecules in a solid are fixed in place, most magnetic materials are
solids. This is because once the atoms or molecules become aligned, they tend to stay in
place. An example is seen when you magnetize a piece of iron.
As a material becomes heated or when it is in its liquid or gaseous state, the atoms or
molecules are in rapid motion and are not aligned. Thus, fluids are seldom magnetic.
An exception is when a magnetic material such as iron is in its liquid state and is continually
rotating around an axis. In such a situation, the atoms can be aligned in one direction, even
though they are in rapid motion.
For example, the core of the Earth is made of liquid iron. Since the Earth rotates on its axis,
the liquid iron is rotating, thus creating the Earth's magnetic field. Also, the Sun rotates on
its axis, and the material in its plasma state creates the Sun's magnetic field.
Molecules
If two or more elements are chemically combined to form a molecule, it is quite possible
that the compound is not very magnetic because the orientations of the atoms in the
molecule work against each other.
A good example of this is to compare the magnetic properties of iron as compared to its
compounds if iron oxide (rust) and iron sulfide. A piece of iron is highly magnetic, but a
hunk of rusty iron is not.
Alloys
Metals of different elements can be mixed when they are in the molten or liquid state to
form alloys. These combinations result in materials with slightly different physical and
chemical properties than the elements by themselves.
If the metals typically respond well to a magnetic field--such as iron and nickel--then their
alloy has even a stronger reaction to magnetism. On the other hand, there are some alloys
of iron--such as forms of stainless steel--that do not respond well at all to a magnet.

Domains
The final factor in a material being magnetic concern the orientation of its domains in a
solid. A group of atoms in a metal may become aligned, but the various groups may be
misaligned. These groups are called domains.
It is necessary to line up many of the domains in a material like iron in order for it to
become a magnet.

Magnetic material with domains misaligned

Aligned domains makes material highly magnetic

Summary
Alignment of electrons, atoms and domains are important in determining the magnetic
response of a material and whether it is a magnet. Since the atoms or molecules need to be
aligned, gases and liquids are typically not magnetic, and most magnets are solid metals.
An exception is in the rotating liquid iron core of the Earth and the rotating plasmas of the
Sun.
 Electromagnetism
An electromagnet is an object that acts like a magnet, but its magnetic force is created and
controlled by electricity--thus the name electromagnet. By wrapping insulated wire around a
piece of iron and then running electrical current through the wire, the iron becomes
magnetized. This happens because a magnetic field is created around a wire when it has
electrical current running through it. Creating a coil of wire concentrates the field. Wrapping
the wire around an iron core greatly increases the strength of the magnetic field.
Questions you may have include:
• How can you make an electromagnet?
• What factors are involved in electromagnetism?
• How does an iron core affect the strength?
This lesson will answer those questions. There is a mini-quiz near the end of the lesson.
Useful tools: Metric-English Conversion | Scientific Calculator.
Note: If you want to hear the text being read, click the Play button. It takes a few seconds for the sound to
start. The voices are somewhat mechanical for computer use.

Time = 7 min. 15 sec.

Making an electromagnet
If you wrap a wire around an iron core, such as a nail, and you send electrical current
through the wire, the nail will become highly magnetized. You can verify that by picking up
small objects or by showing its effect on a compass. This is called an electromagnet.

Creating a simple electromagnet using a nail

Insulated wire
Note that the wire must be an insulated wire. A bare wire would cause an electrical short
and the current would then run through the nail or metal core. In some electromagnets, like
in an electric motor, the wire will look like bare copper, but it is insulated with a thin coating
of a clear material.
Also, if the wire is thin, it may get warm from the resistance to the electricity passing
through it.
Turn on and off
The most interesting feature of the electromagnet is that when the electrical current is
turned off, the magnetism is also turned off. This is especially true if the core is made of
soft iron, which quickly loses its magnetism. Hardened steel may retain its magnetism, so
you can't use the most valuable feature of an electromagnet.
Being able to turn the magnetism on and off has lead to many amazing inventions and
applications.

How electromagnetism works

When electricity passed through a wire, a magnetic field is created around the wire. Looping
the wire increases the magnetic field. Adding an iron core greatly increases the effect and
creates an electromagnet. You can create an electromagnet without the iron core. That is
usually called a solenoid.
Magnetic field
When DC electricity is passed through a wire, a magnetic field rotates around the wire in a
specific direction.

Magnetic field rotating around wire

Compass can show field
Connecting a wire to a battery and placing a compass near the wire can demonstrate a
magnetic field. When the current is turned on, the compass-needle will move. If you reverse
the direction of the current, the needle will move in the opposite direction.
Right hand rule
To find the direction the magnetic field is going, you can use the "right-hand rule" to
determine it. If you take your right hand and wrap it around the wire, with your thumb
pointing in the direction of the electrical current (positive to negative), then your fingers are
pointing in the direction of the magnetic field around the wire. Try it with the picture above.
Wire in a coil
Wrapping the wire in a coil concentrates and increases the magnetic field, because the
additive effect of each turn of the wire.
 Coiled wire increases magnetic field
A coil of wire used to create a magnetic field is called a solenoid.
Iron core
Wrapping the wire around an iron core greatly increases the magnetic field. If you put a nail
in the coil in the drawing above, it would result in an electromagnet with the a north
seeking pole on the "N" side.
Using AC electricity
If AC electricity is used, the electromagnet has the same properties of a magnet, except
that the polarity reverses with the AC cycle.
Note that it is not a good idea to try to make an AC electromagnet. This is because of the
high voltage in house current. Using a wire around a nail would result in a blown fuse in
the AC circuit box. There is also the potential of an electric shock.

Strength of electromagnetic field

The strength of the electromagnetic field is determined by the amount of current, number of
coils of wire, and the distance from the wire.
Unit
The unit of magnetic force is called the tesla (T). Near a strong magnet the force is 1-T.
Another unit used is the gauss, where 104 gauss (10,000) equals 1 tesla.
Current
The strength of the magnetic field is proportional to the current in the wire. If you double
the current, the magnetic force is doubled.
Since Voltage = Current x Resistance (V = I*R), you can double the current in a wire by
doubling the voltage of the source of electricity.
Turns of coil
If you wrap the wire into a coil, you increase the magnetic force inside the coil, proportional
to the number of turns. In other words, a coil consisting of 10 loops has 10 times the
magnetic force as a single wire with the same current flowing through it. Likewise, a coil of
20 loops has 2 times the magnetic force than one with 10 loops.
Varies with distance
The magnetic force decreases with distance. It varies inversely proportional to the square of
the distance. For example the force at 2 cm. from a wire is 1/4 that of at 1 cm., and the
force at 3 cm. is 1/9 the force at 1 cm.
Effect of iron core
When the coil is wrapped around an iron core, the strength of the electromagnetic field is
much greater than the same coil without the iron core. This is because the atoms in the iron
line up to amplify the magnetic effect. The orientation of the atoms in the iron is called its
domain.
Current
When you increase the current, the magnetic strength increases, but it is not exactly linear
as it is with the coil by itself. The characteristics of the core cause the curve of magnetic
strength versus current to be an s-shaped hysteresis curve.
The shape of this curve depends on how well the material in the core becomes magnetized
and how long it remains magnetized. Soft iron loses its magnetism readily, while hard steel
tends to retain its magnetism.

Summary
By wrapping a wire around an iron core and applying an electric current through the wire,
you create an electromagnet. This device is magnetic only when the current is flowing. The
iron core greatly increases the magnetic strength.
 Generating Electrical Current
by Ron Kurtus (9 November 2003)
Electrical current can be generated by moving a metal wire through a magnetic field. This
applies both to alternating current (AC) and direct current (DC) electricity. This is a different
method than where DC is created by a battery, which uses chemical reactions. It is also
different than static electricity, which is the accumulation of charges on a surface.
Electrical generators rotate a coil of wires through a magnetic field. The difference between
an AC and a DC generator is that the AC generator uses slip rings to transfer the current to
the electrical circuit, while the DC generator uses a split-ring commutator. Generators can
be very small or quite huge. Very large ones create electricity for the community. An
electric motor is very similar to a generator, except that power is provided to turn the
rotors.
Questions you may have include:
• What does a wire moving through a magnetic field look
like?
• How is a loop of wire used in an electric generator?
• What do commercial generators look like?
This lesson will answer those questions. There is a mini-quiz near the end of the lesson.
Useful tools: Metric-English Conversion | Scientific Calculator.
Note: If you want to hear the text being read, click the Play button. It takes a few seconds for the sound to
start. The voices are somewhat mechanical for computer use.

Time = 6 min. 30 sec.

Moving wire through magnetic field

When a wire made of conducting material cuts through a magnetic field, an electrical
current is created in the wire.
Must be part of circuit
Note that the wire must be part of an electrical circuit. Otherwise the electrons have no
place to go. In other words, there is no electrical current produced with a wire with open
ends. But if the ends are attached to a light bulb, to an electrical meter or even to each
other, the circuit is complete and electrical current is created.
 Moving the wire through the magnetic field creates an electric current,
as measured by a meter attached to the ends of the wire

Direction of current
The direction of the magnetic field and the direction of the wire will determine the direction
of the current through the wire. By convention, the direction of the magnetic field is from N
to S. Also by convention, the current goes from plus (+) to minus (−). But note that in
reality, the negatively charged electrons move in the opposite direction than the current.
They move from (−) to (+). You'll just have to remember that the electrons move in the
opposite direction than the convention for the direction of current.
Other configurations
Besides moving a wire through a magnetic field, you could also create an electric current in
the wire by moving the magnets and keeping the wire stationary.
Another technique to create a current is to keep both stationary but vary the magnetic field.
That method is used to change the voltage of AC in electrical transformers. (See AC
Transformers for more information).

Loop is spun
If the wire is made into a loop that is then spun or rotated in the magnetic field, you can
have continuous current. Since each side of the loop is going in a different direction in the
magnetic field, the current flows around the loop, depending on which direction it is rotated.
Transfer current
There must also be some way to transfer the current to the rest of the circuit. In an AC
generator, having a ring on each end of the wire does this. A metal contact or brush rubs or
slides against each ring, allowing the electricity to flow through the circuit. In a DC
generator, this is done using one split-ring called a commutator. An AC generator uses two
slip rings.
 Comparison of DC and AC loops and rings

Generator in action
The following animation shows an AC generator in action. As one side of the loop moves to
the other pole of the magnetic field, the current in it changes direction. The two slip rings of
the AC generator allow the current to change directions and become alternating current.

Simple AC generator
(Image from the PBS American Experience series: Inside the AC Generator)
In a DC generator, the split-ring commutator accommodates for the change in direction of
the current in the loop, thus creating DC current going through the brushes and out to the
circuit.
Note that the DC current is not a steady value. Rather, it is a "bumpy" signal, with zero
voltage at the break in the ring. The power from the current could be mathematically
described as a sine wave squared. Since most DC generators have many more than one
loop, the "bumps" even out and are not noticed.
The faster the wire passes through the magnetic field, the greater the current.
Full-sized generators
Instead of having a single loop, generators used to supply electricity to homes and
businesses have multiple magnets and loops consisting of wires wound around an iron core,
similar to an electromagnet. The more loops of wire passing through the magnetic field, the
higher the voltage that is created.

Large generator with multiple windings

Generators used to provide electricity to the community are huge. The rotor can be well
over 10 feet in diameter.
Can be used as motor
Note that when a generator has its wire wound around an iron core, it can also be used as
an electric motor. Instead of rotating the loops through a magnetic field to create electricity,
a current is sent through the wires, creating electromagnets. The outer magnets will then
repel the electromagnets and rotate the shaft as an electric motor.
If the current is DC, the split-ring commutators are required to create a DC motor. If the
current is AC, the two slip rings are required to create an AC motor.
Examine an unplugged electric motor to see how both a motor and generator looks inside.

Summary
Moving wire through a magnetic field generates electrical current. Electrical generators
rotate a coil of wires through a magnetic field. The difference between an AC and a DC
generator is that the AC generator uses slip rings to transfer the current to the electrical
circuit, while the DC generator uses a split-ring commutator. Very large generators create
electricity for the community. An electric motor is very similar to a generator, except that
power is provided to turn the rotors.
 Electromagnetic Devices
by Ron Kurtus (revised 31 March 2009)
Electromagnets are used in a number of everyday devices.
One useful characteristic of an electromagnet is the fact that you can vary its magnetic
force by changing the amount and direction of the current going through the coils or
windings around it. Loudspeakers and tape recorders are devices that apply this effect.
Some electromagnets can be very strong and its power can be readily turned off and on.
Junk yard electromagnets, common doorbells and electromagnetic locks are examples.
Electromagnets can also be used to create continual motion when opposed by other
electromagnets or permanent magnets. Examples include electric motors and maglev trains.
Questions you may have include:
• What devices use variations of electromagnetic force?
• How can turning the magnetic field on and off be used?
• What devices create conintual motion?
This lesson will answer those questions. There is a mini-quiz near the end of the lesson.
Useful tools: Metric-English Conversion | Scientific Calculator.
Devices using varying field
You can change the strength of an electromagnet's magnetic field by varying the electrical
current that passes through the wires wrapped around it. If you change the direction of the
electrical current the polarity of the magnetic field reverses.
These effects can be used to move a loudspeaker cone back and forth, creating sound
according to the electrical current through the wire. They also can be used to create
magnetic fields in a magnetic tape or computer hard drive, such that it stores information.
Loudspeaker
The loudspeakers in your radio, television or stereo system consists of a permanent magnet
surrounding an electromagnet that is attached to the loudspeaker membrane or cone.
By varying the electric current through the wires around the electromagnet, the
electromanget and the speaker cone can be made to back and forth. If the variation of the
electric current is at the same frequencies of sound waves, the resulting vibration of the
speaker cone will create sound waves, including that from voice and music.

Cutout of a loudspeaker
If you examine the back area of a loudspeaker, you should be able to see the permanent
magnet and coil of wire for the electromagnet. Some loudspeakers use an electromagnet
without the iron core, which is called a solenoid.
Tape recorder
When a mylar tape covered with fine iron dust passes near a small electromagnet that has a
varying mangtic field, according to an electrical signal, the dust become magnetized in
different directions. The electrical signal could be from a radio or microphone.
The tape then is a record of the electrical signal. When it passes by another small
electromagnet, it creates an electrical signal, duplicating that of the original signal. This
signal can be amplified and played back through loudspeakers.
Devices using turning magnetic field on and off
The magnetic strength of an electromagnet depends on the number of turns of wire around
the electromagnet's core, the current through the wire and the size of the iron core.
Increasing these factors can result in an electromagnet that is much larger and stronger
than a natural magnet. For example, there is no known natrual magnet that is able to pick
up a large steel object such as a car, but industrial electromagnets are capable of such a
task.
Also, if the core of the electromagnet is made of soft iron, its magnetic force can be turned
off by turning off the electricity to the electromagnet.
Picking up and dropped junk cars
Thus, an electromagnet can be used to pick up a piece of iron and then drop it someplace
else.

Crane uses electromagnet to pick up junked car

Strong electromagnets are often used in areas of heavy industry to move large pieces of
iron or steel. They are commonly employed in junkyards, where a crane with a huge
electromagnet is used to pick up, move and drop old, junked cars.
Electromagnetic lock
An electromagnetic lock be used to lock a door by creating a strong field in an
electromagnet that is in contact with a magnetic plate. As long as there is current through
the electromagnet, the door remains closed and locked.
Another type of electromagnetic lock uses an electromagnet to extend a plunger between
the doors, making it nearly impossible to open the door until the electromagnet releases the
plunger.
Doorbell ringer
An old-fashioned doorbell used an electromagnet that was rapidly turned on and off to pull a
clanger against a bell.

Devises creating steady motion

Clever use of electromagnetic forces can create steady motion.
Electric motor
An electric motor is another application of electromagnets. Suppose you put some
electromagnets on a wheel and put some permanent magnets around the wheel. The
electromagnets could be made to attract and repel the surrounding magnets, causing the
wheel to turn. By varying the current, the speed of the motor can be made to vary.
Look at an electric motor and see the internal wheel made of electromagnets and the outer
shell made of permanent magnetic material.
Maglev trains
A maglev (magnetic levitation) train works without wheels and is propelled by
electromagnetic forces.
This type of train usually consists of a set of magnets along the bottom of the train and a
series of electromagnets on the tracks or guideway for the train. The electromagnets are
adjusted to have the same polarity as the train's magnets, though complex computer
controls. Since the magnetic poles repel, the train is levitated or floats slightly above the
track. Guides on the sides prevent the train from sliding off.
Depending on the position of the train, the polarity of the electromagnets is adjusted,
causing the train to move forward. Maglev trains can reach speeds over 260 mile per hour
or 430 kilometers per hour.

Summary
Electromagnets are used in a number of devices, such as loudspeakers and tape recorders.
Some electromagnets can be very strong and its power can be readily turned off and on,
such as in junk yard electromagnets and electromagnetic locks.
Electromagnets can also be used to create continual motion such as with electric motors and
maglev trains.

Magnets
by Ron Kurtus (revised 24 November 2004)
A magnet is an object or material that attracts certain metals, such as iron, nickel and
cobalt. It can also attract or repel another magnet. All magnets have North-seeking (N) and
South-seeking (S) poles. When magnets are placed near each other, opposite poles attract
and like poles repel each other. Various electrical devices make use of magnets.
Questions you may have include:
• What types of magnets are there?
• What are some common properties of magnets?
• Where are magnets used?
This lesson will answer those questions. There is a mini-quiz near the end of the lesson.
Useful tools: Metric-English Conversion | Scientific Calculator.

Types of magnets
There are permanent magnets, temporary magnets and electromagnets.
Permanent magnets
A permanent magnet is one that will hold its magnetic properties over a long period of time.
Magnetite
Magnetite is a magnetic material found in nature. It is a permanent magnet, but it is
relatively weak.
Alloys
Most permanent magnets we use are manufactured and are a combination or alloy of iron,
nickel and cobalt. Rare-earth permanent magnets are a special type of magnet that can
have extreme strength.
Temporary magnets
A temporary magnet is one that will lose its magnetism. For example, soft iron can be made
into a temporary magnet, but it will lose its magnetic power in a short while.
Electromagnet
By wrapping a wire around an iron or steel core and running an electrical current through
the wire, you can magnetize the metal and make an electromagnet. If the core is soft iron,
the magnetism will diminish as soon as the current is turned off. This feature makes
electromagnets good for picking up and dropping objects. Typically DC electricity is used,
but AC current will also result in an electromagnet.
(See Electromagnetism for more information.)

Properties of magnets
Magnets always have two poles, come in various shapes, and attract or repel other
magnets.
Names of poles
All magnets have a North-seeking pole (N) and South-seeking pole (S). In a compass, the
side marked (N) will point toward the Earth's North magnetic pole. Thus, it is called the
"North-seeking pole." Also note that the Earth's North magnetic pole is not the same thing
as the North Pole. They are actually several hundred miles apart.
NOTE: To avoid confusion, you should try to be exact in what you are describing, especially
concerning magnets.
Various shapes
The magnet can be made into various shapes. The bar magnet is the most common
configuration.

Bar magnet
Magnets also can be square, spherical, shaped like a horseshoe, and even shaped like a
donut.
 Horseshoe magnet
If you put an iron plate across the N and S poles of a horseshoe magnet, that would
essentially "short circuit" the effect of the magnetism, such that its strength would not be
very great. As soon as the plate was removed, the magnet would regain its full strength.
That method is sometimes used in magnets that are temporary to help keep their magnetic
properties for a longer time.
Cutting a magnet
An interesting characteristic of magnets is that when you cut a magnet into parts, each part
will have both N and S poles.

Bar magnet cut into three parts

Attraction and repulsion

Magnets strongly attract iron, nickel and cobalt, as well as combinations or alloys of these
metals.
Also, unlike poles of two magnets will attract, but like poles will repel. Thus, N and S attract,
while S and S will repel each other.

Applications
There are numerous applications of magnets.
Creating a magnet
You can magnetize a piece of steel by rubbing a magnet in one direction along the steel.
This lines up the many of the domains or sections of aligned atoms in the steel, such that it
acts like a magnet. The steel often won't remain magnetized for a very long time, while the
true magnet is "permanently" magnetized and retains its strength for a long time.
If you use soft iron or steel, such as a paper clip, it will lose its magnetism quickly. Also,
you can disorient the atoms in a magnetized needle by heating it or by dropping the needle
on a hard object.
Compass
The first true application of a magnet was the compass, which not only helps in navigation
by pointing toward the North magnetic pole, but it is also useful in detecting small magnetic
fields. A compass is simply a thin magnet or magnetized iron needle balanced on a pivot.
The needle will rotate to point toward the opposite pole of a magnet. It can be very
sensitive to small magnetic fields.
Other uses
Magnets are found in loudspeakers, electrical motors and electrical generators.
A very common application of magnets is to stick things to the refrigerator. Since the outer
shell of most refrigerators is made of steel, a magnet will readily stick to it. The type of
magnets used often consists of a thin sheet of a magnetic material.
As a novelty, magnetic disks can be stacked on a pencil to show magnetic levitation.

Levitating magnets

Summary
A magnet attracts iron, nickel, cobalt and combinations of those metals. All magnets have
North-seeking (N) and South-seeking (S) poles. When magnets are placed near each other,
opposite poles attract and similar poles repel each other. Magnets are found in many of our
electrical appliances.

Direct Current (DC) Electricity

by Ron Kurtus (revised 11 January 2004)
Direct current or DC electricity is the continuous movement of electrons from an area of
negative (−) charges to an area of positive (+) charges through a conducting material such
as a metal wire. Whereas static electricity sparks consist of the sudden movement of
electrons from a negative to positive surface, DC electricity is the continuous movement of
the electrons through a wire.
A DC circuit is necessary to allow the current or steam of electrons to flow. Such a circuit
consists of a source of electrical energy (such as a battery) and a conducting wire running
from the positive end of the source to the negative terminal. Electrical devices may be
included in the circuit. DC electricity in a circuit consists of voltage, current and resistance.
The flow of DC electricity is similar to the flow of water through a hose.
Questions you may have include:
• What is DC electricity?
• What are voltage, current and resistance?
• How do we create DC electricity?
This lesson will answer those questions. There is a mini-quiz near the end of the lesson.
Useful tools: Metric-English Conversion | Scientific Calculator.
Note: Click the Play button to hear the text being read.

Time = 6 min. 47 sec.

Continuous movement of electrons

DC electricity is the continuous movement of electrons through a conducting material such
as a metal wire. The electrons move toward a positive (+) potential in the wire.

DC movement of electrons in wire

In reality, there are millions of electrons weaving their way among the atoms in the wire.
This is just an illustration of the movement.
Electrical circuit
An electrical circuit consisting of a source of DC power and a wire making a complete circuit
is required for DC electricity to flow. (See DC circuits for more information.)

A flashlight is a good example of a DC circuit

Current shown opposite

Although the negative charged electrons move through the wire toward the positive (+)
terminal of the source of electricity, the current is indicated as going from positive to
negative. This is an unfortunate and confusing convention.
Ben Franklin originally named charges positive (+) and negative (−) when he was studying
static electricity. Later, when scientists were experimenting with electrical currents, they
said that electricity travels from (+) to (−), and that became the convention.
This was before electrons were discovered. In reality, the negative charged electrons move
toward the positive, which is the opposite direction that people show current moving. It is
confusing, but once a convention is made, it is difficult to correct it.

Voltage, current and resistance

The electricity moving through a wire or other conductor consists of its voltage (V), current
(I) and resistance (R). Voltage is potential energy, current is the amount of electrons
flowing through the wire, and resistance is the friction force on the electron flow.
A good way to picture DC electricity and to understand the relationship between voltage,
current and resistance is to think of the flow of water through a hose, as explained below.
Electrical voltage
A potential or pressure builds up at one end of the wire, due to an excess of negatively
charged electrons. It is like water pressure building up in a hose. The pressure causes the
electrons to move through the wire to the area of positive charge. This potential energy is
called Voltage, its unit of measurement is the Volt.
Electrical current
The number of electrons is called current and its unit of measurement is the Ampere or
Amp. Electrical current is like the rate that water flows through a hose.
Resistance
An Ohm is the unit of measurement of the electrical resistance. A conductor like a piece of
metal has its atoms so arranged that electrons can readily pass around the atoms with little
friction or resistance. In a nonconductor or poor conductor, the atoms are so arranged as to
greatly resist or impede the travel of the electrons. This resistance is similar to the friction
of the hose against the water moving through it.
Comparison with hose
The following chart compares water running in a hose and DC electricity flowing in a wire:

Water in a DC in a Electrical
Hose Wire Units

pressure potential (V) Volts

rate of flow current (I) Amps

resistance
friction Ohms
(R)
Analogy between a Hose and Electricity in a Wire

Creating DC electricity
Although static electricity can be discharged through a metal wire, it is not a continuous
source of DC electricity. Instead, batteries and DC generators are used to create DC.
Batteries
Batteries rely on chemical reactions to create DC electricity.
Car battery
The automobile battery consists of lead plates in a sulfuric acid solution. When the plates
are given a charge from the car's generator or alternator, they change chemically and hold
the charge. That source of DC electricity can then be used to power the car's lights and
such. The biggest problem with this type of battery is that sulfuric acid is very caustic and
dangerous.
Lemon battery
Another battery that you can make yourself is a lemon battery. This one needs no charging
but depends on the acidic reaction of different metals.
Copper and zinc work the best. You can use a copper penny or copper piece of wire. A zinc-
coated or galvanized nail can be used as the other terminal. A standard iron nail will work,
but not as good.
Push the copper wire and galvanized nail into an ordinary lemon and measure the voltage
across the metals with a voltmeter. Some people have been able to dimly light a flashlight
bulb with this battery.
DC generator
Another reliable source of DC electricity is the DC generator, which consists of coils of wire
spinning between North and South magnets. (See Generating Electrical Current for more
information.)

Summary
Direct current or DC electricity is the continuous movement of electrons from negative to
positive through a conducting material such as a metal wire. A DC circuit is necessary to
allow the current or steam of electrons to flow. In a circuit, the direction of the current is
opposite the flow of electrons. DC electricity in a circuit consists of voltage, current and
resistance. The flow of DC electricity is similar to the flow of water through a hose. Batteries
and DC generators are the sources to create DC electricity.

Alternating Current (AC) Electricity

by Ron Kurtus (revised 5 December 2008)
Alternating current (AC) electricity is the type of electricity commonly used in homes and
businesses throughout the world. AC is different than the direct current (DC) electricity that
comes from a battery and flows in one direction through the wire. AC electricity alternates
directions. The back-and-forth motion occurs between 50 and 60 times per second,
depending on the electrical system of the country.
AC electricity is created by an AC electric generator, which determines the frequency. What
is special about AC electricity is that the voltage can be readily changed, thus making it
more suitable for long-distance transmission than DC electricity. But also, AC can employ
capacitors and inductors in electronic circuitry, allowing for a wide range of applications.
Note: We say AC electricity instead of simply saying AC, since that is also the abbreviation for air
conditioning. You need to be exact in science to avoid any misunderstandings.
Questions you may have include:
 • What is the difference between AC and DC electricity?
• Why do we use AC instead of DC?
• How do we create AC electricity?
This lesson will answer those questions. There is a mini-quiz near the end of the lesson.
Useful tools: Metric-English Conversion | Scientific Calculator.

Movement of electrons in AC
Electrons have negative (−) electrical charges. Since opposite charges attract, they will
move toward an area consisting of positive (+) charges. This movement is made easier in
an electrical conductor, such as a metal wire.
Electrons move direct with DC electricity
With DC electricity, connecting a wire from the negative (−) terminal of a battery to the
positive (+) terminal will cause the negative charged electrons to rush through the wire
toward the positive charged side. The same thing happens with a DC generator, where the
motion of coiled wire through a magnetic field pushes electrons out of one terminal and
attracts electrons to the other terminal.
Electrons alternate directions in AC electricity
With an AC generator, a slightly different configuration alternates the push and pull of each
generator terminal. Thus the electricity in the wire moves in one direction for a short while
and then reverses its direction when the generator armature is in a different position.
This illustration gives an idea of how the electrons move through a wire in AC electricity. Of
course, both ends of the wire extend to the AC generator or source of power.

AC movement of electrons in wire

The charge at the ends of the wire alternates between negative (−) and positive (+). If the
charge is negative (−), that pushes the negatively charged electrons away from that
terminal. If the charge is positive (+), the electrons are attracted in that direction.
Rate of change
AC electricity alternates back-and-forth in direction 50 or 60 times per second, according to
the electrical system in the country. This is called the frequency and is designated as either
50 Hertz (50Hz) or 60 Hertz (60Hz).
(See Worldwide AC Voltages and Frequencies for more information.)
Light bulbs
Many electrical devices—like light bulbs—only require that the electrons move. They don't
care if the electrons flow through the wire or simply move back-and-forth. Thus a light bulb
can be used with either AC or DC electricity.

AC is periodic motion
The regular back-and-forth motion of the electrons in a wire when powered by AC electricity
is periodic motion, similar to that of a pendulum.
(See Periodic Motion and Pendulum for more information.)
Because of this periodic motion of the electrons, the voltage and current follow a sine
waveform, alternating between positive (+) and negative (−), as measured with a voltmeter
or multimeter.

Waveform varies between positive and negative as it travels in time

The rate that the voltage or current peaks pass a given point is the frequency of the AC
electricity.

Transformer
The major advantage that AC electricity has over DC electricity is that AC voltages can be
transformed to higher or lower voltage levels, while it is difficult to do that with DC voltages.
When DC electricity was used supplied to homes is usually
High voltages are necessary for sending electricity great distances.

This means that the high voltages used to send electricity over great distances from the
power station could be reduced to a safer voltage for use in the house.
Changing voltages is done by the use of a transformer. This device uses properties of AC
electromagnets to change the voltages.
(See AC Transformers for more information.)

Tuning circuits
AC electricity also allows for the use of a capacitor and inductor within an electrical or
electronic circuit. These devices can affect the way the alternating current passes through a
circuit. They are only effective with AC electricity.
A combination of a capacitor, inductor and resistor is used as a tuner in radios and
televisions. Without those devices, tuning to different stations would be very difficult.

Summary
We commonly use AC electricity to power our television, lights and computers. In AC
electricity, the current alternates in direction. AC electricity was proven to be better for
supplying electricity than DC, primarily because the voltages can be transformed. AC also
allows for other devices to be used, opening a wide range of applications.

Alternating Current (AC) Transformers

by Ron Kurtus (revised 8 February 2009)
A transformer is an electrical device that is used to change the voltage in alternating current
(AC) electrical circuits.
The fact that the potential energy can be readily changed from one voltage to another
through the use of a transformer is a major advantage of AC electricity over direct current
(DC). AC transformers can change power line high voltages to house current voltage. They
also are used to change the voltage from house current to that used by low voltage devices.
Often the AC in these small transformers or adapters is also changed to DC.
Questions you may have include:
• How does the transformer work?
• What are the principles of electricity and magnetism
involved?
• What are some uses of transformers?
This lesson will answer those questions. There is a mini-quiz near the end of the lesson.
Useful tools: Metric-English Conversion | Scientific Calculator.

Basic principles of transformers

A transformer combines several major characteristics of electricity and magnetism to
change AC voltages. First of all, you need to know the principles for creating an
electromagnet and creating electricity.
Creating an electromagnet
A wire with DC electric current flowing through it has a magnetic field around it. Placing a
compass near a wire and observing the needle move when the DC current is turned on can
demonstrate this.
By wrapping the wire around a piece of iron, the magnetic field is increased many times due
to the realignment of the iron atoms, each which acts as a tiny magnet. The iron core and
wire wrapping is called an electromagnet.
Relation to voltage
The greater the current through the wire the greater the strength of the electromagnetic
field. Since voltage and current are proportional for a given resistance, according to Ohm's
Law V = IR, the strength of the electromagnetic field is proportional to the voltage used.
Double the voltage and you double the strength of the electromagnet.
(See Ohm's Law for Electrical Circuits for more information.)
Relation to turns of wire
The greater the number of turns around the iron core the greater the strength of the
electromagnet. The strength is approximately proportional to the number of turns. Triple
the number of turns and you triple the strength of the electromagnet.
(Experiment idea: measure the change of strength of an electromagnet by
changing the voltage and/or number of turns.)
Direction of magnetism
The direction of the magnetic field is determined by the direction of the current and the
direction of the turns around the iron core. If you change the direction of the current, the
north and south poles of the electromagnet will switch.
With DC electricity, you must physically change the wires to change the direction of the
current. With AC electricity, the direction changes with each cycle.
Thus, one end of an AC electromagnet is switching from north to south and back again 60
times per second in the U.S. or 50 times per second in some other countries.
Creating electricity
Electricity is created either when a wire is moved through a magnetic field or when a
magnetic field is moved past a wire. Moving the magnetic field past the wire can be done by
physically moving a magnet past the wire or by somehow changing the amount of the
magnetic field.

Transforming the voltage

To transform or change the voltage of AC electricity, you use an AC electromagnet and the
principles described above.
AC electromagnet
An AC electromagnet continually changes the direction of its magnetic field. This means the
field goes from zero to N to zero to S and so on. If you would put an AC electromagnet near
a wire, then the changing magnetic field should create a current in the wire.
Or better yet, why not wrap the wire around the iron core of the electromagnet? This is how
a transformer works.
Transformer
A transformer can be a long piece of iron with wire having with AC current going through it
and wrapped around the piece of iron near one end. It also has wire that creates electrical
current wrapped around it at the other end. A more common configuration is a square or
donut shaped iron core with the wire wrapping on both sides.

Transformer changes voltage

Output proportional to turns

The strength of the magnetic field is proportion to the input voltage and the number of
turns around the core (called the primary coil). By reversing the rule, the output voltage is
proportional to the strength of the changing magnetic field and the number of turns (called
the secondary coil).
For example, if you wanted to increase your house voltage from 110 volts (110V) to 220V in
order to power your electric stove, you could use a transformer with twice the turns in the
secondary coil as in the primary coil.
The relationship is written as:
 input volts / input turns = output volts / output turns
110V / 5 turns = 22 = 220V / 10 turns

Using transformers
Transformers are used to lower voltage to be safer to use in your house. You may also use
an adapter to lower the voltage even more for some devices you use. DC transformers are
now available, but they won't replace AC transformers.
House voltage
Normally, the current in the electrical lines outside your house are around 1100V AC. The
reason it is so high is that the electricity travels more effectively over long distances at
higher voltages. High voltage lines carry up to 10,000 volts.
The transformer near to top of the electrical pole changes the voltage to a safer 110V for
your house.
Adapters
Most people use adapters when they power devices that also use batteries. An adapter is a
transformer that changes the 110V AC house current to 12V DC or 9V DC that is used by
the device. It also changes the AC to DC, because the device works on batteries.
Changing AC to DC is done by electronic circuitry called a rectifier. It essentially chops off
1/2 of the AC current to make it similar to DC. Some of the lost AC current is turned into
heat. That is one reason your adapters sometimes get warm.
DC transformers
You can see that DC voltages could not be changed with the configuration of the
transformer. This is because the DC current would not be changing the magnetic field the
way AC current does. And this was the reason that AC won over DC when electricity started
to be used around the world.
Since then, electrical engineers have developed DC transformers, primarily using special
circuitry. Since most everyone now uses AC, it is too late to change the system.

Summary
The principles for creating an AC electromagnet and changing magnetic fields lead to how a
transformer works. The output voltage of a transformer is proportional to the ratio of the
number of turns of the coils. Transformers reduce the high voltage to a safer home voltage,
as well as to reduce 110V AC to what can be used in some battery-powered devices.

Worldwide AC Voltages and

Frequencies
by Ron Kurtus (revised 18 August 2005)
The voltage and frequency of alternating current (AC) electricity used in homes varies from
country to country throughout the world. Typically either 110-volt AC (110V) or 220-volt AC
(220V) are used. Note that 110 volts and 220 volts are averages, since the voltage does
fluctuate during usage. Most countries use 50Hz (50 Hertz or 50 cycles per second) as the
frequency of their AC. Only a handful use 60Hz. The United States uses 110V and 60Hz AC
electricity.
Questions you may have include:
 • How were the voltage and frequency values selected?
• What happens when you visit another country?
• What is the listing for the various countries?
This lesson will answer those questions. There is a mini-quiz near the end of the lesson.
Useful tools: Metric-English Conversion | Scientific Calculator.
Note: Click the Play button to hear the text being read.

Time = 8 min. 6 sec.

How values were selected

The type of electricity delivered to homes and businesses was first direct current (DC) but
then changed to AC electricity. The standard voltage level started at 110V, went to 240V,
back to 110V, and then to 220V. The frequency started at 60Hz and then went to 50Hz in
most areas.
Tesla starts AC
Early in the history or electricity, Thomas Edison's General Electric Company was
distributing DC electricity at 110 volts in the United States. Then Nikola Tesla devised a
system of three-phase AC electricity at 240 volts. Three-phase meant that three alternating
currents slightly out of phase were combined in order to even out the great variations in
voltage occurring in AC electricity. He had calculated that 60 cycles per second or 60Hz was
the most effective frequency. Tesla later compromised to reduce the voltage to 110 volts for
safety reasons.
Europe goes to 50Hz
With the backing of the Westinghouse Company, Tesla's AC system became the standard in
the United States. Meanwhile, the German company AEG started generating electricity and
became a virtual monopoly in Europe. They decided to use 50Hz instead of 60Hz to better
fit their metric standards, but they kept the voltage at 110V.
Unfortunately, 50Hz AC has greater losses and is not as efficient as 60HZ. Due to the slower
speed 50Hz electrical generators are 20% less effective than 60Hz generators. Electrical
transmission at 50Hz is about 10-15% less efficient. 50Hz transformers require larger
windings and 50Hz electric motors are less efficient than those meant to run at 60Hz. They
are more costly to make to handle the electrical losses and the extra heat generated at the
lower frequency.
Europe goes to 220V
Europe stayed at 110V AC until the 1950s, just after World War II. They then switched over
to 220V for better efficiency in electrical transmission. Great Britain not only switched to
220V, but they also changed from 60Hz to 50Hz to follow the European lead. Since many
people did not yet have electrical appliances in Europe after the war, the change-over was
not that expensive for them.
U.S. stays at 110V, 60Hz
The United States also considered converting to 220V for home use but felt it would be too
costly, due to all the 110V electrical appliances people had. A compromise was made in the
U.S. in that 220V would come into the house where it would be split to 110V to power most
appliances. Certain household appliances such as the electric stove and electric clothes
dryer would be powered at 220V.

When visiting another country

Bringing an electrical appliance from one country to another may require some special
converters, transformers and adapters to allow the appliance or device to work properly.
Converters
Converters are typically used to decrease the AC voltage from 220V to the 110V level
needed by the appliance.
They are only used for simple electrical products such as hair dryers, steam irons, shavers,
or small fans. They are only used for short periods of time, can only be used for ungrounded
appliances, and must be unplugged from the wall when not in use.
Converters cannot be used by electronic devices such as radios or computers. A transformer
is used for those devices. The reason is that a converter simply cuts the AC sine wave in
half, reducing the voltage. Electronic devices need the full sine wave to function properly.
Some converters will also change AC to DC. An example is converting 120V AC to 12V DC.
Transformers
Transformers are used to increase or decrease the voltage and should be used with
electronic devices such as radios, televisions, computers and other devices having
electronics circuitry.
Transformers are more expensive than converters. They can also be used with electric
appliances and may be operated continually for many days. A device like a hair dryer does
not have any electronic circuitry. It simply has a heatingr element and electric fan, so it can
use either a converter or transformer.
Dual voltage devices
Some devices have a built-in converter or transformer, such that they are called dual
voltage devices. Most laptop battery chargers and AC adapters are dual voltage, so they can
be used with only a plug adapter for the country you are visiting.
Plug Adapters
Outlet plugs are different in the various countries. Plug adapter must often be used when
visiting a different country. These adapters do not convert electricity. Rather, they simply
allow a dual voltage appliance, transformer or converter from one country to be plugged
into the wall outlet of another country.
Frequency difference
Converters and transformers only change the voltage and not the frequency. The result is
that a motor in a 50Hz appliance will operate slightly faster on 60Hz electricity. Likewise, a
clock made for 60Hz will run slower in a country using the 50Hz frequency.
Most modern electronic equipment like computers, printers, DVD players and stereos are
usually not affected by the frequency difference.

Country listing
Of the over 200 countries listed below, less than 40 use 110V. Some countries use dual
voltages. 43 countries use 60Hz, while the rest use 50Hz.
 Country Voltage Frequency Country Voltage Frequency.
Afghanistan 220V 50Hz Kiribati 240V 50Hz
Albania 230V 50Hz Korea, South 220V 60Hz
Algeria 230V 50Hz Kuwait 240V 50Hz
American Samoa 120V 60Hz Kyrgyzstan 220V 50Hz
Andorra 230V 50Hz Laos 230V 50Hz
Angola 220V 50Hz Latvia 230V 50Hz
Anguilla 110V 60Hz Lebanon 230V 50Hz
Antigua 230V 60Hz Lesotho 220V 50Hz
Argentina 220V 50Hz Liberia 120V 60Hz
Armenia 230V 50Hz Libya 127/230V 50Hz
Aruba 127V 60Hz Lithuania 230V 50Hz
Australia 240V 50Hz Liechtenstein 230V 50Hz
Austria 230V 50Hz Luxembourg 230V 50Hz
Azerbaijan 220V 50Hz Macau 220V 50Hz
Azores 230V 50Hz Macedonia 230V 50Hz
Bahamas 120V 60Hz Madagascar 127/220V 50Hz
Bahrain 230V 50Hz Madeira 230V 50Hz
Balearic Islands 230V 50Hz Malawi 230V 50Hz
Bangladesh 220V 50Hz Malaysia 240V 50Hz
Barbados 115V 50Hz Maldives 230V 50Hz
Belarus 230V 50Hz Mali 220V 50Hz
Belgium 230V 50Hz Malta 230V 50Hz
Belize 110/220V 60Hz Martinique 220V 50Hz
Benin 220V 50Hz Mauritania 220V 50Hz
Bermuda 120V 60Hz Mauritius 230V 50Hz
Bhutan 230V 50Hz Mexico 127V 60Hz
Bolivia 230V 50Hz Micronesia 120V 60Hz
Bosnia 230V 50Hz Moldova 230V 50Hz
Botswana 230V 50Hz Monaco 230V 50Hz
Brazil 110-220V 60Hz Mongolia 230V 50Hz
Brunei 240V 50Hz Montserrat Islands 230V 60Hz
Bulgaria 230V 50Hz Morocco 220V 50Hz
Burkina Faso 220V 50Hz Mozambique 220V 50Hz
Burundi 220V 50Hz Myanmar (Burma) 230V 50Hz
Cambodia 230V 50Hz Namibia 220V 50Hz
Cameroon 220V 50Hz Nauru 240V 50Hz
Canada 120V 60Hz Nepal 230V 50Hz
Canary Islands 230V 50Hz Netherlands 230V 50Hz
Cape Verde 230V 50Hz Netherlands Antilles 127/220V 50Hz
Cayman Islands 120V 60Hz New Caledonia 220V 50Hz
Central Africa 220V 50Hz New Zealand 230V 50Hz
Chad 220V 50Hz Nicaragua 120V 60Hz
Channel Islands 230V 50Hz Niger 220V 50Hz
Chile 220V 50Hz Nigeria 240V 50Hz
China 220V 50Hz Norway 230V 50Hz
Colombia 110V 60Hz Okinawa 100V 60Hz
 Comoros 220V 50Hz Oman 240V 50Hz
Congo (Zaire) 220V 50Hz Pakistan 230V 50Hz
Cook Islands 240V 50Hz Palmyra Atoll 120V 60Hz
Costa Rica 120V 60Hz Panama 110V 60Hz
Côte d'Ivoire Papua New Guinea 240V 50Hz
220V 50Hz
(Ivory Coast) Paraguay 220V 50Hz
Croatia 230V 50Hz Peru 220V 60Hz
Cuba 110/220V 60Hz Philippines 220V 60Hz
Cyprus 230V 50Hz Poland 230V 50Hz
Czech Republic 230V 50Hz Portugal 230V 50Hz
Denmark 230V 50Hz Puerto Rico 120V 60Hz
Djibouti 220V 50Hz Qatar 240V 50Hz
Dominica 230V 50Hz Réunion Island 230V 50Hz
Dominican Romania 230V 50Hz
110V 60Hz
Republic Russian Federation 230V 50Hz
East Timor 220V 50Hz Rwanda 230V 50Hz
Ecuador 127V 60Hz St. Kitts & Nevis
Egypt 220V 50Hz 230V 60Hz
Islands
El Salvador 115V 60Hz St. Lucia Island 240V 50Hz
Equatorial Guinea 220V 50Hz St. Vincent Island 230V 50Hz
Eritrea 230V 50Hz Saudi Arabia 127/220V 60Hz
Estonia 230V 50Hz Senegal 230V 50Hz
Ethiopia 220V 50Hz Serbia & Montenegro 230V 50Hz
Faeroe Islands 230V 50Hz Seychelles 240V 50Hz
Falkland Islands 240V 50Hz Sierra Leone 230V 50Hz
Fiji 240V 50Hz Singapore 230V 50Hz
Finland 230V 50Hz Slovakia 230V 50Hz
France 230V 50Hz Slovenia 230V 50Hz
French Guyana 220V 50Hz Somalia 220V 50Hz
Gaza 230V 50Hz South Africa 230V 50Hz
Gabon 220V 50Hz Spain 230V 50Hz
Gambia 230V 50Hz Sri Lanka 230V 50Hz
Germany 230V 50Hz Sudan 230V 50Hz
Ghana 230V 50Hz Suriname 127V 60Hz
Gibraltar 230V 50Hz Swaziland 230V 50Hz
Greece 230V 50Hz Sweden 230V 50Hz
Greenland 230V 50Hz Switzerland 230V 50Hz
Grenada 230V 50Hz Syria 220V 50Hz
Guadeloupe 230V 50Hz Tahiti 110/220V 60Hz
Guam 110V 60Hz Tajikistan 220V 50Hz
Guatemala 120V 60Hz Taiwan 110V 60Hz
Guinea 220V 50Hz Tanzania 230V 50Hz
Guinea-Bissau 220V 50Hz Thailand 220V 50Hz
Guyana 240V 60Hz Togo 220V 50Hz
Haiti 110V 60Hz Tonga 240V 50Hz
Honduras 110V 60Hz Trinidad & Tobago 115V 60Hz
Hong Kong 220V 50Hz Tunisia 230V 50Hz
 Hungary 230V 50Hz Turkey 230V 50Hz
Iceland 230V 50Hz Turkmenistan 220V 50Hz
India 240V 50Hz Uganda 240V 50Hz
Indonesia 230V 50Hz Ukraine 230V 50Hz
Iran 230V 50Hz United Arab Emirates 220V 50Hz
Iraq 230V 50Hz United Kingdom 230V 50Hz
Ireland (Eire) 230V 50Hz United States 110/220V 60Hz
Isle of Man 230V 50Hz Uruguay 220V 50Hz
Israel 230V 50Hz Uzbekistan 220V 50Hz
Italy 230V 50Hz Venezuela 120V 60Hz
Jamaica 110V 50Hz Vietnam 220V 50Hz
Japan 100V 50/60Hz Virgin Islands 110V 60Hz
Jordan 230V 50Hz Western Samoa 230V 50Hz
Kenya 240V 50Hz Yemen 230V 50Hz
Kazakhstan 220V 50Hz Zambia 230V 50Hz
Zimbabwe 220V 50Hz

Exceptions
Some countries can't decide on a standard.
Brazil
In Brazil, most states use between 110V and 127V AC electricity. But many hotels use
220V. In the capital Brasilia and in the northeast of the country, they mainly use 220-240V.
Japan
In Japan, they use the same voltage everywhere, but the frequency differs from region to
region. Eastern Japan, which includes Tokyo, uses 50Hz. In western Japan, which includes
Osaka and Kyoto, they use 60 Hz.
The reason for this is that after World War II, Britain was in charge of helping reconstruct
Japan's electrical system in the eastern part of the country and the United States set up the
electricity in the western part of Japan. Since Great Britain (United Kingdom) had been
using 60Hz before the war and had just switched over to the European 240V 50Hz, it is
strange that they set up Japan at 100V and 50Hz, especially when the U.S. was using 60Hz.
Having different voltages and frequencies within the country not only must be confusing for
the people but also can result in extra costs for appliances and adapters.

Summary
The voltage and frequency of AC electricity varies from country to country throughout the
world. Most use 220V and 50Hz. About 20% of the countries use 110V and/or 60Hz to
power their homes. 220V and 60Hz are the most efficient values, but only a few countries
use that combination. The United States uses 110V and 60Hz AC electricity.

Electrical Power
by Ron Kurtus (revised 14 August 2005)
The electrical power used in operate an electrical device is defined as the potential energy
or voltage times the current passing through the device. This could also apply to a whole
electrical system, such as the the power used in running your household appliances. This is
compared to the mechanical definition of power as the work done over a period of time. The
electric company uses the power used over a period of time to calculate the energy used
and thus your electric bill.
It is compared with the power required to do some work over a period of time.
Questions you may have include:
• How do you determine electrical power?
• How do we measure electrical power?
• How is your electric bill calculated?
This lesson will answer those questions. There is a mini-quiz near the end of the lesson.
Useful tools: Metric-English Conversion | Scientific Calculator.
Note: Click the Play button to hear the text being read.

Time = 4 min. 38 sec.

Determining electric power

The electrical power required to operate a device is the input voltage times the current
required.
P = VI
where
• P = electrical power
• V = voltage used
• I = current in amperes
• VI is V times I
Electrical power is measured in watts. If the amount of watts is large, kilowatts are used. 1
kilowatt = 1000 watts, just as 1 kilometer = 1000 meters. The abbreviation for kilowatt is
usually kW.
Current
If you look at the top of a light bulb, you will see its power rating. One example is a 100
watt light bulb. Thus P = 100W. You can use the equation P = VI for electrical power to
determine the amount of current passing through that light bulb.
If your house voltage is V = 110 volts, then you can see that 100W = 110V * I. Thus I =
100 / 110 = 0.91 amps.
Resistance
You can also find the resistance of the light bulb, using Ohm's Law: V = IR.
V = 110V
I = 0.91A
V = IR = 110V = 0.91A * R
Thus R = 110 / 0.91 = 120.9 ohms.

Comparing with mechanical power

The standard or mechanical definition of power is the work per unit time. (See Work for
more on that subject.) In other words, power equals work divided by time.
P=W/T
where P = power in watts, W = the work done in joules and T = the time of measurement.
Since energy is often defined as the ability to do work, let's substitute energy E for work
and rearrange the equation:
E = PT
Thus, the electrical energy used is the electrical power times the time. If we measure the
electrical power as kilowatts and the time as hours, we get the energy used by an electrical
system in terms of kilowatt-hours. That is the unit of measurement the electric company
uses when determining your bill.

Calculating your electric bill

Knowing about electrical power can help you in understanding how your electric bill is
calculated. The electric company sends you a bill determined by the amount of work the
electricity has done or amount of energy expended in kilowatt-hours. Most homes have an
electric meter outside that measures the amount of electrical energy used by the house
over a period of time.
Many electric companies charges about $0.07 per kilowatt-hour. Thus, you multiply the
number of kilowatts of electricity you use times the amount of time you use it and multiply
that by $0.07 to get your electric bill.
For example, if you used a 1500-watt hair dryer for 100 hours in a month at a cost of $0.07
per kilowatt-hour, the electric company would bill you for:
1500 watt * 100 hours = 150,000 watt-hours = 150 kilowatt-hours.
Thus your bill would amount to:
150 kilowatt-hours * $0.07 / kW-hr = $10.50.

Summary
Electric power is voltage times current. Your electric bill is based on the electric power times
the time used, in kilowatt-hours. Knowing how much power you used and the electric rate
charged, you can determine your electric bill.