5.

Operational Amplifiers
Introduction
In many electronic circuits, the signals (voltage differences) that are generated and manipulated are
very small. Therefore, amplification is often essential. When playing a CD for instance, the signals
generated in the CD player are quite small and will not adequately drive a speaer system. The signals
from the CD player are therefore passed into the stereo amplifier (which often comes as a tuner!amplifier
com"ination in modern home stereo systems). The heart of the stereo amplifier is the operational amplifier,
or op#amp, which taes low level voltage signals as inputs and produces large output voltages that vary
linearly with the input voltage.
Operational Amplifiers
The op#amp is a simple e$ample of an integrated circuit. The common %&& op#amp used in this
la"oratory contains '% transistors on a single silicon chip. (any integrated circuits are much larger) a
computer*s microprocessor can contain several million separate elements. +ach transistor is a three
terminal semiconductor device that controls a large current with a small one. If you later study electronics,
you will learn a"out transistors. In this course, we will omit that stage and show how the functioning of op#
amp circuits can "e understood without nowing anything a"out the individual transistors of which op#
amps are composed. ,ou need only understand a few "asic principles (e$plained "elow) and -irchoff*s
circuit laws. .ur reason for doing this la" is to show you how practical pro"lems can "e solved using
electronic devices. These days, most scientists solve practical instrumentation pro"lems using op#amps and
other integrated circuits rather than discrete components.
/n op#amp has three main terminals. The circuit sym"ol for an op#amp is shown in figure &.
The 0# input is called the inverting input, the 01 input is called the non#inverting input, and 0out is the
output voltage. /ll voltages are measured relative to the ground line of the power supply for the op#amp.
/ll op#amps need a power supply in order to provide the amplification, since without a voltage higher than
the input voltages it would "e impossi"le to produce amplification. 2enerally the power supply is provided
"y connections at 1&3 0 and #&3 0 to the op#amp. (4ote that "y convention, these power supply
connections are not shown on the circuit sym"ol for the op#amp. 5owever, you must always connect them
up in the la".) The supply voltages determine the ma$imum output voltage range of the op#amp, and if 0out
reaches one of the supply voltages the op#amp is said to "e in 6saturation6. This situation is to "e avoided
since if the op#amp is in saturation, its output cannot "e varying linearly with the inputs.
5-1
5- 2 Operational Amplifiers
0
0
0out
1
#
1
#
7igure &) .p#amp inputs and output
The op#amp will amplify "oth /C and DC signals, although there is a high frequency f 8d9 (analogous
to the f8d9 or :cutoff frequency of a low#pass filter) determined "y the type of op#amp; frequencies "eyond
this value will "e amplified less and less as the frequency increases. We descri"e the signal amplifying
properties of the op#amp "y giving its gain, the ratio "etween the output signal and the input signal. In the
so#called 6open loop6 configuration shown in figure &, the output voltage is given "y
V
out
A
<
V
+
V

( )
, (&)
where the open loop voltage gain /< characteri=es the op#amp. 4ote that the voltage difference between
the inputs is amplified and not the voltage "etween an input and ground. If you add 3 volts to "oth inputs,
this does not affect the output at all> +quation & maes it clear why 0# is called the 6inverting6 input; it
contri"utes negatively to the output signal.
The input impedance of an op#amp is typically &<
?
although it can "e as high as &<
&'
in some
models. The output impedance is usually very small. The gain /< is e$traordinarily high, typically &<
?
at
low frequencies, so that an op#amp hooed up solely with two inputs and its supplies would almost
certainly "e in saturation (a voltage difference of only &3 microvolts "etween the inputs would "e sufficient
to cause saturation). 9y using 6feed"ac6 (see "elow), this high gain can "e controlled and made useful.
Feedback
9ecause the op#amp has such a huge open loop gain /<, it is always used with a feedback networ that
controls the inputs "y returning some voltage from the output to the input. This reduces the effective gain,
"ut it also causes the amplification to "e nearly independent of frequency up to much higher frequencies
than the open loop f8d9 mentioned a"ove.
The term feed"ac refers to configurations in which a fraction of the output voltage is returned (it is
6fed "ac6) to one of the inputs (see figure '). Thus, the output 0out depends upon itself, as well as the
input to the circuit, 0in. (If you find this idea confusing, you are not alone. The @A Batent .ffice refused
to grant its inventor a patent for this e$tremely important engineering concept "ecause it didn*t "elieve his
idea would wor>) 7eed"ac can "e positive (returned to the non#inverting input) or negative (returned to
Operational Amplifiers 5-3
the inverting input), "ut negative feed"ac is used primarily in analog circuits "ecause it yields sta"le,
controlla"le outputs, and we will concentrate on it. 7or positive feed"ac, an increasing output 0out
1
#
circuit
components
circuit
components
1
#
4egative feed"ac##sta"le Bositive feed"ac ##unsta"le
7igure ') 7eed"ac
drives the inputs even further positive, resulting in a still more positive 0out. (/ similar argument can "e
made that once 0out swings negative, it will result in a large negative swing.) /s a result, the device will
always "e in saturation. While this can "e useful for some purposes (e.g. for maing oscillators and in
digital circuits), we shall concentrate on 6negative feed"ac6 here. To mae the idea more comprehensi"le,
we will first consider some non#electronic e$amples of feed"ac.
+C/(BD+A .7 7++D9/C-
Ateam engines were equipped with devices called governors to mae sure their pressure did not e$ceed
a safe level. The governor consisted of a valve connected to an array of spinning weights. The valve
opened wider as the weights spun more quicly. Ateam from a vent controlled "y the valve made the
weights spin around) if the pressure rose, the weights would spin more quicly. In turn, the weights would
open the valve more, there"y lowering the pressure. This represents a case of negative feed"ac "ecause
the output (the pressure in the steam engine) was made to decrease automatically if it "ecame larger than
the desired value.
The concept of feed"ac has e$tremely wide applications to other fields of study, including
mathematical "iology and economics. 7or e$ample, predator#prey relationships rely upon several feed"ac
loops that determine the sta"le si=e of populations. If the num"er of predators (the system*s output)
increases, then the num"er of prey animals (the input) will decrease. The negative feed"ac in this system
occurs "ecause an increase in the output (predator population) results in a decrease in the input (prey
population). There will in general "e an equili"rium ratio of populations as a result of the sta"ili=ing
5- 4 Operational Amplifiers
influence of the negative feed"ac, with, of course, many other factors entering in to esta"lish their e$act
si=es.
In another e$ample, computeri=ed trading of stocs on the stoc maret represents a prime e$ample of
the pernicious effects of positive feed"ac. +$tremely large investors, such as pension funds, can "uy and
sell stocs using computer programs set to mae trading decisions "ased on the "ehavior of a maret inde$,
such as the Dow Eones Industrial /verage. These trading decisions are the system*s inputs. When the
stoc maret inde$ (the system*s output) "egins to drop, these programs are designed to quicly sell off
stocs in order to minimi=e investor*s losses. 5owever, a large investor can further depress the stoc
maret inde$ "y selling off its stocs (i.e. the system has positive feed"ac). This system can lead to wild
oscillations, or even a crash, should many large investors use such programs during a period of sharply
falling prices. The Aecurities and +$change Commission decided to regulate computeri=ed trading after
this practice was implicated in the maFor crash of &GHI.
Golden Rules
.ne can show mathematically that the results of feed"ac in op#amps circuits are summari=ed "y two
6golden rules6, which we will tae as our starting points for figuring out how op#amp circuits will function)
&) The output of the op#amp attempts to do whatever is necessary to mae the voltage difference
between the inputs almost equal to =ero. (That*s the function of high gain of the amplifier and the
negative feed"ac; if the output voltage rises too much, it drives the input voltage difference
down.) The voltage difference "etween the inputs is so close to =ero that we can assume that it
really is =ero in analy=ing circuits. It turns out that if /J&<
?
, then the error in this assumption is
only a"out one part in a million.
') The inputs draw almost no current, "ecause the input impedance of the transistors attached to the
inputs are very high.
0in
0out
K
#
1
1&3 0
#&3 0
K
7
&
Operational Amplifiers 5-5
7igure 8) Inverting amplifier circuit (the triangle at the "ottom denotes power supply ground).
@sing the golden rules, the negative feed"ac 6inverting amplifier6 circuit shown in figure 8 can "e
analy=ed. 7rom golden rule num"er &, the voltage at the inverting input must "e at ground "ecause 01 is at
ground. (The inverting input isn*t actually connected to ground, rather the internal circuitry of the op#amp
la"ors to eep it very near ground. We call such a voltage a virtual ground.) 7rom golden rule num"er ',
all of the current through K& must flow through K7, "ecause no current flows into the op#amp inputs. We
ar"itrarily tae the direction of the conventional (positive) current to "e to the right. Then applying
-irchoff*s laws gives
in in
V IR IR V
& &
< ('a)
out F
V IR < ('")
The closed loop gain G is defined as the ratio of the output voltage to the input voltage. Dividing ('") "y
('a) gives

&
R
R
V
V
G
F
in
out

. (8)
This means that you can choose the gain "y selecting the values of the resistors> /lso, the gain is not
dependent on the details of the particular op#amp (e.g. the e$act value of the open loop gain A0), "ut rests
only on the open loop gain "eing large, and on the values of the resistors. (The largeness of A0 is the
underlying Fustification for 2olden Kule &.) Aince the output is negative for positive inputs, the amplifier
called an inverting amplifier.
Experimental Procedure
Experiment 1: Op-amp in an open loop configuration
,ou will "e using the D7%&& op#amp in today*s la". (The 7 refers to the original manufacturer,
7airchild, and the other num"ers specify one of many different integrated circuits made "y this company.)
It comes as a eight#legged DIB (6dual in#line pacage6) IC (integrated circuit) shown in figure %. The D7
%&& has "een inserted into your "read"oard for you.

5- 6 Operational Amplifiers
#
1
&
'
8
% 3
?
I
H
offset null
inverting input
noninverting
input
0# (#&3 0)
01 (1&3 0)
output
offset null
no
connection
%&&
7igure %) Connections for the D7 %&& op#amp (top view)
The 6offset null6 connections will not "e used here; their purpose is to allow the user to mae small
adFustments if desired so that the output is precisely =ero when the input voltage difference is precisely
=ero.
7igure 3) .pen loop circuit (the triangle at the "ottom is power supply ground).
&) /ssem"le the circuit shown in figure 3. 5ere a voltage divider is used to provide the op#amp with
an input voltage (relative to power supply ground) varying from 1&30 to #&30, with a
potentiometer controlling the e$act value.
') @se a D(( to adFust your input voltage until it is very close to =ero. 4otice that the output
voltage is far from =ero "ecause of the very high open loop gain of the op#amp. Try adFusting the
input and setch the output voltage as a function of the input voltage. +$plain "riefly why your
graph loos the way it does.
Operational Amplifiers 5-7
Experiment 2: Inverting Amplifier with negative feedback
7igure 8 (presented earlier) employs negative feed"ac (from 0out to 0#) to give a sta"le gain that is
controlled "y the ratio of two resistors. In this portion of the la" you will construct an op#amp circuit with
negative feed"ac.
&) Aet up the circuit shown in figure 8 using a %&& op#amp. Kemem"er to connect the 1!#&30 DC
supply, and also the ground (common) from the DC supply> @se your function generator*s sine
wave setting and the D. output set to a very low voltage to supply 0in. The feed"ac is set up "y
connecting pin ? to pin ' with K7. Choose K7J&<< -, and use a resistor for K& that gives a
closed#loop gain of &<<.
') Blot "oth the input and output voltages as a function of time on your oscilloscope, using a roughly
& 5= signal. ,ou should start with an e$tremely low amplitude input signal to see a clear sine
wave output. Aetch this display, carefully noting the amplitudes and phase relationships of the
two signals. Determine the gain of your circuit from this data.
8) 4ow, try increasing the amplitude of your input signal until you start to see saturation (i.e.
flattening as the output reaches a ma$imum positive or negative value) at some times. 5ow large
an input is required to do thisL What determines whether the output is saturatedL
Experiment 3: Weighted summing circuit
.p#amps can "e used to do mathematical computations. 7or e$ample, they can "e used to compute the
sum of many inputs, with each one multiplied "y a selecta"le gain. 7or e$ample, the output of the circuit
shown in figure ? is given "y the following e$pression)

V
out
V
&
R
F
R
&



_
,
+ V
'
R
F
R
'



_
,
+ V
8
R
F
R
8



_
,




1
]
1
. (3)
This can easily "e generali=ed to an ar"itrary num"er of inputs "y adding terms to the equation.
5- 8 Operational Amplifiers
0out
#
1
1&3 0
#&3 0
K
K
0
0
K
&
&
'
'
7
K
0
8
8
7igure ?) Weighted summing circuit.
Pre-lab question 1) Derive equation 3 from the golden rules and -irchoff*s laws. (Hint b! Golden Rule
"# the V$ input is alwa!s at ground# so the currents fro% the three inputs don&t affect each other.'
Pre-lab question 2) (a) Write down the "inary num"ers from <<< "inary J < in decimal, to &&& "inary J
I in decimal. If you do not remem"er how to count in "inary, mae sure you review this "efore la"> (")
Then, assigning the &Ms "it ("inary digit) to 0& J & 0olt, the 'Ms "it to 0' J & 0olt and the %Ms "it to 08 J &
0olt, derive the values you would need for each resistor in 7ig. ? to mae your circuit operate as a "inary
adder that displays the "inary num"er 08 0' 0& as its decimal equivalent at 0out. Aee the la" "elow for hints
how to choose these resistor values. Aave your results to use in the la" e$ercises>
&) Construct the circuit shown in figure ? and try it out with three equal DC input voltages, say &
volt. Det K8J'K'J%K&. In this way, you easily construct a 68#"it digital#to#analog converter6. Its
output should be proportional to the binar! nu%ber (0&0'08), where each entry is either & or <.
Aelect K& so that the output voltage will "e large enough to measure accurately, "ut not so large as
to saturate the op#amp. Choose resistors so that the e$pected output voltages are multiples of &
volt. In your report, specify your choice of K&.
') (easure 0out for the eight possi"le input values (let each input voltage either & 0 or < 0) and mae
a ta"le of the results. /re the deviations from the e$pected output ratios entirely e$plained "y the
precision of the resistorsL
Operational Amplifiers 5-9
Experiment 4: Integrator circuit

0in
0out
K
K
#
1

C
A
7igure I) Integrator circuit
/nother useful function of an op#amp is to compute the integral or derivative of an input signal. It
may "e surprising to reali=e that all the integrals we compute mathematically can "e calculated
electronically "y the simple op#amp circuit shown a"ove. 7igure I shows an op#amp circuit for which the
negative feed"ac is now through an KC circuit rather than Fust a resistor. 7rom the golden rules, the
current flowing through K and C must "e equal Fust as for the resistors in figure 8 a"ove. (4ote that KA
carries insignificant current "ecause you will choose it to "e very large (NN&<) compared to K. It is there
to discharge the capacitor for very long times when the input voltage is turned off, or if the function#
generator has a DC offset. .therwise, charge will "uild up gradually and saturate the op#amp.) Ao

t
in out
in out
(
dt V
R(
V
R
V
dt
dV
(
dt
d)
I
<
&
(?)
Therefore, the output voltage at a given time is the integral of the input voltage from some initial time
(when the feed"ac was connected) to the present time (t).
5owever, in this case a small deviation from ideal "ehavior in the op#amp can cause pro"lems. /s you
will have noted earlier, there can "e a small offset voltage "etween the inputs of an op#amp even when the
output is =ero. In an amplifier circuit (e.g. e$periment '), this can often "e ignored. In an integrator,
however, it is a real pro"lem, "ecause the small constant offset voltage will "e integrated to produce a
gradually growing output that eventually dominates over the desired integration of the real input signal.
This linearly increasing spurious output is manifested "y a gradual accumulation of charge on the capacitor.
5- 10 Operational Amplifiers
The function of KA is to allow this charge to lea off slowly. This prevents the 6drift6, "ut it also means that
the circuit will not act as an integrator for signals whose frequencies are too low (smaller than &!KAC). /
differentiator can "e constructed "y small modifications of this circuit, "ut we shall not do so here.
&) /ssem"le the circuit shown in figure I and test its performance at a frequency that is large
compared to &!KAC "y using an input signal from the D. output of your function generator. Try
&!KsC

&<< s
#&
with C J <.& O7, and adFust the frequency so that the output signal has a
convenient amplitude. To get a su"stantial gain you will need PP &!KC. (/pply +q. ? to a
sinusoidal input signal.) Compare the amplitudes of the input and output against the theoretical
prediction.
') @se a variety of input signals from your function generator, starting with a square wave. 9e sure
to try out sine waves and triangle waves too. Aetch sample input and output signals in your "rief
report. +$plain your results qualitatively.
8) /lso chec one case (say, the square wave) as a function of frequency. 7ind out what happens if
the frequency is made either too high or too low.
In this e$periment you have e$plored only a few of the hundreds of useful tass that op#amps can
perform. .ther circuits that can "e easily "uilt with op#amps include current#to#voltage converters;
oscillators of various inds; precision current sources; precision /C#to#DC converters; filters of various
inds; timers; log generators (output is the log of the input); precision power supplies. (ost of these
circuits are far superior to circuits that can "e constructed from individual semiconductor devices. The
fundamental reason is the high gain and high input impedance of the op#amp. The properties of op#amps
are e$plored further in Bhysics 8&?, +lectronic Instrumentation, and Bhysics 8'?, /dvanced Bhysics
Da"oratory.