International Journal of Hospitality Management 27 (2008) 151161

Hotel service providers emotional labor: The antecedents and

effects on burnout
Hyun Jeong Kim

School of Hospitality Business Management, 471 Todd Hall, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164, USA
Abstract
The purpose of this study is to examine the antecedents and consequences of two emotional labor strategies (surface and deep acting)
in the lodging industry. Variety, duration, and positive display rules are signicant predictors of hotel service providers deep acting and
negative display rules are related to service providers surface acting. Employees ohigh in neuroticism are more likely to fake their
emotional expressions (surface acting) when dealing with guests and those high in extraversion are more likely to try hard to invoke the
appropriate emotions (deep acting). Results further indicate that surface actors are more exhausted and cynical than deep actors and the
mediating role of emotional labor between burnout and job and personality characteristics is found to be rather weak. Managerial
implications for hotel operators are discussed.
r 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Surface acting; Deep acting; Emotional labor; Job characteristics; Personality; Burnout
1. Introduction
It is a common knowledge that hospitality front-line
employees frequently encounter demanding and difcult
customers. Although it is not a pleasant experience,
hospitality service agents are often required to be polite
and smile in front of the customers. Emotional labor takes
place in this kind of service work situation. Emotional
labor is the performance of various forms of emotion work
in the context of paid employment (Hochschild, 1983).
Pugh (2001) demonstrated the display of positive emotion
by employees is related to customers positive affect after
service transactions and evaluations of perceived service
quality. Ashkanasy et al. (2002) asserted that positive
emotional expression by service agents can have a
favorable effect on customer retention, recovery, and
satisfaction. Despite its benet to a companys bottom
line, emotional labor can be detrimental to service
providers both psychologically and physically. A growing
body of work shows emotion work or emotional labor as
one of the major causes of occupational stress and burnout
(Brotheridge and Grandey, 2002; Grandey, 2003; Kruml
and Geddes, 1997, 2000; Morris and Feldman, 1997;
Pugliesi, 1999; Sharrad, 1992; Tolich, 1993; Wharton, 1993;
Zapf et al., 2001).
Because emotional labor is a relatively new concept,
there is a dearth of research on this subject in the
hospitality academic eld. In addition, most studies
published in hospitality and tourism journals rely on
qualitative methods. For example, Seymour (2000) inter-
viewed workers in traditional silver service restaurants and
fast food restaurants to compare the kind and degree of
emotional labor in two different foodservice outlets.
Likewise, after conducting a personal interview with staff
members working for the pubs in the UK, Sandiford and
Seymour (2002) demonstrated some evidence of emotional
labor causing job stress. The authors further found
emotions generated at work could carry on outside of
work and inuence workers private lives.
Therefore, this study is designed to examine the
antecedents and outcomes of emotional labor, using a
survey (quantitative) method, in the context of the lodging
industry. The antecedents of emotional labor are divided
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0278-4319/$ - see front matter r 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ijhm.2007.07.019

Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 509 335 4706; fax: +1 509 335 3857.
E-mail address: Jennykim@wsu.edu
into job characteristics and individual attributes and the
consequences of emotional labor focus on job burnout.
Specically, the following three research questions are
answered in this study: (1) which job characteristics
and individual attributes predict hotel service providers
emotional labor? (2) how is emotional labor related
to hotel service employees burnout? and (3) ultimately
does emotional labor play a role as a mediator bet-
ween burnout and individual characteristics and job
attributes?
2. Literature review
2.1. The origin of emotional labor
The concept of emotional labor originates from Hochs-
child (1979, 1983). According to her, common expectations
exist regarding the appropriate emotional reactions of
individuals during service transactions. For example, ight
attendants are supposed to feel cheerful and friendly,
whereas funeral directors are supposed to feel somber and
reserved (Ashforth and Humphrey, 1993). This phenom-
enon is described as feeling rules (Hochshild, 1983) and
others refer to it as display rules (Ashforth and
Humphrey, 1993; Morris and Feldman, 1996). Service
providers experience emotional dissonance when the
emotions to be expressed differ from the emotions felt
(Hochschild, 1983). Employees handle this dissonance
either by surface acting or deep acting (Hochschild,
1983). According to her, feelings are changed from the
outside in in surface acting (faking feelings), whereas
feelings are changed from the inside out in deep acting
(modifying inner feelings). She recognizes the situation
where workers spontaneously feel what they are required to
feel with no conscious effort. This case is called passive
deep acting.
Researchers debate if passive deep acting should be
included in the conceptualization of emotional labor
because passive deep acting lacks the process of internal
dissonance and conscious effort (Mann, 1999a). In general,
deep acting indicates active deep acting (involving indivi-
duals internal dissonance and effort) rather than passive
deep acting.
2.2. Dimensions of emotional labor and its measures
As theories on emotional labor have progressed, several
researchers attempted to develop a psychometrically
rigorous measure of emotional labor. Morris and Feldman
(1996) conceptualized the emotional labor construct along
four dimensions: frequency of interactions, attentiveness
to display rules, variety of emotional expressions, and
emotional dissonance. Later, in their empirical research on
antecedents and consequences of emotional labor, emo-
tional labor was identied into three sub-constructs:
frequency, duration, and emotional dissonance (Morris
and Feldman, 1997).
Kruml and Geddes (2000) questioned content validity of
Morris and Feldmans (1997) measure because their scale
was not fully linked with Hochchilds (1983) acting
paradigm. Kruml and Geddes (2000) scale included two
facets: emotive dissonance and emotive effort. The rst
factor captured Hochschilds (1983) surface and passive
deep acting: the higher is the mean score, the more emotive
dissonance (i.e., more surface acting); and the lower the
mean score, the less emotive dissonance (i.e., more passive
deep acting). The second factor reected active deep acting.
In an effort to integrate previous perspectives, Brother-
idge and Grandey (2002) restructured emotional labor into
two categories: One focuses on the characteristic of the job
and the other emphasizes employees emotion management
process. The former is called job-focused emotional
labor which includes the frequency, duration, variety,
and intensity of emotional labor and display rules. The
latter is named employee-focused emotional labor, an
emotion management technique that employees use in the
course of interactions with customers. This category
includes surface acting and deep acting. Brotheridge and
Lee (2003) used the similar approach. They developed an
emotional labor measure including both job-focused and
employee-focused variables. Specically, their measure
has six facets: frequency of interaction, intensity and
variety of emotional display, duration of interaction, and
surface and deep acting.
Emotional labor researchers often ignored spontaneous
and genuine emotions, acknowledged as passive deep
acting by Hochschild (1983), in the development of the
emotional labor measure. Diefendorff et al. (2005)
constructed the display of naturally felt emotions as an
independent factor and formed a three-dimensional emo-
tional labor instrument: surface acting, deep acting, and
naturally felt emotions.
In summary, despite many different measures developed,
the general view is that job-related variables, such as
frequency, intensity, variety, and display rules are per-
ceived as the antecedents of emotional labor rather than
emotional labor itself and two acting modes (surface and
deep acting) that employees use to match the required
emotional display are regarded as the true components of
emotional labor (Grandey, 2000).
2.3. Antecedents of emotional labor
2.3.1. Job characteristics
Customer satisfaction depends on the quality of the
interpersonal interaction between the customer and front-
line employees (Bitner, 1990; Bitner et al., 1994). Hochs-
child (1983) argued that job characteristics such as
numerous interactions with customers are likely to increase
service providers emotional labor. Brotheridge and
Grandey (2002) found that frequency and variety of
emotional display were positively related to surface acting
and deep acting and that duration was positively related to
deep acting. In the article by Brotheridge and Lee (2003),
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H.J. Kim / International Journal of Hospitality Management 27 (2008) 151161 152
frequency and variety showed a positive relationship with
surface acting and deep acting, although duration was not
related to either acting. Diefendorff et al. (2005) reported
interaction characteristics (frequency, duration, and routi-
neness) were not signicant predictors of surface acting but
mostly related to deep acting. Specically, duration had a
positive impact on deep acting and routineness showed a
negative inuence on deep acting.
The most prevalent theory regarding the relationship
between customer contact variables and emotional labor
strategies originates from Morris and Feldmans (1996)
conceptual work. The authors argued that the more often a
work role requires socially proper emotional displays, the
greater the companys demand for emotional regulation
and the greater employees emotional labor; frequent
changes in the variety of emotions to t in different
situational contexts require more planning and anticipation
on the part of service employees, thereby entailing greater
emotional labor; and emotional displays of long duration
require more effort than short duration, leading to greater
emotional labor. This notion suggests the possibility of
frequency, variety, and duration increasing emotional
labor in general (both surface and deep acting). However,
previous ndings especially regarding duration seem to
suggest that duration largely leads to deep acting. Deep
acting may be the strategy of choice during long interaction
because it becomes difcult for employees to fake emotion
for a long period of time (Diefendorff et al., 2005). Hence,
the following three hypotheses are proposed regarding the
relationships between the three interaction characteristics
(frequency, duration, and variety) and emotional labor
strategies.
Hypothesis 1a. Frequency of emotional expression will
have a positive relationship with hotel service employees
surface acting and deep acting.
Hypothesis 1b. Variety of emotional expression will have a
positive relationship with hotel service employees surface
acting and deep acting.
Hypothesis 1c. Duration of interaction will have a positive
relationship with hotel service employees deep acting.
The hospitality literature has shown that job autonomy
can alleviate the level of hospitality employees emotional
exhaustion Kim et al. (2007). Morris and Feldman (1996,
1997) suggested employees who have less autonomy over
their behavior should feel more emotive dissonance, which
likely leads them to fake feelings (surface acting); and those
who have more autonomy experience less emotive dis-
sonance, therefore they are likely to express their natural
emotions. According to their rationale, job autonomy is
not related to emotive effort (i.e., deep acting). Abreast of
Morris and Feldmans (1996, 1997) work, the following
hypothesis is predicted in the hotel work situation:
Hypothesis 1d. Job autonomy will have a negative relation-
ship with hotel service providers surface acting.
According to Hochschild (1983), service occupations
involve strong norms and/or expectations regarding dis-
plays of emotions. Research has shown that display
rules have a positive relationship with emotional acting
(Brotheridge and Lee, 2002). Some studies separate display
rules into positive and negative rules. Positive display rules
evaluate service providers perceptions on expressing
positive emotions and negative display rules evaluate the
perceptions regarding suppressing negative emotions at
work. Brotheridge and Grandey (2002) showed that both
types of display rules were positively correlated with both
types of acting. Diefendorff and Richard (2003) hypothe-
sized that perceived demands (positive and negative display
rules) would be positively related to emotional display, but
the result indicated that only positive rule demands led to
emotional display. Diefendorff et al. (2005) found that
positive display rules were positively correlated with deep
acting and negative display rules were positively correlated
with surface acting. The authors explained that positive
rules (what to express) clarify expectations better and result
in good faith attempts (deep acting), whereas negative
rules (what not to express) lead employees to just go through
the motion and fake their emotions (surface acting).
In hospitality organizations such as hotel companies,
explicit norms are often included in the job description and
employees are trained accordingly (e.g., showing a smile
with a cheerful greeting). Theoretically, it seems plausible
that hotel rms display rules increase the likelihood of
hotel personnels emotional regulation, leading to emo-
tional acting either surface or deep acting. Therefore, in
harmony with Brotheridge and Grandeys (2002) work, it is
predicted that display rules, regardless of the type, will
affect both acting strategies.
Hypothesis 1e. Both display rules will have a positive
inuence on both acting strategies in hotels.
2.3.2. Individual characteristics
Emotional labor researchers seem to agree that service
workers emotional acting can be explained by personality
traits because personal dispositions underlie much of the
way that people think and behave (Ashkanasy et al., 2002).
The dispositional factors frequently mentioned in their
relations to emotional labor are positive affectivity (PA)
and negative affectivity (NA). NA is generally positively
related to surface acting and PA demonstrates a negative
association with surface acting (Brotheridge and Grandey,
2002; Brotheridge and Lee, 2003; Diefendorff et al., 2005).
Affectivity variables are largely irrelevant to deep acting
(Brotheridge and Grandey, 2002; Brotheridge and Lee,
2003; Diefendorff et al., 2005) with one exception:
Gosserand and Diefendorff (2005) reported the same
pattern of relations between surface acting and PA
(negative relation) and NA (positive relation) as others,
but also reported a positive relation between deep acting
and PA and NA. However, no rationale was provided by
the authors.
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Some scholars have operationalized PA with extraver-
sion and NA with neuroticism because extraversion and
neuroticism are strongly related to PA and NA, respec-
tively (Diefendorff et al., 2005). Diefendorff and Richard
(2003) argued that the advantage of using personality
traits, instead of the direct measures of affectivity, is that
since extraversion and neuroticism are linked to the
dominant personality framework, researchers can make
broader inferences in connection with organizational
studies using those traits. Hence, utilizing the personality
traits of extraversion and neuroticism, we posited the
following two hypotheses with more focus on surface
acting:
Hypothesis 2a. Neuroticism will have a positive inuence
on hotel service providers surface acting.
Hypothesis 2b. Extraversion will have a negative inuence
on hotel service providers surface acting.
2.4. Employees emotional labor as a mediator and its
impact on burnout
Job burnout is dened as a syndrome of emotional
exhaustion, depersonalization of others, and a feeling of
reduced personal accomplishment (Lee and Ashforth,
1990, p. 743). The three constructs of burnout (emotional
exhaustion, depersonalization, and personal accomplish-
ment) are renamed exhaustion, cynicism, and professional
efcacy, respectively, after development of Maslach Burn-
out Inventory-General Survey (MBI-GS; Schaufeli et al.,
1996). The MBI-GS, a modied version of the original
MBI, was designed to measure burnout in a broader range
of occupations.
Research has shown the relationship between three
factors of burnout and acting modes. For example, surface
acting was positively correlated with emotional exhaustion
and depersonalization and negatively correlated with
personal accomplishment (Brotheridge and Lee, 2003).
Grandey (2003) also hypothesized a direct, positive path
from surface acting to emotional exhaustion and the result
was supported. However, in Brotheridge and Grandeys
(2002) study, the effect of surface acting on emotional
exhaustion was too small to support the hypothesis; other
hypotheses regarding the inuence of surface acting on
depersonalization (positive effect) and personal accom-
plishment (negative effect) were supported as postulated.
Brotheridge and Lee (2002) explored the possibility of
the existence of intervening variables between emotional
labor and burnout. They demonstrated surface acting had
an indirect inuence on emotional exhaustion, depersona-
lization, and personal accomplishment via either rewarding
social relationships or authenticity or both variables. In
summary, overall surface acting brings unfavorable results:
increase in emotional exhaustion, increase in depersonali-
zation, and decrease in personal accomplishment. There-
fore, the following three hypotheses are proposed for the
present research with the modied burnout terms in the
MBI-GS:
Hypothesis 3a. Hotel service providers surface acting will
have a positive inuence on exhaustion.
Hypothesis 3b. Hotel service providers surface acting will
have a positive inuence on cynicism.
Hypothesis 3c. Hotel service providers surface acting will
have a negative inuence on professional efcacy.
Regarding the deep acting strategy, the majority of
studies show that deep acting produces more favorable
outcomes than surface acting. For instance, deep acting
had the positive correlation with a sense of personal
accomplishment among the three job burnout factors
(Brotheridge and Lee, 2003). Similarly, Brotheridge and
Grandey (2002) reported deep acting as a signicant,
positive predictor of personal accomplishment. However,
the relationship between deep acting and emotional
exhaustion has been somewhat debatable. Grandey
(2003) posited deep acting is positively related to emotional
exhaustion, but the result was not signicant. In the path
model, Brotheridge and Lee (2002) showed deep acting
affected emotional exhaustion indirectly through the
authenticity variable, whereas deep acting had a direct,
negative impact on depersonalization and a direct, positive
inuence on personal accomplishment.
Hochschild (1983) asserted that service providers who
identify too wholeheartedly with the job have a higher risk
of burnout than those who distinguish themselves from the
job. Intuitively, it also makes sense that more energy
and efforts are likely required to modify inner feelings
(deep acting) than simply faking (surface acting). There-
fore, in this study, it is proposed that deep acting will
be associated positively with hotel service employees
emotional exhaustion. The remaining hypotheses concern-
ing the relationships with depersonalization and personal
accomplishment follow the previous results. The following
summary shows the three research hypotheses of the
present research about the deep acting strategy using the
modied burnout terms in MBI-GS:
Hypothesis 4a. Hotel service providers deep acting will
have a positive inuence on exhaustion
Hypothesis 4b. Hotel service providers deep acting will
have a negative inuence on cynicism.
Hypothesis 4c. Hotel service providers deep acting will
have a positive inuence on professional efcacy.
The hypotheses (1a4c) predicted in this study implicitly
suggest that emotional labor mediates the effects of job
variables and personality characteristics on burnout. In
Grandeys (2000) conceptual framework of emotional
labor, the following process is proposed: situational clues
(e.g., interaction expectations, emotional events), individual
variables (e.g., gender, emotional intelligence, affectivity),
and organizational factors (e.g., autonomy, supervisor
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H.J. Kim / International Journal of Hospitality Management 27 (2008) 151161 154
support) are input; employees soon experience an emo-
tional regulation process (surface acting and deep acting);
and emotional acting leads to individual and organiza-
tional well-being (e.g., burnout and work performance).
The basic framework of this study is in line with Grandeys
(2000) model with an implication of emotional acting as
a mediator. Therefore, the following hypothesis is put
forward in the hotel work setting:
Hypothesis 5. The two emotional labor strategies will act
as a mediator between hotel service providers burnout and
individual and job-related variables.
3. Methodology
3.1. Data
A total of 197 hotel service employees participated in the
present emotional labor study. These respondents partici-
pated in the hotel job burnout research by Kim et al.
(2007). The participants were a convenience sample,
recruited through eight human resource managers who
were familiar with the School of Hospitality Business
Management at Washington State University (WSU).
All the lodging properties were located in the state of
Washington, USA. Based on the size of the hotel, the
number of questionnaires sent to each human resource
manager varied from 50 to 220. The participants
mailed their questionnaire directly to the author. The
average return rate was 20%. The subjects consisted
of 62% of female (119) and were, on average, about
36 years old. The respondents came from almost every
department in the hotel including front ofce (39),
restaurants (38), sales and marketing (25), housekeeping
(23), catering (20), engineering (11), room service (7)
and others (15). The subjects hotel work experience
varied from two months to 35 years with a mean of seven
years.
3.2. Questionnaire measures
3.2.1. Control variables
Gender, experience, and age were included as control
variables. For example, emotional labor researchers argue
that females are more sensitive to the emotional cue of
others and skillful at the practice of emotion management
(Domagalski, 1999; Hochschild, 1983); inexperienced or
new workers experience more emotive dissonance or effort
because of the companys display rule that they begin to
learn (Hochschild, 1983, Kruml and Geddes, 2000); and
older employees are more able to control their emotions
and display appropriate emotions (Hochschild, 1983,
Kruml and Geddes, 2000). The information on gender,
experience, and age were included at the end of the
questionnaire. For experience, the total number of years of
the subjects hotel work experience including the current
hotel company was asked.
3.2.2. Personality characteristics
Personality characteristics were assessed with the sub-
scales of neuroticism (10 items, a 0.84) and extraversion
(10 items, a 0.89) of the Big Five in the International
Personality Item Pool (IPIP; Goldberg, 2001). Both
neuroticism and extraversion items were rated on a
5-point scale (1 very inaccurate, 5 very accurate).
3.2.3. Interaction characteristics
Three interaction characteristics (frequency, duration,
and variety) were measured with items from Brotheridge
and Lees (2003) emotional labor scale with minor wording
changes. For the frequency of interactions with customers
(1 item), using a 5-point Likert-type scale (1 never, 5
always), subjects were asked to rate on an average day,
how frequently they make face-to-face or voice-to-voice
interactions with hotel guests. Duration of emotion work
(1 item) was measured by asking respondents an average
number of minutes required for a typical service transac-
tion. Lastly, employees indicated the variety of emotional
expressions they display at work (3 items, a 0.84; sample
item: I display many different emotions when interacting
with customers) on a 5-point response scale (1 never,
5 always).
3.2.4. Autonomy
Autonomy indicates self-determination, that is, the
subjects feeling of having control over his or her own
work. In this study, Marchese and Ryans (2001) scale
(4 items, a 0.74; sample item: I am basically my own
boss) was used to measure hotel service employees job
autonomy. Subjects rated items using a 5-point scale
(1 strongly disagree, 5 strongly agree).
3.2.5. Display rules
The emotion work requirements scale (Best et al., 1997)
was used to evaluate the level of hotel companies display
rules. Respondents were asked the extent to which they are
required to hide (or show) emotions to be effective on the
job (sample item: Showing friendly emotions such as
smiling, giving compliments, and making small talk).
Negative (3 items, a 0.76) and positive (4 items,
a 0.78) display rules were rated on a 5-point scale
(1 not at all, 5 always required).
3.2.6. Emotional labor
Items measuring hotel service employees two acting
strategies came from Brotheridge and Lees (2003) emo-
tional labor scale. Surface acting consisted of three items
(a 0.69; sample item: I pretend to have emotions that I
dont really have) and deep acting had three items
(a 0.87; sample item: I really try to feel the emotions
that I have to show as part of my job). Using a 5-point
scale (1 never, 5 always), respondents were asked to
indicate how often they utilize the described acting mode
upon dealing with customers.
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H.J. Kim / International Journal of Hospitality Management 27 (2008) 151161 155
3.2.7. Burnout
The MBI-GS (Schaufeli et al., 1996) was used to measure
the three sub-constructs of job burnout: exhaustion
(5 items, a 0.89; sample item: I feel emotionally drained
from my work), cynicism (5 items, a 0.82; sample item:
I just want to do my job and not be bothered),
and professional efcacy (6 items, a 0.68; sample item:
I have accomplished worthwhile things in this job). All
items were answered on a 5-point Likert-type scale
(1 strongly disagree, 5 strongly agree).
3.3. Statistical design
First, to determine the signicant antecedents of emo-
tional labor, two hierarchical regression analyses were run
for employees acting methods of surface and deep acting
(dependent variables) with a set of predicted antecedents
(independent variables). Among independent variables,
control variables (gender, age, and experience) entered
the regression equation rst; autonomy, frequency, dura-
tion, variety, display rules were grouped together as job-
related variables and entered the model second; and
personality characteristics (extraversion and neuroticism)
were added last as another separate group.
Next, a series of regression equations with similar
hierarchical steps were used to investigate the inuence of
the two acting modes on hotel service employees burnout
and determine the extent to which the acting modes serve
as a mediator between burnout (dependent variable) and
personality and job-related variables (independent vari-
ables). Baron and Kennys (1986) method is best known
and used to test the effect of mediation: in the rst
equation, a signicant relationship must exist between the
predictor (independent variable) and the mediator; in the
second equation, the predictor must be signicantly related
to the outcome (dependent variable); and last, the mediator
must affect the outcome and the effect of the predictor on
the outcome must be less in the third equation than in the
second. If the effect of the predictor disappears (becomes
insignicant) in the third equation, the mediator is a full
(complete) mediator and if the effect of the predictor still
strongly exist but is reduced in the third equation, the
mediator is referred to as a partial mediator. For the latter
case, the further signicance test of the mediated effect
(evaluating the signicant reduction of the unstandardized
beta coefcient (B) of the predictor variable from equation
2 to equation 3) is essential (for details of the test, see
Frazier et al., 2004).
The rst equation (of Baron and Kennys method) is
done earlier by regressing emotional acting (mediator) on
job and personality characteristics (predictors). For the
second equation, the burnout components (outcomes)
were regressed on job-related and personality variables
(predictors). The direct effect of dispositional factors
(neuroticism and extraversion) and job characteristics
(autonomy, customer contact, and display rules) on
burnout has been well documented (e.g., Brotheridge and
Grandey, 2002; Cordes and Daugherty, 1993; Demerouti
et al., 2001; Kim et al., 2007; Maslach et al., 2001). To
complete the last equation, the burnout factors were
regressed on emotional labor strategies (mediators) and
job and personality variables (predictors). For the second
and third equations, the same control variables were used
because the burnout literature generally reported gender,
age, and experience as effective demographic variables on
burnout (Maslach et al., 2001).
4. Results
4.1. Correlations
As a preliminary test, the Pearson Correlation values
were reviewed between independent and dependant vari-
ables (Table 1). The relationships between acting strategies
and most job-related variables (autonomy, frequency,
duration, variety, display rules) appeared to be pretty
congruent with the proposed hypotheses. For example, all
interaction variables (frequency, duration, and variety) and
display rules (positive and negative) demonstrated the
positive correlations with two acting strategies, although
not every variable was signicant. The only job variable
suggesting quite a difference from the proposed hypotheses
was autonomy. It displayed almost zero correlation with
surface acting and rather showed a signicant, positive
correlation with deep acting (r 0.18, po0.05), which was
not really expected.
The relationships between dispositional variables and
surface acting matched the research hypotheses. That is,
neuroticism was positively correlated with surface acting
(r 0.22, po0.01) and the direction of the relationship
between extraversion and surface acting was negative
although not signicant. In addition, an unexpected
signicant positive correlation between extraversion and
deep acting (r 0.23, po0.01) was found.
Directions of the relationships between employees
surface acting and burnout were fairly consistent with
the proposed hypotheses. Surface acting had a positive
correlation with exhaustion (r 0.30, po0.01) and cyni-
cism (r 0.31, po0.01). Although insignicant, profes-
sional efcacy was negatively correlated with surface acting
as expected. Deep acting showed a negative correlation
with cynicism (r 0.16, po0.05) and positive correlation
with professional efcacy (r 0.28, po0.01). There
appeared to be a negative (but not signicant) correlation
between deep acting and exhaustion, which contradicts
the research hypothesis predicting a positive relationship
between the two variables.
4.2. Hierarchical regression analyses
4.2.1. The relationship between emotional labor and job
variables and personality
Table 2 presents the ndings on the predictors of
emotional labor (equation 1). Overall, both acting models
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H.J. Kim / International Journal of Hospitality Management 27 (2008) 151161 156
were signicant (surface acting: F 3.48, po0.01; deep
acting: F 6.10, po0.01) with a total R
2
of 21% and 34%,
respectively. Job-related variables made a signicant R
2
increment for surface acting (DR
2
0.10, po0.01) and
deep acting (DR
2
0.26, po0.01). Among six job-related
variables (frequency, variety, duration, autonomy, positive
display rule, and negative display rule), only negative
display rule (b 0.31, po0.01) was signicantly related to
surface acting, whereas variety (b 0.18, po0.01) and
positive display rule (b 0.33, po0.01) were signicant
determinants of deep acting. Therefore, H1a (a positive
relationship between frequency and both acting strategies)
and H1c (a positive relationship between duration and
deep acting) are rejected. H1b (a positive relationship
between variety and both acting modes) is partially
supported because variety was positively related to deep
acting. H1d predicts a negative effect of autonomy on
surface acting. H1d is rejected because autonomy showed
no relationship with surface acting. H1e states that both
display rules will be positively related to both acting
methods. This hypothesis is partially supported because
each display rule was associated with only one particular
acting strategy.
Following the entry of dispositional variables, there were
signicant increments in R
2
of both acting models (surface
acting: DR
2
0.08, po0.01; deep acting: DR
2
0.04,
po0.05). The analyses indicated that neuroticism is
signicantly associated with surface acting (b 0.30,
po0.01) and extraversion may be marginally related to
deep acting (b 0.15, p 0.061). Hence, H2a regarding a
positive relationship between neuroticism and surface
acting is supported and the other hypothesis (H2b)
concerning a negative effect of extraversion on surface
acting is rejected.
4.2.2. Emotional labor as a mediator and its effect on
burnout
Table 3 presents the results of the regression analyses
conducted to examine the role of emotional labor as a
mediator and its inuence on burnout. In equation 2
(without acting variables), autonomy was negatively
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Table 1
Descriptive statistics, reliabilities, and correlations
Variables
a
M SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
1. Autonomy 3.60 0.87 (0.74)
2. Frequency 3.66 1.99 0.17* N.A.
b
3. Duration 7.22 9.02 0.08 0.12 N.A.
b
4. Variety 2.84 0.86 0.17* 0.26** 0.48** (0.84)
5. P. display 4.08 0.64 0.23* 0.04 0.17* 0.25** (0.78)
6. N. display 3.43 0.88 0.05 0.00 0.08 0.01 0.34** (0.76)
7. Extraversion 4.38 0.76 0.23** 0.09 0.07 0.14* 0.22** 0.07 (0.84)
8. Neuroticism 2.96 0.66 0.23* 0.05 0.10 0.05 0.07 0.09 0.26** (0.89)
9. Surface act 2.85 0.77 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.13 0.09 0.24** 0.09 0.22** (0.67)
10. Deep act 3.20 0.95 0.18* 0.10 0.29** 0.37** 0.45** 0.12 0.23** 0.01 0.07 (0.85)
11. Exhaustion 2.72 0.95 0.24** 0.13 0.15* 0.03 0.07 0.02 0.24** 0.44** 0.30** 0.09 (0.89)
12. Cynicism 2.48 0.96 0.27** 0.01 0.09 0.02 0.17* 0.05 0.20** 0.40** 0.31** 0.16* 0.51** (0.82)
13. Prof. efcacy 4.14 0.57 0.43** 0.02 0.12 0.20** 0.48** 0.12 0.23** 0.09 0.07 0.28** 0.24** 0.30** (0.68)
*po0.05; **po0.01; internal reliabilities are in parentheses.
a
All study variables are rated on a 5-point scale except duration. Duration indicates the average number of minutes spent on a typical service
transaction.
b
NA not applicable (1-item measure).
Table 2
Regression of emotional labor on job characteristics, individual char-
acteristics, and control variables
Independent variables Dependent variables
Surface acting Deep acting
Equation 1 Equation 1
b D R
2
b D R
2
(I) Control variables 0.04 0.03
Age 0.07 0.09
Gender 0.14
y
0.10
Tenure 0.11 0.02
(II) Job characteristics 0.10

0.26

Job autonomy 0.04 0.05

Frequency 0.01 0.03
Variety 0.11 0.18

Duration 0.10 0.11

Positive display rules 0.02 0.33

Negative display rules 0.31

0.08
(III) Individual characteristics 0.08

0.04

Extraversion 0.00 0.15

y
Neuroticism 0.30

0.06
F 3.48

6.10

Total R
2
0.21 0.34
Adjusted R
2
0.16 0.27
Note: b, standardized beta weight.
y
po0.10

po0.05

po0.01.
H.J. Kim / International Journal of Hospitality Management 27 (2008) 151161 157
related to exhaustion (b 0.15, po0.05) and neuroticism
was positively related to exhaustion (b 0.34, po0.01).
The entry of emotional labor contributed unique variance
(DR
2
0.10, po0.01) to the model (equation 3) and the
nal model showed three variables as signicant predictors
of exhaustion: autonomy (b 0.15, po0.05), neuroti-
cism (b 0.20, po0.01), and surface acting (b 0.33,
po0.01). Surface acting displayed a positive effect on
exhaustion as expected. Compared with the results of
equation 2, the nal model (equation 3) indicated surface
acting as a possible partial mediator between neuroticism
and exhaustion. The further test conrmed partial media-
tion by demonstrating that although the effect of neuroti-
cism remained strong, it was signicantly reduced after the
entry of emotional labor (B 0.63 in equation 2 to
B 0.45 in equation 3, po0:05; for the detailed procedure,
see Frazier et al., 2004).
As with exhaustion, the model for cynicism (equation 2)
indicated autonomy (b 0.26, po0.01) and neuroticism
(b 0.31, po0.01) as signicant determinants of cynicism.
When emotional labor was entered, there was a signicant
increment in R
2
of the model (DR
2
0.12, po0.01).
Surface acting had a signicant, positive beta coefcient
(b 0.34, po0.01) and deep acting showed a marginally
signicant, negative coefcient (b 0.15, p 0.057).
The third (nal) model included autonomy (b 0.25,
po0.01), neuroticism (b 0.22, p 0.01), surface acting,
and deep acting as signicant predictors of cynicism.
A comparison of the results of equations 2 and 3 suggested
that surface acting is a partial mediator between neuroti-
cism and cynicism. The further mediation test conrmed
partial mediation. When emotional labor was added to the
model, the effect of cynicism on exhaustion was signi-
cantly reduced (B 0.63 in equation 2 to B 0.45 in
equation 3, po0.05).
Lastly, professional efcacy (in equation 2) was posi-
tively related to positive display rules (b 0.36, po0.01)
and autonomy (b 0.30, po0.01); and neither personality
variable was related to professional efcacy. Emotional
labor explained 8% of the variance of the model
(equation 3) and deep acting had a signicant, positive
beta coefcient as predicted (b 0.27, po0.01). In the
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Table 3
Regression of burnout on job characteristics, individual characteristics, and control variables (equation 2) and acting strategies (equation 3)
Independent variables Dependent variables
Exhaustion Cynicism Prof. efcacy
Equation 2 Equation 3 Equation 2 Equation 3 Equation 2 Equation 3
b
i
b
t
D R
2
b
i
b
t
D R
2
b
i
b
t
D R
2
(I) Control variables 0.01 0.01 0.00
Age 0.03 0.03 0.08 0.06 0.11 0.10
Gender 0.03 0.05 0.09 0.11 0.02 0.02
Tenure 0.11 0.14 0.00 0.02 0.02 0.01
(II) Job characteristics 0.07

0.11

0.29

Job autonomy 0.15

0.15

0.26

0.25

0.30

0.30

Frequency 0.11 0.13 0.10 0.09 0.02 0.02

Variety 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.03
Duration 0.09 0.06 0.04 0.01 0.12 0.12
Positive display rules 0.02 0.01 0.09 0.03 0.36

0.21

Negative display rules 0.01 0.05 0.09 0.02 0.04 0.03

(III) Individual characteristics 0.15

0.10

0.02
Extraversion 0.11 0.11 0.05 0.05 0.12 0.11
Neuroticism 0.34

0.20
a
0.31

0.22
a
0.07 0.07
(IV) Acting strategies 0.10

0.12

0.08

Surface acting 0.30

0.32

0.02
Deep acting 0.06 0.15
y
0.27

F 4.84

5.03

5.93

Total R
2
0.33 0.34 0.38
Adjusted R
2
0.26 0.27 0.32
Note: b
i
, standardized beta weight without emotional labor variables; b
t
, nal beta (standardized) coefcient after all variables have been entered.
a
The signicant reduction of the unstandardized beta coefcient (B) is tested (B values are reported in the result section of the paper). For the detailed
test procedure, review Frazier et al.s (2004) article.
y
po0.10

po0.05

po 0.01.
H.J. Kim / International Journal of Hospitality Management 27 (2008) 151161 158
third (nal) equation, in addition to deep acting, autonomy
(b 0.30, po0.01) and positive display rules (b 0.21,
po0.01) were signicant. In the same manner, a review of
the results of equations 2 and 3 indicated that deep acting
is a partial mediator between positive display rules
and professional efcacy because of the signicantly
reduced effect of the positive display rule in the nal
equation (B 0.45 in equation 2 to B 0.21 in equation 3,
po0.05).
Based on the above results, the following hypotheses are
supported: a positive effect of surface acting on exhaustion
(H3a); a positive impact of surface acting on cynicism
(H3b); a negative effect of deep acting on cynicism (H4b);
and a positive inuence of deep acting on professional
efcacy (H4c). The two hypotheses predicting a negative
relationship between surface acting and professional
efcacy (H3c) and a positive effect of deep acting on
exhaustion (H4a) are rejected. With regard to the mediat-
ing role of emotional labor between burnout and job and
personality variables (H5), no full mediation was found.
Only partial mediation was detected in the following three
relationships: neuroticism -surface acting-exhaustion;
neuroticism -surface acting -cynicism; positive display
rule -deep acting -professional efcacy.
5. Discussion
5.1. Antecedents of emotional labor strategies
Overall, demographic variables did not have much effect
on hotel service workers emotional labor. Only gender
showed a marginally signicant effect (p 0.06) on the
acting strategies. Hochschild (1983) argued that women
learn to be more expressive from young because of the
expectations from society, and other emotional labor
experts support Hochschilds (1983) view. However, little
research has found what type of emotional acting females
use to be more expressive. The further investigation (t-test,
p 0.06) indicates that females (M 2.91) do more
surface acting than males (M 2.70). That is, women
manage their emotional expressions by faking feelings
when needed.
The previous ndings on the relationships between
emotional labor strategies and interaction characteristics
have not been clear-cut. The results of this study are mostly
in harmony with Diefendorff et al.s (2005) study, reporting
customer interaction variables as the signicant determi-
nants of deep acting only. The present research demon-
strates no impact of interaction variables on surface acting.
Variety and duration were signicantly correlated
(po0.01) with deep acting, indicating that when service
encounters are longer, employees may have a better chance
to develop proper emotions and those who express more
various emotions are more likely to be deep actors trying
hard to experience the desired emotions. However, in the
regression analysis, only variety appeared as a signicant
predictor of deep acting. These two independent variables
had a high correlation (r 0.48), which may explain why
the effect of duration became weak in the regression
analysis.
The relationships between display rules and employees
acting modes are worth noting. It was initially postulated
that both display rules would be positively related to both
styles of acting. However, the positive display rule seems to
lead to only deep acting and the negative display rule leads
to surface acting. These results are congruent with
Diefendorff et al.s (2005) ndings. In other words, when
people are asked to display positive emotions (e.g., smiling
and being friendly), they actively try to experience the
emotions, but when people are asked to hide negative
emotions (e.g., suppressing anger), they just pretend not to
show those negative feelings.
The nding regarding the positive impact of NA on
surface acting has been consistent and the present study
also supports it with the personality trait of neuroticism. It
may be difcult for individuals who experience negative
emotions frequently to modify inner feelings (deep acting)
to meet their service role as a happy host in hotels;
consequently, they are more likely to fake positive
emotions when necessary. The result on the effect of
extraversion is interesting. Different from most previous
ndings, this study demonstrates no negative relationship
with surface acting. Both correlation (po0.01) and
regression analyses (marginally signicant at p 0.061)
rather indicate some possibility of the positive inuence
on deep acting. In other words, hotel personnel high in
extraversion actively try to feel the emotions that they
need to display to customers. Extraverted individuals are
sociable, gregarious, assertive, and active (Goldberg, 1990).
Because of their active nature, they may choose to make
emotive efforts (deep acting) instead of simply faking
emotions (surface acting)
5.2. The mediated effect and outcomes of emotional labor
strategies
Deep acting did not contribute positively to hotel service
employees exhaustion. Surface acting was conrmed to
have a positive inuence on service providers exhaustion.
Altogether, these results lead to the conclusion that hotel
personnel who feign emotions (surface acting) are more
likely to be emotionally exhausted than those who strive to
invoke the appropriate feelings (deep feeling). Even though
these ndings contradict Hochshilds (1983) original notion
that those who identify too wholeheartedly with the job
have a higher risk of burnout, empirical results by other
researchers have also shown that the proposition may
not be true (Kruml and Geddes, 1997; Brotheridge and
Lee, 2003).
As expected, cynicism demonstrated a positive relation-
ship with surface acting and a negative relationship with
deep acting and these outcomes are sensible. The harder
employees try to feel the proper emotions, the more likely
they put themselves in customers shoes. These employees
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H.J. Kim / International Journal of Hospitality Management 27 (2008) 151161 159
are more likely to treat hotel guests as persons rather than
objects, thereby reducing a possibility of becoming cynical.
On the other hand, the more they surface act, the more
likely they distance themselves from hotel guests, which
ultimately can lead them to be cynical about their job.
Lastly, deep actors attempts to reach out (be emotionally
connected with) customers may naturally encourage them
to offer the best, sincere service, resulting in a strong sense
of professional efcacy.
Overall, the results of this study did not successfully
support the mediated effect of emotional labor. Emotional
labor strategies mostly served as a partial mediator in a
few, limited situations (i.e., between neuroticism and
burnout and between positive display rules and burnout).
Mediators provide the mechanism behind the relation
between predictors and outcomes (Frazier et al., 2004). In
other words, emotional labor strategies may explain why
and how neuroticism and positive display rules lead to the
burnout factors. More specically, the reason why hotel
personnel high in neuroticism have a greater level of
burnout (i.e., exhaustion and cynicism) is that in part, they
are likely to rely on surface acting when dealing with
guests. In the same manner, the reason why companys
positive display rules can increase hotel employees
professional efcacy is that positive rules are likely to
motivate employees to do deep acting.
6. Managerial implications and future research
Emotional labor has recently received tremendous
attention because of its double-edged effects: It could have
a negative inuence on employees well-being, but positive
impact on company success. The results of this study
suggest that emotional labor may not necessarily cause
hotel service agents burnout if they choose to make sincere
efforts to experience the appropriate emotions (deep
acting), which shares the new outlook on the relationship
between emotional labor and burnout (Kruml and
Geddes,1997; Brotheridge and Lee, 2003). It sends a
crucial message to hotel practitioners that education and
training may be necessary to change employees acting
mode into a proper one. For example, when hotel guests
are angry, service providers should learn to express a
sincere (not supercial) apology. When customers feel
that the apology is true with proper remedies, customers
are likely to be satised, which in turn, may make
employees pleased, leading to decrease in stress. As the
scenario given, deep acting can benet hotel service
workers and customers alike.
The result of the present research supports that
emotional expression and management is dependent on
individuals dispositional factors. Therefore, it may be
important to review hotel job applicants personality
proles prior to selection. Research has shown that the
detection by customers of inauthentic expression may lead
to even poorer perceptions of service quality (Rafaeli and
Sutton, 1987; Mann, 1999b). Hotel human resource
managers should consider recruiting people high in
extraversion and low in neuroticism because these types
of applicants are more likely to increase hotel guests
perceptions of service quality and customer satisfaction
through deep acting, and experience less burnout. In future
research, it is recommended to consider other individual
variables to nd a more comprehensive personality prole
of who are likely to be deep actors in the hospitality
industry. For example, people high in agreeableness (one of
the Big Five) are likely to exert more effort (deep acting) as
these individuals strive to maintain a positive relationship
and genuinely care about others well-being (Diefendorff
et al., 2005).
The variety of emotional expression signicantly resulted
in deep acting. The length of service transactions varies in
hotels. For instance, hotel sales personnel may speak with
potential customers for a longer period of time to bring in
their business to the hotel than receptionists greeting and
checking in guests briey at the front desk. Although a
longer encounter may give a better chance to express a
variety of emotions, it seems to be important to train hotel
personnel to express various, appropriate emotions even
during short encounters with customers so that employees
can remain deep actors.
The negative display rule was a signicant predictor of
surface acting and the positive display rule was a signicant
predictor of deep acting. As Diefendorff et al. (2005)
pointed out, people may experience more emotional
conicts or dissonance when they are told what not to
express (negative display rules) than what to express
(positive display rules). Hotel management should under-
stand this psychology and strive to communicate more
positive norms with employees so that service providers are
motivated to act in good faith and ultimately boost their
professional efcacy.
Job autonomy appears to need further research.
Although the effect of autonomy was not signicant in
the regression analysis, autonomy showed a signicant,
positive correlation with deep acting (po0.05), which was
an unexpected result. It is recommended to repeat the same
research question using a large sample for more solid
managerial implications. If this relationship holds true,
hoteliers should consider providing more autonomy to
service workers so that they become more willing to deep
act when handling guests.
Lastly, it is important to note that the survey return rate
was low in this study. People who have already experienced
stress at work or perceive burnout as a sensitive issue may
not bother to ll the questionnaire. Keegan and Lucas
(2005) addressed the need of extra caution for postal
surveys targeting a business population especially when the
survey contains job-related questions. Because of the small
sample size with a low response rate, the ability to
generalize the current ndings is limited. The small sample
size also can prevent researchers from detecting all effective
relationships hypothesized. Overall not too many proposed
relationships were supported in equations 1 and 2,
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H.J. Kim / International Journal of Hospitality Management 27 (2008) 151161 160
naturally resulting in the small number of mediated effects
(in equation 3). Therefore, it is recommended to conduct a
validation study with a larger sample and other statistical
methods such as structural equations modeling (SEM).
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