Understanding Individual Differences

Personality, Behavior & Attitudes

R.John Martin

© The HuMan Creation

 Concept of Personality

Definition:
Personal characteristics that lead to consistent patterns of
behavior

Important Note*: Personality alone accounts for

only 2-12% of the variance in behavior
 Sources of
Personality Differences

• Heredity:
Research on the nature-nurture controversy* indicates
that about 50% of the variance in personality is
inherited, thus setting limits on development
• Environment:
Shapes at least 50% of personality?
– Culture
– Family
– Group Membership
– Life Experiences

• Situation
 Personality Structure:
The “Big Five” Personality Factors
(Each factor is a continuum of many related traits)

Adjustment

(Stable, confident, effective) (Nervous, self-doubting, moody)

Sociability

(Gregarious , energetic, self-dramatizing) (Shy, unassertive, withdrawn)

Conscientiousness

(Planed, neat, dependable) (Impulsive, careless, irresponsible)

Agreeableness

(Warm, tactful, considerate) (Independent, cold, rude)

Intellectual Openness

(Imaginative, curious, original) (Dull, unimaginative, literal-minded)

 The Big Five
Personality Factors
n Sociability (Extraversion):
Outgoing, talkative, sociable, assertive
o Agreeableness:
Trusting, good natured, cooperative, soft hearted
p Conscientiousness:
Dependable, responsible, achievement oriented,
persistent
q Adjustment (Emotional stability):
Relaxed, secure, unworried
r Intellectual Openness:
Intellectual, imaginative, curious, broad minded

Research finding: Conscientiousness is the best (but not

a strong) predictor of job performance
 Personality and Behavior:
Specific Personality Traits* and
Their Linkage to the “Big Five”

• Self-esteem (“self-worth”) is part of adjustment

• Locus of control (“fate vs. personal control”) is part of
conscientiousness
• Introversion and extraversion (preference for thinking vs.
interacting--NOT “social skills”) are part of sociability
• Dogmatism (generalized rigidity of beliefs) and
authoritarianism (narrower personality type who prefers
to follow orders) are part of intellectual openness

REMEMBER: Traits are continua—people may be high, low, or

in-between. Most people are in-between!
 An OB Model for Studying
Individual Differences

The Unique Individual Forms of Self-Expression

Personality
traits Self-Management

Attitudes
• Self-esteem
• Self-efficacy
• Self-monitoring Abilities

Emotions
 Self-Efficacy

“A person’s belief about his or her chances of

successfully accomplishing a specific task.”

A Model of Self-Efficacy

Sources of Self-Efficacy Beliefs:

- Prior experience
- Behavior models
- Persuasion from others
- Assessment of physical/emotional state
 Locus of Control

Î Internal locus of control: belief that one controls

key events and consequences in one’s life.

Î External locus of control: One’s life outcomes

attributed to environmental factors such as luck or fate.

For discussion: What sort of locus of control “balance” do

today’s managers need to seek to be successful without
experiencing excessive stress?
 Seven Major Mental Abilities

n Verbal comprehension: Meaning of words and

reading comprehension
o Word fluency: Ability to produce isolated words to
meet specific requirements
p Numerical: Arithmetic computation
q Spatial: Perceive spatial patterns and visualize
geometric shapes
r Memory: Good rote memory of words, symbols, and
lists
s Perceptual speed: Perception of similarities and
differences in figures
t Inductive reasoning: Reasoning from specifics to
general conclusion
 Personality Type Indicator

Type of Social Extrovert (E)

Interaction Introvert (I)

Preference for Sensing (S)

Gathering Data Intuitive (N)

Preference for Feeling (F)

Decision Making Thinking (T)

Style of Perceptive (P)

Decision Making Judgmental (J)
 Personality Attributes
and Behavior

Personality Attributes
and Behavior

Locus Machiavellian
of Control Traits

Self-Esteem Self-Monitoring

Risk Type A
Taking Personality
 Holland’s
Personality-Job Fit Theory

Type Personality Occupations

Mechanic, Farmer,
Realistic Shy, Stable, Practical
Assembly-Line Worker

Biologist, Economist,
Investigative Analytical, Independent
Mathematician

Social Worker,
Social Sociable, Cooperative
Teacher, Counselor

Accountant, Manager
Conventional Practical, Efficient
Bank Teller

Enterprising Ambitious, Energetic Lawyer, Salesperson

Painter, Writer,
Artistic Imaginative, Idealistic
Musician
 It’s Exciting

In
v
tic es
alis t ig
Re at
iv
R I e

Conventional

Artistic
C A

Ent E S
e

l
rpr

cia
isin

So
g
 What Are Emotions?

Affect
Affect Emotions
Emotions Moods
Moods

Six Universal Emotions

Happiness Fear Anger

Surprise Sadness Disgust

 Emotions
Emotions: “Complex, patterned, organismic
reactions to how we think we are doing in our
lifelong efforts to survive and flourish and to achieve
what we wish for ourselves.”

Negative emotions (Goal incongruent):

- Fright/anxiety
- Sadness
- Disgust
-Guilt/shame
- Envy/jealousy
- Anger

Positive emotions (Goal congruent)

- Happiness/joy
-Pride
- Love/affection
- Relief
 Emotions and
Organizational Behavior

Emotions
Emotionsand
and
Organizational
Organizational
Behavior
Behavior

Felt
Felt Displayed
Displayed
Emotions
Emotions Emotions
Emotions
Emotional
Emotional
Labor
Labor
Emotions In The Workplace

Intensity Frequency
of Emotions and Duration

Gender Emotionless
and Emotions People
 External Constraints
on Emotions

•Organizational Influences
•Cultural Influences

Emotions and OB Applications

Ability and
Selection

Deviant Leadership
Behavior

Decision
Motivation Making

Interpersonal
Conflict
 The Concept of Attitude

Definition:
Relatively lasting feelings, beliefs, and behavior
tendencies directed toward specific people,
groups, ideas, issues, or objects.

Attitudes consist of three components:

– AFFECTIVE = feelings
– COGNITIVE = beliefs
– BEHAVIORAL = predispositions to act
 Attitudes and Behavior
Attitudes do not normally predict or cause
behavior in a simple and direct way

• Three principles relate attitudes to behavior:

– General attitudes best predict general
behaviors
– Specific attitudes best predict specific
behaviors
– The less time that elapses between
attitude measurement and behavior, the
more consistent will be the relationship
between them
Attitude-Behavior Relationship

Moderating Variables Behavioral Influence

• Importance High

• Specificity

• Accessibility

• Social pressures

• Direct experience
Low
 Job Satisfaction
The general attitude towards job

Job satisfaction is enhanced when:

• Work is challenging and interesting but not tiring.

• Rewards are equitable and provide feedback.
• Working conditions match physical needs and promote
goal attainment.
• Self-esteem is high.
• Others in the organization hold similar views and
facilitate reward attainment.
• Policies and procedures are clear, don’t conflict, and
aid goal attainment.
 Organizational Commitment
Refers to the strength of an employee’s involvement
in and identification with the organization

Strong organizational commitment entails:

– Strong belief in acceptance of an organization’s
goals and values
– Willingness to exert considerable effort
on behalf of the organization
– Strong desire to maintain membership
in the organization

Higher commitment is negatively related to absenteeism and

turnover, and positively related to productivity
 Changes in Organizational
Commitment Over Time

• Initial Commitment is determined by individual

characteristics and degree of congruence between their
expectations and organizational realities

• Subsequent Commitment is influenced by job

experiences, including many of the same factors which
influence job satisfaction (such as pay, interpersonal
relationships, working conditions, advancement
opportunities, etc.)
 Measuring Job Satisfaction

Productivity
Productivity
Job
Job
Satisfaction
Satisfaction Absenteeism
Absenteeism
and
andEmployee
Employee
Performance
Performance
Turnover
Turnover
 Responses to
Job Dissatisfaction

Active

Exit Voice

Destructive Constructive

Neglect Loyalty

Passive
 Ethical Attitudes and Behavior

• Characterized by significant individual differences

• People are more likely to behave ethically if:

– They have reached a higher level of cognitive
moral development

– They possess a high internal locus of control

– Organizational culture supports and

reinforces specific ethical attitudes and behavior
 Types of Management Ethics

• Immoral management
– Devoid of any ethical principles, characterized by
exploitation for corporate or personal gain
• Moral management
– Guided by appropriate ethical principles
• Amoral management
– Indifference toward ethical principles,
characterized by a lack of awareness of ethical
issues
 Types of Management Ethics

• Immoral management
– Devoid of any ethical principles, characterized by
exploitation for corporate or personal gain
• Moral management
– Guided by appropriate ethical principles
• Amoral management
– Indifference toward ethical principles,
characterized by a lack of awareness of ethical
issues
 Steps for Instilling
Moral Management

1. Identify ethical attitudes crucial for the

organization’s operations, and use training
programs to foster them

2. Select employees with desired attitudes

3. Incorporate ethics in the performance evaluation

process

4. Establish a work culture that reinforces ethical

attitudes
 Good Luck!

……About the Speaker

R. John Martin
Visiting Professor – Intelligent Computing Technologies
Soft skills Trainer - Speaker
Director - The Human Creative Minds
email : jmartin.in@gmail.com