[Applied Sciences: Biodynamics]

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Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise
Issue: Volume 28(2), February 1996, pp 218-224
Copyright: 1996The American College of Sports Medicine
Publication Type: [Applied Sciences: Biodynamics]
ISSN: 0195-9131
Accession: 00005768-199602000-00010
Keywords: WEIGHTLIFTING, POWERLIFTING, SQUATTING EXERCISE, HIP, KNEE, EMG, BIOMECHANICS
High- and low-bar squatting techniques during weight-training
WRETENBERG, PER; FENG, YI; ARBORELIUS, ULF P.
Author Information
Kinesiology Research Group, Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institute, S-171 77, Stockholm, SWEDEN
Submitted for publication December 1993.
Accepted for publication October 1994.
Address for correspondence: Per Wretenberg, Kinesiology Research Group, Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institute, S-171 77,
Stockholm, Sweden.
ABSTRACT

Eight Swedish national class weightlifters performed high-bar squats and six national
class powerlifters performed low-bar squats, with a barbell weight of 65% of their 1 RM,
and to parallel- and a deep-squatting depth. Ground reaction forces were measured with a
Kistler piezo-electric force platform and motion was analyzed from a video record of the
squats. A computer program based on free-body mechanics was designed to calculate
moments of force about the hip and knee joints. EMG from vastus lateralis, rectus femoris,
and biceps femoris was recorded and normalized. The peak moments of force were flexing
both for the hip and the knee. The mean peak moments of force at the hip were for the
weightlifters 230 Nm (deep) and 216 Nm (parallel), and for the powerlifters 324 Nm (deep),
and 309 Nm(parallel). At the knee the mean peak moments for the weightlifters were 191
Nm (deep) and 131 Nm (parallel), and for the powerlifters 139 Nm (deep) and 92 Nm
(parallel). The weightlifters had the load more equally distributed between hip and knee,
whereas the powerlifters put relatively more load on the hip joint. The thigh muscular activity
was slightly higher for the powerlifters.


The squatting exercise, performing a knee bend while carrying a weight on the shoulders,
is an often used and important method for hip, knee, and back muscle training (3,18,22,23).
Many athletes in different disciplines use this type of exercise as the basic exercise to
strengthen the leg muscles, and the method is considered supreme for this purpose by many
coaches (4,29). Weightlifters and powerlifters use squatting as one of the most important
parts of their training programs, and for the powerlifters this kind of squatting is directly
included during their competition performance (13,14,15). In the weightlifting competition
the back squat is not directly included, rather the front-squat with the barbell on the chest;
still the back-squat training is important also for the weightlifters.

The squatting exercise can be performed in different ways. The weights on the shoulders
and numbers of repetitions can vary depending on the purpose. Squatting depth is another
important factor and the parallel and deep squat dominates. During the parallel squat, the
knees are flexed until the posterior borders of the hamstrings muscles are parallel to the
floor, whereas during the deep squat the knees are maximally flexed. In a previous study
(32), we showed that the quadriceps muscle activity is the same for these two different types
of squats but that the load on the knee joints is larger for the deep squat.
of squats but that the load on the knee joints is larger for the deep squat.

There are two main techniques for the squatting exercise with the bar on the back; the
high-bar squat and the low-bar squat (29). The names of the techniques are related to
the placement of the bar on the back. The bar is either centered across the shoulders just
below the spinous process of the C7 vertebra,high-bar, or further down on the back across
the spine of the scapula, low-bar. It has been shown that the low-bar squat is characterized
by more forward lean of the trunk (12) and that powerlifters use the low-bar squatting
technique since this enables them to lift heavier loads (29). The weightlifters mainly use the
high-bar technique, which more simulates the movement during their snatch and clean and
jerk competition. During competition the weightlifters use the front-squat movement, which
is done in an upright position since they cannot balance the weight with too much forward
lean of the trunk. Athletes other than lifters may use techniques that are not strictly defined.

It is known that injury may occur by overloading the knee joint (1) and also that
squatting generates high forces which can result in serious injuries (16,28). During the jerk
dip in weightlifting competition, with its large acceleration, serious injuries also have occurred
(33). Whether there is a difference in loading moments of force on the hip and knee between
the high- and low-bar squat is, however, not known, but this is of interest, e.g., when
planning the training after an injury. In this study we analyze how high- and low-bar squats
effect hip and knee load and the thigh muscle activity. Studies such as this offer one way of
improving our knowledge of the biomechanical effects of different training methods.

METHOD

Subjects

Eight weightlifters and six powerlifters, all of Swedish national class in their age and
bodyweight categories, participated in the study. Written informed consent was obtained
from the subjects. The mean age of the weightlifters was 19 yr (SD 3) and their mean
weight was 82 kg (SD 11). The mean age of the powerlifters was 31 yr (SD 3) and their
mean weight was 87 kg (SD 20) (Table 1). One of the weightlifters had pain in the knees
due to previous overstrain, but he felt it did not affect the way he performed the squat with
the moderate weights used in this study. All other lifters were without dysfunction in the
locomotor system.

TABLE 1. Subject data; 1 RM is the subject's one-repetition maximum for the deep squat.
Procedure

The weightlifters performed high-bar squats and the powerlifters performed low-bar
squats. We did not let all lifters do both high- and low-bar squats since by testing some of the
lifters we realized that they could not perform the type of squat they were not used to in an
optimal way. Two different types of squatting depths were also studied, the parallel squat and
the deep squat. During the parallel squat, the knees were flexed until the posterior borders of
the hamstrings muscles were parallel to the floor, and during the deep squat the knees were
maximally flexed. Before starting the parallel squat, the appropriate squatting depth was
indicated with a non-weight-bearing stop bar beneath the subject's buttocks. During the
indicated with a non-weight-bearing stop bar beneath the subject's buttocks. During the
movement, the subjects flexed their knees until contact was made with the bar. All
movements were performed on a force plate (60 30 cm), where the feet were placed
symmetrically. They could freely choose their stance with, and no subject felt restricted by
the 60-cm width of the force plate. The bar weight was individually based on the subjects' all
time one-repetition maximum (1 RM) for a deep squat exercise, as reported by the subjects.
A weight of 65% of the 1 RM was chosen. None of the lifters wore wraps or belts since this
could have effects on the calculation of the moment of force and since it has been shown that
belts can decrease the electromyographic activity during squatting (20). One of the
weightlifters performing a deep squat is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1-Weightlifter performing a deep squat, high-bar technique.
For motion analyses a video camera (Panasonic MS1, frame rate 25 Hz, with high speed
shutter 1/1000) and a video recorder (Panasonic 8500) were used. The camera was placed to
the left of all subjects at a focal distance of 8 m. For synchronization of the force recordings
and the video, the computer was triggered by an optical time indication panel visible on the
video recording. Skin markers were placed at five places on the body: trunk (mid-axillar line
at umbilicus height), hip (superior part of greater trochanter), knee (lateral epicondyle),
ankle (lateral malleolus), and foot (head of fifth metatarsal). The coordinates for these
markers were extracted frame-by-frame from the video recordings with a video position
analyzer (FOR-A company, VPA 1000).

The ground reaction forces on the feet were measured with a Kistler multi-component
piezoelectric platform (type 9281 B), which measured the vertical, anteroposterior, and
piezoelectric platform (type 9281 B), which measured the vertical, anteroposterior, and
lateral ground reaction forces during rising. All force signals (sampled at 100 Hz) were
channelled through Kistler amplifying units (type 5006) to a microcomputer (Luxor ABC 800)
where they were A/D converted and stored. The position of the center of pressure of the
reaction force between the feet and the ground was also obtained from the force plate.
Combining these data with the video coordinates gave the appropriate sagittal moment arms
with respect to the hip and knee joint markers. Dempster's anthropometrical data (6) were
used to determine the segmental masses and their mass center locations.

A computer program based on free-body mechanics was designed to calculate the
moments of force about the hip (superior part of greater trochanter) and knee (center of
lateral epicondyle) by multiplying each external force (body segment weight or horizontal or
vertical reaction force) by its moment arm length (Fig. 2). A semidynamic method was
used, which incorporated ground reaction forces measured from a force plate and
gravitational contributions from body segments. Semidynamic methods have proved to give
results very close to calculation with fully dynamic methods (21). McLaughlin et al. (23) and
Lander et al. (19) have also analyzed torques and joint forces for squat movements with both
dynamic and semidynamic methods, and they found only minor differences, indicating that
this kind of method is adequate for these calculations. These studies show that the inertial
forces are low compared with the ground reaction forces. Similar methods for calculation of
moment of force have been used earlier (5,9,26) and this particular system has been used in
several investigations (e.g., 31). The same type of technique has also been used in similar
weightlifting studies (2,10), but fully dynamic methods also are used in weightlifting studies
(11). The patellofemoral compressive force during the parallel squat was calculated using our
moment of force data and diagrams previously published by Nisell and Ekholm (27).

Figure 2-Calculation of the moment of force about the hip(MH). RX and RY are the
horizontal and vertical components of the reaction force from the force plate. WT, WS,
and WF are the segmental weights of thigh, shank, and foot. (XH, YH) are the X and Y
cordinates for the marker on the hip joint.(XT, YT), (XS, YS), and (XF, YF) are the X and
Y coordinates for the center of gravity of the thigh, shank, and foot. XR and YR are the X
and Y coordinates of the application point of the reaction force.
The activity in the vastus lateralis, rectus femoris, and the long head of the biceps
femoris muscles was recorded (Devices M4, AC8) by means of full-wave rectified low-pass-
filtered and time-averaged electromyogram (linear envelope EMG). The low-pass time
constant was 100 ms. Surface (Ag/AgCl) electrodes were placed on the skin over the muscles
in the fibers direction, with an inter-electrode distance of 2 cm. For control of artifacts,
direct EMG was visualized in parallel on an oscilloscope (Tektronix RM565).

To quantify the muscular activity and to compare the activity between different squats,
the EMG activity during the movements was related to a static reference action. As reference
contraction, a parallel squat with a barbell weight of 65% of 1 RM was chosen. The peak EMG
value during a 3-s static parallel position was used as the reference value. The muscular
activity is expressed as a quotient of the reference value. Normalization like this has been
used earlier (7,8,17).

Statistics

Since the data were approximately normally distributed, and since this type of data in
general is known to be normally distributed, the parametrict test was used for the statistical
analysis. Comparison was done between parallel and deep squats within each group, and
between powerlifters and weightlifters for the parallel and deep squat, respectively. For the
comparison between weightlifters and powerlifters, one has to be aware of the differences in
groups concerning body weights and lifted weights.

RESULTS

Moments of Force

The joint moment of force curves for one weightlifter and one powerlifter are shown in
Figure 3. All flexing loading moments of force are expressed as positive, which means that
the curves describe mainly flexing loading moments for both the hip and the knee. These
flexing moments are counteracted by the extensor muscles producing extending moments on
the hip and knee joints. The calculated moments are the net muscular moments: the effects
of antagonistic muscular activity are not considered. The distinct peaks on the curves
correspond to the turning point during the change from knee flexion to knee extension. The
two lifters have different load distributions. The powerlifter put relatively more load on the
hip joint than on the knee joint while the weightlifter had a more equal distribution of load
between hip and knee.


Figure 3-Individual moment curves for one weightlifter and one powerlifter performing a
deep squat. Flexing loading moment of force are expressed as positive.
Figure 4 shows the mean maximum moments of force for the hip and knee joints for the
different lifters during both the parallel squat and the deep squat. Also the mean moment
data show that the weightlifters have a more equal load distribution between hip and knee
than the powerlifters. The mean maximum moment at the hip joint was for the powerlifters
324 Nm (deep) and 309 Nm (parallel). The corresponding values for the weightlifters were 230
Nm (deep) and 216 Nm (parallel). The powerlifters had a significantly higher hip moment of
force both for the parallel and deep squat (P < 0.05). The differences between the parallel
and the deep squats within each group were not significant. At the knee joint there was a
different situation. Although the powerlifters were heavier and lifted heavier loads than the
weightlifters, they showed the lowest moment of force both for the parallel and the deep
squats, and the difference was significant(P < 0.05) for the parallel squat. The mean
maximum moments were for the powerlifters 139 Nm (deep), and 92 Nm (parallel). For the
weightlifters the mean maximum flexing knee moments were 191 Nm (deep) and 131 Nm
(parallel). Independent of technique, the load on the knees increased significantly with
increasing squatting depth (P < 0.005).


Figure 4-Mean maximum moment of force with 95% confidence interval on the hip and
knee joints for the weightlifters and powerlifters during parallel squat and deep squat
(WE: N = 8; PO:N = 6).
The weightlifters showed positive correlation between hip load and the total mass of lifter
and barbell. The strongest correlation was found for the deep squat (r = 0.92), but the
correlation was also significant for the parallel squat (r = 0.88, P < 0.01). There was also a
tendency to positive correlation between hip load and total mass for the powerlifters both for
the parallel (r = 0.75) and the deep (r = 0.76) squat, but with only six lifters the correlation
was not significant. The corresponding values for the knee joint showed that the moments of
force did not increase proportionally with external load. This has been found earlier for world
class weightlifters (2).

Knee Forces

We thought it would be interesting to calculate one force component in the knee that
would reflect the magnitudes of the forces in the knee during squatting. Therefore, the
patello-femoral compression force for the parallel squat was calculated. The mean peak
compression force for the weightlifters was 4700 N (SD 590) and for the powerlifters 3300 N
(SD 1700) (26).

Electromyography

The muscular activity in the vastus lateralis, the rectus femoris and the biceps femoris
muscles was recorded and the mean muscular activity peaks, with 95% confidence intervals,
are shown in Figure 5. For all muscles and both the parallel and the deep squat the mean peak
muscular activity was higher for the powerlifters. However, in this study with six powerlifters
and eight weightlifters, a significant difference was found only for the rectus femoris muscle
(P < 0.05). The highest activity levels both for the weightlifters and the powerlifters were
found for the biceps femoris muscle, with a relative muscular activity of about three times
the reference level. However, the activity in this muscle also showed the greatest individual
difference.

Figure 5-Mean maximum muscular activity for the three muscles studied, with 95%
confidence interval; 1.0 corresponds to the activity during the static reference
contraction (WE: N = 8, PO:N = 6).
Movement and Joint Angles

The knee flexion angles were slightly smaller for the powerlifters. The mean knee flexion
angle for the powerlifters were 111 (SD 5) for the parallel and 126 (SD 4) for the deep
squat. The corresponding angles for the weightlifters was 116 (SD 5) for the parallel and
138 (SD 3) for the deep squat. Analyses of the hip flexion angles show that both the
weightlifters and the powerlifters increased these angles with increasing squating depth. The
mean maximal hip flexion angles for the weightlifters was 111 (SD 8) during the parallel
squat and 125 (SD 4) during the deep squat. The corresponding angles for the power lifters
were 132 (SD 4) and 146 (SD 3), respectively. By flexing the hip more, the powerlifters
leaned the trunk farther forward (Fig. 6).


Figure 6-Schematic drawing of the lowest position during the parallel squat. A)
weightlifter, B) powerlifter. Measured angles are indicated; the horizontal line indicates
the position of the thigh.
DISCUSSION

Since squatting exercise is an important part of the strength training for many athletes,
it is important to understand the effects of different squatting techniques. In this study we
used weightlifters and powerlifters to demonstrate effects of the high- and low-bar squats.
We are aware that there is a difference in age between the two lifter categories, but the
analysis showed no difference in principle muscular activity or load between the oldest and
youngest lifters in each group.

The study shows the differences between the high- and low-bar techniques and also the
effects on the hip and knee moment of force. The low-bar squat with the barbell further
down on the back is characterized of a larger hip flexion (Fig. 6), and this technique creates a
hip moment of force that in Newton-meter is almost twice as large as the knee moment. The
high-bar squat, however, is performed more upright and the joint moment of force are more
equally distributed between the hip and knee joints. The hip and knee angles in the present
study correlate well with the angles found by Fry et al. (12) and confirm the more upright
position during the high-bar squat. Although the powerlifters were larger and lifted heavier
loads than the weightlifters, the mean moment of force on the knee joint was lower than for
the weightlifter, and the difference was significant for the parallel squat. The powerlifters,
however, had significantly a higher load on the hip joint compared with the weightlifters. The
difference in hip load could be an effect of heavier lifters lifting heavier loads in addition to
an effect of different technique, but the difference in knee moment of force could hardly be
explained from anything else but different lifting technique. It is clear that weightlifter
coaches want the squat to be done as upright as possible. This is the only way to approach the
movement during weightlifting competition. Powerlifting coaches, however, want lifters to lift
as much as possible with hip and back since, by experience, they know that this enables the
lifter to lift heavier loads. The calculated moment of force on the joint is dependent on the
size of the ground reaction force and the distance between this force and the joint center,
the moment arm. By increasing hip flexion, the powerlifters manage to balance the weight
closer to the knee and thereby reduce the moment arm. The moment arm between the
ground reaction force and the hip joint, however, will increase, creating a higher moment of
force on this joint. The high-bar squat is performed in a more balanced way where both the
barbell and the trunk center of gravity are centered between hip and knee, and thereby the
moments of force are more equally distributed.

The powerlifters showed higher EMG activity than the weightlifters for all investigated
muscles, although the difference was significant only for the rectus femoris. The powerlifters
were heavier and lifted heavier loads, but this could be the explanation to the higher muscular
activity. EMG activity, however, was normalized in relation to a reference contraction with
the same relative external load, which might indicate that the low-bar squat actually is
advantageous from a muscular recruitment point of view. It is clear, however, that
weightlifters must train with a technique close to the competition situation, which means the
high-bar squat. Some other athletes might benefit from using a technique close to the low-bar
squat, providing that they have the low back strength to safely perform a low bar squat.

It is a little surprising that powerlifters performing low-bar squats, with relatively low
moment of force at the knee joints, have a knee extensor muscular activity even slightly
higher than weightlifters performing high-bar squats with higher knee moments. The
explanation must be that the moments calculated are net loading moments of force, which
means that muscular co-contraction is not included in the values calculated. The activity in the
biceps femoris muscle is slightly higher for the low-bar squat. The activity in the
gastrocnemius muscle and the soleus muscle was not recorded. However, since the low-bar
squat is performed with the total center of gravity further forward, the need for
compensatory ankle plantar flexion will increase, which means increased activity in both the
gastrocnemius and the soleus muscles. During the low-bar squat, knee flexor muscle activity
increases, and hereby knee extensor co-contraction. This can explain why the knee extensor
activity is high despite the relatively low net knee loading moment. As previously mentioned
one should be aware that the calculated moments are net moments of force and that the
effect of co-contracting antagonistic muscles are not taken into account. A antagonistic
moment of force created by the antagonist would increase the moment of force produced by
the agonists. Therefore, the moment calculated in this study must be taken as minimum
loading moments for the agonists. Two joint muscles can in this way serve as agonist at one
of the joints and antagonists at an other. The biceps femoris for example produce an
extending moment of force at the hip, but an antagonistic flexing moment of force at the
knee. The magnitude of this antagonistic moment is not possible to calculate in a study like
this.

Although hip extensor activity was not analyzed, it seems logical that the low-bar squat
should be the best technique concerning hip extensor training since this technique create the
greatest moments of force at the joint.

The patello-femoral compression force was calculated to give an apprehension of the
force magnitudes. Forces in the hip and knee depend not only on the moment of force, but
also on joint angle (22,24,25). For a constant moment of force joint compression forces
increase with increasing flexion angle. This has been investigated for hip flexion up to 90 and
for knee flexion up to 120. For the knee the patello-femoral compression force levels away
between 90 and 120. So the reason for larger compression force in the knee for the
weightliftres was not because of a larger knee flexion angles, rather related to the larger
moment of force.

Both the weightlifters and powerlifters have a strict and precise squatting technique. It is
probable that many other athletes in other disciplines use techniques in between the high- and
low-bar techniques and that their coaches are not aware of the effects of the different
techniques. Athletes should benefit from studying lifters and their technique and the different
effects that can be achieved. It is known that squatting exercise is a good method for knee
rehabilitation training (30), and we suggest that after a hip injury, high-bar squat should be
used at the beginning to minimize the risk of hip overload. After a knee injury a squatting
technique more similar to the low-bar technique should be preferred. Further investigation
on, for example, shear and compression forces on the lumbar spine during the two different
types of squatting technique must be important to prevent reinjury of the lower back during
rehabilitation exercise.

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Bone. Joint. Surg. Am. A-59:179-183, 1977. [Context Link]

WEIGHTLIFTING; POWERLIFTING; SQUATTING EXERCISE; HIP; KNEE; EMG; BIOMECHANICS


IMAGE GALLERY
Table 1
Figure 1-Weightlifte...
Figure 2-Calculation...
Figure 3-Individual ...
Figure 4-Mean maximu...
Figure 5-Mean maximu...
Figure 6-Schematic d...

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