THE MOTIF OF THE ' QUEST'

I N TEE EARLY GJORKS

OF W. H. AUDEN
L e s l i e Edga r Ar nol d
B.A., Un i v e r s i t y of ~ e e d s , 1964
A THESIS SUBMITTED I N PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF
THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
MASTER OF ARTS
i n t h e Depar t ment
o f
En g l i s h
@ LESLIE EDGAR ARNOLD 1968
SIMON FRASER UNIVERSITY
A p r i l , 1968
EXAMINING COMMITTEE APPROVAL
- - - - (name)
s e n i o r s upe r vi s or
Robin Bl aser
I
(name)
3 Examining Comni t t ee
Malcolm Page
- , , . (name)
Examining Committee
Robert H. Dunham
PARTTAL COPYRIGIIT LI CENSE
I her eby g r a n t t o Simon Fr a s e r Uni ve r s i t y t h e r i g h t t o l end
my t h e s i s o r d i s s e r t a t i o n ( t h e t i t l e of which i s shown bel ow) t o u s e r s
of t h e Simon Fr a s e r Uni ve r s i t y Li b r a r y , and t o make p a r t i a l o r s i n g l e
c opi e s onl y f o r s uch u s e r s o r i n r es pons e t o a r e que s t from t h e l i b r a r y
of any o t h e r u n i v e r s i t y , o r ot he r e d u c a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n , on i t s own
be ha l f o r f o r one of i t s u s e r s . I f u r t h e r a gr e e t h a t per mi ssi on f o r
mu l t i p l e copyi ng of t h i s t h e s i s f o r s c h o l a r l y pur poses may be gr a nt e d
by me or t he Dean of Graduat e St t l di es. It is under st ood t h a t copyi ng
o r p u b l i c a t i o n of t h i s t h e s i s f o r f i n a n c i a l g a i n s h a l l n o t be al l owed
wi t hout my wr i t t e n per mi ssi on.
T i t l e of T h e s i s / ~ i s s e r t a t i o n :
Au t h o r :
( s i g n a t u r e )
(name )
( d a t e )
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Pages
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . 1
CSAPTER ONE: T9E POETRY
( i ) Poems . . . . . . . . . . 23
( i i ) The Or a t or s . . . . . . . . 43
( i i i ) Look. St r a nge r ! .. . . . . 64
CHAPTER TWO: THE PLAYS
( i ) I nt r oduc t i on . . . . . . 82
(i i ) Paid on Bot h Si des . . . . 88
(iii) The Dance of Deat h . . . . 94
( i v ) The! Dog i3eneath t h e Ski n .. 100
( v) The Ascent of F6 .. . . . . 110
( v i ) On t he F r o n t i e r . . . . . . 123
IN CONCLUSION . .
BIBLIOGRAPHY . .
Introduction
I n a revi ew, publ i shed i n The Spect at or of J u l y 15 1960, P h i l i p
Lar ki n e s t a bl i s he s t h e e s s e n t i a l dichotomy i n t he poet i c development
of W.H.' Auden:
I have been t r yi ng t o imagine a di s cus s i on
of Auden between one man who had r ead not hi ng
of h i s a f t e r 1940 and anot her who had r ead
not hi ng before. Af t e r an i n i t i a l agreement
by a d j e c t i v e - ' Ve r s a t i l e , ' ' Fl uent : ' Too
smart sometimes' - a myst i f yi ng gap would
open between them, as one spoke of a
tremendously e xc i t i ng Engl i sh s o c i a l poet
f u l l of e ne r ge t i c u n l i t e r a r y knockabout and
uni que l u c i d i t y of phr ase, and t he o t h e r of
an engagi ng, booki sh American t a l e n t , t oo
ver bose t o be memorable and t oo i n t e l l e c t u a l
t o be moving. And not onl y would t hey d i f f e r
about h i s poet i c char act er : t he r e would be a
s har p di vi s i on of opi ni on about h i s poet i c
s t a t u r e .
Af t e r 1940 and f ol l owi ng c l os e l y on Auden' s emi grat i on t o America, h i s
poet r y e x h i b i t s ' t h a t l o s s of vi vi dnes s , a tendency t o r ehear s e themes
a l r e a dy e x i s t i n g as l i t e r a t u r e , a c e r t a i n a b s t r a c t wi ndi nesst 1 which i s
i n such marked c o n t r a s t t o t he r e l e n t l e s s energy and formal experiment-
a t i o n mani fest ed i n h i s e a r l i e r work. I n 1936, F. R. -Leavis had argued
t h a t :
He has no or gani zat i on. He h a s n ' t a t any
rate t h e or gani zat i on correspondi ng t o h i s
l o c a l v i t a l i t y , t o t h e d i s t i n c t i o n of h i s
phr asi ng and imagery a t t h e i r best . 2
And t h i s sense of a poet r y about t o di s s ol ve i n t o a pur el y per sonal
mythology , 3 f or ml ess and obscur e, has haunt ed c r i t i c a l eval uat i on of
Auden' s e a r l y work. Cr i t i c s have assumed a fragmented i nt e l l i ge nc e
and passed judgement on seemingly unr el at ed t e x t s , t h e i r general i za' ci ons
depr i vi ng t he poet r y of i t s r e s t l e s s a c t i v i t y .
I n Another Time, publ i shed i n 1940, Auden i nt r oduces a sonnet
sequence uni f i e d by a motif which w i l l dominate h i s l a t e r wr i t i ngs .
Ri chard Hoggart has poi nt ed out t h a t t h i s mot i f , e n t i t l e d 'The Ques t ' ,
i s t h e e s s e n t i a l framework of New Year Le t t e r (19411, ' The Sea and t he
Mi r r or ' ( l 944) , The Age of Anxi et y ( 1948) , and The Enchaf ed Flood ( 1950).
The awareness of a r ecur r i ng s t r u c t u r e i n t h e poet r y has enabl ed t h e c r i t i c
t o approach Auden met hodi cal l y, not i ng h i s poet i c development and
eval uat i ng t he i ndi vi dual volumes t hrough t he poe t ' s var yi ng t r eat ment
of a cons t ant mot i f. For example, Monroe K. Spear s, r e f e r r i n g t o The Aj i e
of Anxi et y, says:
Ae s t he t i c a l l y, perhaps t h e c e n t r a l weakness of
& i s t h a t t he Quest i s l a r ge l y i n t e r n a l ; t he
s oci al - ps ychol ogi cal di agnos i s of contemporary
a nxi e t y, i s o l a t i o n , and anonymous s ol i t ude i s
r epr es ent ed i n s ubj e c t i ve t er ms, wi t h a l l t h e
a c t i o n psychi c and no r e a l i n t e r a c t i o n among
t h e char act er s . 5
That no such approach has been made t o t h e Auden of t he ' t h i r t i e s expl ai ns
t h e br oadl y d i f f e r i n g c r i t i c a l es t i mat es of t he work wr i t t e n dur i ng t h i s
peri od.
Cer t ai nl y, t h e mot i f of t he ' Quest ' has been seen a s t he theme of
s e l e c t volumes, p a r t i c u l a r l y The Dog beneat h t he Ski n and The Ascent of F6,
and t h e Wanderer, t h e man on t he ' Ques t ' , has been c i t e d as t h e main
5a
c h a r a c t e r of The Or at or s , b u t no at t empt has been made t o underst and t h a t
' one of t he g r e a t mythic pa t t e r ns of manki ndt 6 bi nds t oget her a l l Auden' s
work at this time. It is a point which Barbara Everett initially makes
but fail st^ utilize in her analysis of the individual works.' Whereas
Monroe K. Spears,in a periodical article, sees the myth as only one
amongst six major image-clusters in Auden's work,8 it is my contention
that the motif of the 'Quest' is the sole unifying image of the early
Auden. By examining in detail the poet's work between 1930 and 1939, I
wish to describe the development of the motif and probe Auden's poetic
and intellectual interests, for, as Justin Replogle has pointed out,
'Auden's use of the myth was determined by the philosophical beliefs oil .
which his early poetry rests.19 By investigating these informing sources,
it is possible to see Auden's development in terms of his involvement with
current intellectual idols and the excitement they generate within his
poetry. For example, the exotic panel of psychologists culled before
1933 introduces into his poetry a feverish dissection of psychic ills in
which Auden urgently beseeches the individual to undertake his own quest
for psychic health, establishing in the process his necessary 'Change ci
Heart.' As the 'thirties progress, Auden dabbles superficially in
Marxism and at this point, the means to achieve the ends of the 'Quest'
becomes the familiar 'Change of Environment' popularized by John Strachey
in The Coming Struggle for Power.l0
However, in discussing the poet's attitude towards his concept of
the 'Quest,' it is necessary to view it as an extension of Auden's own
search for an artistic identity during which the poet, with his consuming
interest in psycho-analytical material, gives way to the Christian Healer
whose abstract thought and generalized commentary transforms the earlier
urgent probing of the areas of the unconscious. The essential change is
from restlessness to stability, from a breathless energy to complacency,
f r om t he i s s u i n g of ur ge nt war ni ngs t o man t o a n accept ance of t hos e ve r y
ne ur os e s he had e a r l i e r denounced.
I n t h e a r t i c l e on Auden' s ' Gang Myt h' , publ i s hed i n 1962, J u s t i n
Repl ogl e remarked t h a t :
Somet hi ng t h a t r esembl es a que s t i s f r e que nt l y
under t aken by a he r o o r l e a de r wi t h a s m a l l
f ol l owi ng. . . . l1
Such a s t a t e me nt t y p i f i e s t h e r e a c t i o n of Auden' s c r i t i c s who appear
una bl e t o d e f i n e f u l l y t h e r i c h mot i f of t h e ' Que s t ' . It i s an i n a b i l i t y
f u r t h e r s een i n t h e work of Monroe K. Spear s :
t h e i n d i v i d u a l i s s i n g l e d o u t f o r a t e r r i f y i n g
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , i s r e qui r e d t o l eave h i s
c omf or t a bl e l i f e f o r a danger ous mi ssi on. . .
I n t h e e a r l y v e r s e , t h i s p a t t e r n ha s no ve r y
d e f i n i t e concept ual meaning. The i n d i v i d u a l
chosen ha s no s p e c i a l q u a l i f i c a t i o n s , i s n o t a
Hero; no d i s t i n c t i o n bet ween t h e Average and
t h e Exc e pt i ona l i s i mpl i ed. l2
Ri char d Hoggart a l s o i gnor e s t h e i n d i v i d u a l concer ns i n Auden' s t r e a t me nt
o f t h e ' Quest ' and i mpr ovi s es a nebul ous end:
...Q u e s t i s n o t under t aken f o r i t s own sake.
That would be a r omant i c de l us i on, and Auden
h a s ne ve r had much pa t i e nc e wi t h t h e s e l f -
r e ga r di ng r omant i c pe r s ona l i t y. The Quest
i s f o r o r d e r , f o r p a t t e r n and meaning, i n
l i f e . 13
De s pi t e , however, c r i t i c a l g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s wi t h t h e i r ne c e s s a r y el ement s
o f t r u t h , t h e maj or phi l os ophi c a l pr emi s s under l yi ng t h e mot i f of t h e
' Ques t ' i s t h a t e a c h i n d i v i d u a l i s r e s pons i bl e f o r c r e a t i n g a per s onal
o r d e r o u t of a c h a o t i c and decadent envi r onment . It i s t h i s b a s i c concept
t h a t u n i f i e s a l l Auden' s work dur i ng t h e ' t h i r t i e s . I n t h e p o e t ' s
d e l i n e a t i o n of t h i s c ons t a nt , each volume s e r ve s t o emphasi ze a d i f f e r e n t
a s p e c t of t h e ' Ques t ' mot i f wh i l s t s t r e s s i n g i t s r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e
mot i f as t h e uni f yi ng s t r u c t u r e . For t h i s r eas on, I have chosen t o
examine t he volumes appear i ng i n t he ' t h i r t i e s i ndi vi dual l y r a t h e r t han
by theme. I n t h i s way, Auden' s s u b t l e s h i f t s of emphasis w i l l r eveal
h i s devel opi ng i n t e l l e c t u a l concerns.
Randal l J a r r e l l has s t a t e d t h a t ' The ba s i c s t r u c t u r a l pi c t ur e ( i n
Wi t t ge ns t e i n' s s ens e) under l yi ngt hese poems i s t h a t of t he long s t r uggl e
of genet i c development, of t he har d, bl i nd journey d t he c r e a t ur e o r i t s
ki nd. ' I 4 Po e t i c a l l y , t h i s s t r uggl e i s mani fest ed i n a journey which,
under t he condi t i ons imposed upon him by a t hr eat eni ng, deat h-wi shi ng
s o c i e t y , Man i s unabl e t o complete. It i s s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t i n Poems,
i ncl udi ng t he charade Pai d on Both Si des , t he journey i s a si mpl e
pr oj e c t i on of Auden' s d e s i r e f o r such a Quest. The ' Quest ' i t s e l f i s
never undert aken and t he poet r y r e f l e c t s t h e urgency of Auden' s warnings
t o t he i ndi vi dual t h a t he must pr epar e hi msel f psychol ogi cal l y f o r t he
s t r enuous or deal s of a subsequent ' Quest . ' I n The Or at or s , and
e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e pl ays , t he journey forms t he backbone of t he work. A t
no t i me, however, can t he j ourney be brought t o a s ucces s f ul ending. For
example, a s t he Airman c l os e s h i s di a r y f u l l of f r a n t i c ment al j o t t i n g s ,
he i s onl y on t he poi nt of a c t i v e l y commencing h i s per sonal ' ques t . '
Even i n The Ascent of F6 where t he j ourney does appear t o have reached
some concl usi on i n RansomSs embrace of h i s Mother on t he summit of t he
mount ai n, i t i s merel y t he vi c t or y of t he deat h-wi sh long dormant wi t hi n
him. It would t hen appear t h a t t h e ' Quest ' deni es any f i n a l r e s ol ut i on,
demanding a cont i nuous seeki ng out dur i ng which Man w i l l f i n d hi msel f.
Contentment and complacency w i l l onl y l ead t o Man's f i n a l s p i r i t u a l
di s s ol ut i on. I n The Dog beneat h t h e Ski n, Alan Norman's s ear ch f o r
Fr a nc i s , t he mi ssi ng hei r , i s onl y t h e pr el i mi nar y s t age of pr epar at i o
f o r t h e t r u e ' Quest . ' Thi s pr el i mi nar y e f f o r t , which i ncl udes a l l t hose
f a l s e ques t i ngs , des cr i bed by t he Airman i n The Or at or s , i s a process of
p u r i f i c a t i o n , of cl eans i ng t he i ndi vi dual i n r eadi nes s f o r t he journey
t owards psychi c heal t h.
I t i s e s s e n t i a l t o underst and t h a t Auden' s view of h i s world was
s a t i r i c . I n t h e t r a d i t i o n of t he S a t i r i s t , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t he trsLi:;on
of Swi f t and But l e r , he r e l a t e s h i s i n c i s i v e obs er vat i ons one t o anot hcr
by u t i l i z i n g t he mot i f of t he journey o r ' Quest . ' A s i n Swi f t ' s Gu l l i v c r ' s
Tr avel s and Bu t l e r ' s Erewhon, such a f i r m s t r u c t u r a l uni t y al l ows t he a r c i s t
t i me and confi dence t o probe s o c i e t y ' s fl aws. Viewed a l l e g o r i c a l l y , how-
e ve r , t he journey o r ' Quest ' r ecor ds t he i ndi vi dua l ' s development t hrough-
o u t h i s l i f e and t he development of Man as a s peci es under t he pr es s ur es
of evol ut i on. As a l o g i c a l c or ol l a r y t o t hes e l a t t e r poi nt s , t he
s a t i r i s t employs t he mot i f of t he ' Quest ' t o examine t h e exper i ence
accumul at i ng t hrough such s er pent i ne wanderings and t o a s c e r t a i n what
p r o f i t has r es ul t ed. ,
The or i gi ns of t he journey a r e obvi ous. The i ndi vi dual commences
h i s at b i r t h and t akes t he d i r e c t i o n si gnpost ed by h i s par ent s . Thi s
s t at ement hel ps us t o comprehend t he obs es s i ve emphasis Auden at t ached t o
t h e g r e a t Oedi pal Mother - ' t h e l i mi t i ng mat r i x' of Look, St r anger !
Mankind' s journey grew from 'The bar r en s p i r i t u a l marri age of st one and
wat er , ' t hrough ' t he undared ocean' l 5 where t he r ace devel oped a
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c n o b i l i t y and courage and on i n t o t he pr es ent gener at i on.
Such a development r ecor ds t h e t o t t e r i n g moral s t a t u r e of Man t hrough t o
h i s immediate degeneracy.
I n s o a l l e g o r i c a l a l i g h t , it i s c l e a r t h a t t he ' Quest ' cannot reach
a concl usi on. I f a concl usi on i s at t empt ed, t he ' Quest ' r e s u l t s i n
f a i l u r e - t he deat h of t he i ndi vi dual o r t he t o t a l di s i nt e gr a t i on of t he
s o c i a l framework. And t h i s i s not t h e s a t i r i s t ' s i nt ent i on. For whi l e
he employs t he mot i f of t he journey t o examine Man's pr ogr ess i n Hi s t or y,
t he journey remains t he a l l e g o r i c a l pr oj ect i on of h i s hope and d e s i r e
t h a t Mankind cont i nue t o b e t t e r i t s environment and t he i ndi vi dual t o
expand t he a r e a s of h i s consci ous mind.
I n h i s del i neat i on of t he ' Quest ' Auden addr es s es hi msel f t o Xan s s
a psychoanalyet del vi ng into tha d i ~ c a a a d peycha af o pa r i c nr ha 1s
t r e a t i n g , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n Poems. Poe t i c a l l y, t he images of t h i s as pect
of h i s work r ecur f r equent l y i n t he f i g u r e s of t he Airman and t he hawk,
bot h of whom s ee ' t h e one concent r at ed s pot where be a t s t he l i f e - h e a r t
of our prey.I16 I n t he per i od of yout hf ul omni sci ence(before 19331, t he
psychi c i de a l t owards which t he i ndi vi dual i s making h i s symbolic journey
remai ns i l l de f i ne d. Never t hel ess, t he urgency wi t h which Man's s t a t i c
condi t i on i s decl ai med by j uxt apos i t i on suggest s a cl os e as s oci at i on
wi t h t he poet hi msel f . I n p a r t , t h i s r e s u l t s from Auden' s sense of a
devel opi ng r e s p o n s i b i l i t y towards h i s r eader , demonst rat ed emphat i cal l y
i n h i s d e l i n e a t i o n of t h e ' Quest.' Pr i mar i l y, t he ' Quest ' i s uninediated
b u t an i mport ant p a r t of l a t e r ' Ques t s , ' p a r t i c u l a r l y t hos e out l i ne d i n
The Ascent of F6 and The Dog beneat h t he Ski n, i s t he s ear ch f o r a percecc
l e a de r , a Tr ul y St r ong Man who w i l l s er ve a s psychi c and s o c i a l medi at or
between t he i ndi vi dual and h i s f i n a l per f ect i on. I n underst andi ng t h i s ,
we a r e t hen prepared f o r Auden' s subsequent conversi on t o Ch r i s t i a n i t y
where t he poet ' s per sonal seeki ng out r eaches some r es ol ut i on.
The motif of t he ' Quest ' encourages a poet r y of ' di agnos i s ' t hrough
which Auden seeks f o r t he panacea t o a l l Man's problems. It i s a poet ry
o f symptom and cur e i n which t he poem becomes t he warning i nst rument t o a
s o c i e t y t hr eat ened by i n s e n s i t i v i t y . A s Stephen Spender s a i d a t t he t i me:
Apart from t he d i r e c t t h r e a t t o freedom o f
expr es s i on, t he wr i t e r i s f or ced t o r e a l i z e
t h a t t he l i b e r a l assumpt i ons of pr ogr ess
and freedom which form t he so r es pect abl e
background of most bourgeoi s l i t e r a t u r e
t oday, a r e bei ng chal l enged by t he v i o l e n t
and de s t r uc t i ve methods of power p o l i t i c s .
He must submit t o t h i s chal l enge,
r econs i der t he moral assumpt i ons t h a t fl ow
s o e a s i l y i n t o h i s wr i t i ng, o r come out
wi t h a new s e t of val ues. 17
Auden' s r epeat ed use of t he motif of t he ' Quest ' s ugges t s t he poe t ' s
concern wi t h contemporary val ues. I n t he i ndi vi dual volumes, however,
r a t h e r t han f or mul at i ng a 'new s e t of v a l u e s ' , t he poet pr ef er r ed t o
c a s t i ~ a t e t h a t of cur r ent England, imposing upon Man t he knowletige of
h i s i ndi vi dual r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i n a c t i v e l y as s es s i ng and di s car di ng t he
o l d moral i t y. Any h i n t s of t he p o e t ' s promise f o r t he f u t u r e of t he
aver age Englishman must be gl eaned from t he two images of r a d i c a l change
i n Auden' s poet r y - t he convent i onal images of Spr i ng and Dawn - which
symbol i ze t he de s t r uc t i on of t he Old Order and Man's ba s i c poi nt of
depar t ur e t owards t h e New.
I f t hes e images r epr es ent s t i mul i f o r t he Man on t he ' Ques t , ' t hen
War ' a s t he most obvi ous and most cons t ant symbolic pa t t e r n i n Auden' s
poet ry' 18 pr ovi des t he background. Indeed, t he ques t i ng man i s of t en
concei ved of as a t r a i n e d spy of one army i n f i l t r a t i n g t h e di s eas ed
t r enches of t he ot her . Ba s i c a l l y, t h i s background i s ' an i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n
of man' s per enni al s i t u a t i o n of i ns e c ur i t y and danger , ' 19 capt ur i ng bot h
t h e poe t ' s b e l l i g e r e n t mood and t he fearsorredangers he envi sages f o r t he
i ndi vi dual under t aki ng t he Quest. The cr y f o r r evol ut i onar y zeal by
which c r i t i c s have conveni ent l y l a be l l e d Auden a s o c i a l poet , i s, i n f a c t ,
no more t han a c l a r i o n c a l l t o t he i ndi vi dual t o accept change, danger,
and an arduous exi s t ence as e s s e n t i a l companions a t t he commencement of
h i s journey. Li ke t he s o l d i e r s who a r e t h e i r a l l e g o r i c a l pr oj ect i ons ,
t h e i ndi vi dual s who seek t he ends of t he ' Ques t , ' must devel op a t r u e
psychi c d i s c i p l i n e t hrough a s t r i n g e n t s el f - appr ai s al . The r out e t o
t h i s knowledge of ones el f i s st rewn wi t h obs t acl es each of which
r epr es ent s a pos s i bl e f a l s e ques t f o r t he seeki ng man.
Thus, t he j ourney, occas i onal l y concei ved of as a mi l i t a r y advance
a g a i n s t a f i e r c e i f di s i l l us i one d enemy, t akes t he i ndi vi dual away from
t h e environment which was sl owl y, i nexor abl y s t r a ngl i ng h i s c r e a t i v i t y .
Whether t he r out e pas s es t hrough t h e dar k real m of t h e unconsci ous o r
v i a t he r evol ut i onar y chaos of an emerging s t a t e , i t s importance l i e s i n
t h e f a c t t h a t i t i s l eavi ng behind an a r e a of de s t r uc t i on i n which t he
i ndi vi dual f or mer l y wallowed. Thi s expl ai ns t he importance of t hose
scenes of i n d u s t r i a l des ol at i on s o pr eval ent i n t he work of t he Auden of
t h e ' t h i r t i e s . These scenes a r e no more t han a l l e g o r i c a l pr oj ect i ons of
t h e decadent psyche:
Heari ng of har ves t s r o t t i n g i n t he va l l e ys ,
Seei ng a t end of s t r e e t t he bar r en mountains,
Round cor ner s coming suddenl y on wat er ,
Knowing them shipwrecked who were launched f o r i s l a nds ,
We honour founders of t hes e s t a r vi ng c i t i e s
Whose honour i s t he image of our sorrow.. .20
Thi s psychi c decay i s t he d i r e c t r e s u l t of Man's i n a b i l i t y t o respond
adequat el y t o t h e chal l enge of t he cont i nuous evol ut i onar y pr es s ur es upon
him. He has pr ef er r ed t he comparat i ve s a f e t y of deat h, symbol i cal l y
year ni ng, as Michael Ransom, f o r t h e mother-image. Thi s mot her - f i xat i on
r educes Man t o t h e a c t i v i t y of a s t agnant pond and it i s onl y t he vi ol ence
of t he pr evi ousl y mentioned change t h a t can rouse him from h i s wi t hdrawal
from t he r e a l world. I f t he pr ocess of pur i f i c a t i on i s completed success-
f u l l y , Man, it can be assumed, may undert ake t he ' Quest ' wi t h some hope of
t ri umph. However, f o r t hose depi ct ed i n process of j ourneyi ng, Auden
o f f e r s l i t t l e hope. The i nnat e cor r upt i on of s oci et y mani f est s i t s e l f i n
t h e i ndi vi dua l ' s psychosomatic di s e a s e (Poem XXX) which r ender s him an
i nva l i d and t hus unabl e t o cr os s i n t o t he l and of t he heal t hy, t he reaim
of t he unknown, l i k e t he Airman of The Or at or s and t he numerous f a i l u r e s
recorded i n Poems. I f t he cl eans i ng i s t horough, t h e i ndi vi dual may
appear t o have r i d hi msel f of a l l l a t e n t neuroses. Never t hel ess, t he
chances a r e t h a t t hey w i l l r e t ur n at some poi nt i n h i s j ourney, causi ng
him a ni ght mare exi s t ence and l eadi ng ul t i mat el y t o a sel f-i mposed
des t r uct i on.
For t he i ndi vi dua l , t h e poi nt of pur i f i c a t i on i s t he Tes t which I
have de t a i l e d more f u l l y i n Chapt er 1. Thi s Te s t , a provi ng of Man's
wor t hi ness t o under t ake t he ' Ques t , ' i s f a r more i mport ant i n t he e a r l y
*
' t h i r t i e s t han t he ' Quest ' i t s e l f . The poems i n t h i s ps r i od a r e impetuous
b a t t l e - c r i e s t o t he sear chi ng Man a s he pr epar es hi msel f f o r h i s ensui ng
s t r uggl e. Bas i cal l y, i t i s a c ont e s t which l i e s wi t hi n him, a s he
at t empt s t o conquer t h e i nher ent f l aws i n t he realm of t h e consci ous mind,
al r eady cor r upt ed by Man's Par ent s and Teachers, t he r epr es ent at i ves of
h i s super-ego. Poe t i c a l l y, t h i s moment of t r u t h and deci s i on i s
r epr es ent ed by t he image of t he Fr ont i er . ' The her o cr os s es o r at t empt s
t o c r os s t he bor der i n t o t he l and of t he heal t hy. He may f a l l s hor t , a
vi c t i m of h i s own f e a r s : o r he may succumb t o t empt at i ons o r t h e
i mpor t uni t i es of t hos e who defend t he s i c k s oci et y. ' *l It i s onl y when
t h i s bor der i s reached and cr os s ed t h a t t he r e a l ' Quest ' f o r psychi c h e a l t h
can commence. I n t h i s l i g h t , f o r example, The Or at or s does not def i ne a
' Quest ' at al l . I t exhor t s t he i ndi vi dual t o undert ake h i s per sonal
psychi c expl or at i on by showing one t o t a l l y di seased i ndi vi dual i n t he l a s t
s t a g e s of pr epar at i on bef or e under t aki ng t he Test . Through ' The J our nal
of t h e Airman' we r e a l i z e t he hopel essness of h i s predicament. It i s
y e t anot her t est ament of des pai r .
Although Auden s t r e s s e s Man's complete r e s pons i bi l i t y f o r h i s o m
ques t , i t i s t he power of l ove i n t he world which s er ves bot h a s
mot i vat i on f o r t h e i ndi vi dual and as t he psychi c i d e a l al r eady not cd.
A s t he ' t h i r t i e s c l os e , t he power of l ove i s t he ' Quest ' i n i t s e l f ,
s er vi ng not merely as means t o an end but a s end i n i t s e l f . A s Ho;gsr;
ha s said:
Auden' s s p i r i t u a l h i s t o r y i s t he h i s t o r y
of h i s growing r e a l i z a t i ona f how much t h i s
change of h e a r t i mpl i ed, and j u s t what ' t h e
pl ace of Love, t he Good Pl ace' might mean. **
4
I n at t empt i ng t o def i ne t h i s a c t i v a t i n g concept of Love, Auden a l t e r s
cons i der abl y i n h i s a t t i t u d e towards t h e Quest -mot i f. The development
t hroughout t h e ' t h i r t i e s i s from a Love, ba s i c a l l y t he Freudi an Er os, i n
which Man can f i n d g r a t i f i c a t i o n f o r t he i n s t i n c t u a l dr i ve s he would
ot her wi s e be compelled t o r epr es s . As t h e work of t he ' t h i r t i e s progress,
t h i s o r i g i n a l concept i s seen a s a s e l f i s h and i s o l a t i n g f a c t o r i n human
r e l a t i ons hi ps , l eadi ng t o i s l a nds of l onel i nes s . Gr adual l y, t he new
Love devel ops a s a s o c i a l and uni f yi ng power which al l ows f o r complete
communication among Men. Af t e r 1940, Auden embraces t he Chr i s t i a n Love
which he has c a r e f u l l y worked towards t hroughout t he per i od, p a r t i c u l a r l y
i n t he numerous pr ayer s addr essed os t e ns i bl y and sometimes pl ayf ul l y t o
t h e per s oni f i cat i on of Love, o f t e n God hi msel f .
I n t he e a r l y verse,Auden spends v a s t r esour ces on t h i s concept of
Love, not i n def i ni ng i t s i d e a l cons t i t uency but i n a t t a c ki ng i t s
per ver s i ons wi t hi n s oci et y. Ba s i c a l l y, Auden s t r e s s e s i t s r e a l s t r e ngt h
i n per sonal and s o c i a l r e l a t i ons hi ps . It i s not a romant i c o r i de a l l ove.
It i s n o t t o be consi der ed a mere f a b r i c a t i o n f o r
. . . t he word i s l ove
Sur el y one f e a r l e s s k i s s would cur e
The mi l l i on f e ve r s , a s t r oki ng brush
The i n s e n s i t i v e r ef us e from t he burni ng core.
I n t h i s poem, publ i shed i n - Look, St r anper ! i n 1 9 3 6 , ~ ~ Auden gent l y c:ccks
t he narrow and r e s t r i c t e d concept i on of Love he hi msel f had hel d onl y six
ye a r s pr evi ousl y. But t he importance of Love i n t h i s e a r l y ver s e canncL
be over s t at ed. It i s t he e s s e n t i a l mot i vat i on f o r t h e Man on t he Quest,
bei ng i n deadl y c o n f l i c t wi t h t he de s t r uc t i ve demands of t he death-wisii.
#
I n one sense, t h e Quest i s e s s e n t i a l f o r t he Man who f e e l s t he s t i r r i n g
o f t h i s l ove wi t hi n him. I f he f a i l s t o respond t o t h e ener get i c
i mpul ses deep i n s i d e and r epr es s es t hes e i n s t i n c t u a l demands, he per ver t s
h i s c r e a t i v i t y i n t o f or c e s which work a ga i ns t him. I n t h i s way, t he
Airman of The Or at or s i s overwhelmed by t hose pr es s ur es f o r which he can
f i n d no o u t l e t , and event ual l y he moves t o s e l f - de s t r uc t i on.
Throughout t he per i od of t he ' t h i r t i e s but p a r t i c u l a r l y i n The Ascc?:;:
of F6, Auden examines t he f or c e and t he qua l i t y of t he Love which a c t i v a t e s
t h e seeki ng i ndi vi dual . I f i t i s i nher ent l y cor r upt , it r e s u l t s i n h i s
de a t h, a s Ransom ul t i mat el y r e t ur ns t o h i s Mother, t he symbolic
r epr es ent at i on of t he death-wish. Emanating from t h i s exami nat i on of
Love, Man's psychi c i d e a l and t he e f f e c t i v e he a l e r of Man's di s eas ed
condi t i on, i s t h e p o e t ' s probi ng of a l l Man' s l eader s , bot h p o l i t i c a l ac3
s oc i a l . The damage t hey s u f f e r t hrough Auden' s s a t i r i c a l i nc i s i ons
depends upon t he e x t e n t t o which t hey have per ver t ed t he pot e nt i a l f o r
Love wi t hi n them. For example, h i s emphasis on t h e Ca p i t a l i s t Leaders,
t h a t qua s i - f a s c i s t c l i que who cont r ol Pr essan Arnbo i n The Dog Beneath t he
Ski n, i s p a r t i c u l a r l y vi c i ous , f o r t hey have di scar ded Love f o r a
-
cor r upt i ng phys i c a l i t y which r ender s them impotent a ga i ns t t he i ncur s i ons
of t h e death-wish. Look, St r anger ! owes i t s ver y i mport ance t o i t s
de l i ne a t i on of somewhat d i f f e r i n g concept s of Love i n t he one volume.
I t s theme, a s Monroe K. Spears has poi nt ed o u t , i s t h a t ' our t r oubl es ,
publ i c and pr i va t e , r e s u l t from a f a i l u r e of l ove, t h a t t he problem i s
t o unl ear n hat r ed and l ear n love. . . ' 2 4 ' To unl ear n hat r ed and l eai n
l ove' i s Auden' s own phrase25 and des cr i bes h i s concept of a Quest
t hrough which Man l ear ns t o l ove f r e e from t he d e b i l i t a t i n g hat r ed so
pr eval ent i n Soci et y, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t hos e i nf i r m a r e a s of t he consci ous
cor r upt ed by t he unt hi nki ng cont r ol of t he Aut hor i t i es . I n h i s
det er mi nat i on t o f or c e t h i s i dea upon h i s audi ence, Auden moves t o t he
Theat r e i n col l abor at i on wi t h Chr i s t opher Isherwood. Here t he i de a l of
a par abl e a r t has a contemporary conf i r mat i on i n t he work of Ber t hol t
Br echt i n Germany where t he t h e a t r e becomes a d i d a c t i c i nst rument . I n
t hes e dramat i c sur r oundi ngs, t he mot i f of t he ' Quest ' i s used most
e f f e c t i v e l y t o s t i mul a t e Man t o a c t i v i t y , t o at t empt t o change t he slow
deat h he endures i n contemporary s oci et y.
Through Love, Man w i l l achi eve h i s per sonal quest by c r e a t i ng out of
t h e de s t r uc t i ve demands bot h wi t hi n him and out s i de i n Soci et y, a t o t a l l y
c ons t r uc t i ve f or c e which, i n t he e a r l y poet r y bef or e 1933, would see Man
r e a l i z i n g h i s f u l l pot ent i al . With no d i s t i n c t i o n made between t he
aver age and t he except i onal Man, Auden demands a harmonious i n t e r r e l a t i o n -
s h i p of Man t o Man, r emi ni scent of D.H. Lawrence. But i t l i e s wi t hi n
t h e i ndi vi dual t o r e a l i z e f u l l y t he importance of t h i s l ove by s t r i v i n g
f o r it cons t ant l y t hroughout h i s l i f e . I n t h i s br oader s ens e, t he Quest
w i l l i nvol ve an a c t i v i t y r equi r i ng no l e s s t han a l i f e t i me t o f u l f i l l .
It i s now somewhat e a s i e r t o appr eci at e t he char act er of t he f a i l u r e s who
at t empt t he Quest and underst and why s o many a r e t o be found i n Auden' s
work i n t h i s peri od. It i s a l s o pos s i bl e toL underst and t he p o e t ' s concern
wi t h Youth, f o r , pr i mar i l y, t hey r epr es ent t he moment of Man's l e a s t
?
r e s i s t a n c e a ga i ns t t he i ncur s i ons of t he deat h-wi sh s t i mul at ed a r t i f i c i a l l y
by t he Par ent s and Teachers, t he d e b i l i t a t i n g super-ego. The i r oni c
sorrow Auden wri ngs from t he young st ems from h i s underst andi ng t h a t i t
i s t hey who have t he g r e a t e s t chance of s ucces s f ul l y compl et i ng t he
Quest and y e t it i s t hey who a r e t o t a l l y unprepared t o commence. T h i s
expl ai ns Auden' s concern f o r t he ' r ui ned boys' of Poems who a r e addresscd
i n The Or at or s by h y s t e r i c a l school mast er f i g u r e s demanding a c t i v i t y .
The na t ur a l r e s u l t of t he poe t ' s urgency over t h i s s t a ge of Man' s
development l i e s i n t he Ode t o John Warner, t he f i f t h ode i n t he Thi rd
Book of The Or at or s . I n t he poem, Auden' s concern escapes t he i r o n i c
c ont r ol i n which he masks h i s f eel i ngs .
' Bef or e 1933 near l y ever yt hi ng Auden wrote r e f l e c t e d h i s t o t a l l y
non-Narxi st b e l i e f t h a t a s i c k s oc i e t y coul d be cured onl y be removing
/
t he psychol ogi cal i l l n e s s of i ndi vi dual s . ' 26 I n Poems and i n The Orators,
Auden s ees t he Quest i n terms of a journey t hrough t he unchart ed r egi ons
of t he unconsci ous, i n a cont i nual s es s i on of sel f - psycho- anal ysi s.
St i mul at ed by t he work of Freud, Groddeck and Lane, t he poet a t t r i b u t e s
Man's e s s e n t i a l decay t o c e r t a i n i nna t e , de s t r uc t i ve t endenci es which
mani f es t t hemsel ves i n purposi ve neuroses. The de l i ne a t i on of t he TU,.,
i s i n terms of a change t o psychi c h e a l t h where each i ndi vi dual , r egar dl es s
of rank, t akes per sonal r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r h i s own psychi c hygiene.
Gr adual l y, i n t h e ' t h i r t i e s , Auden ar gues t h a t Man must r e j e c t t he r oot
caus es of h i s i nner s i cknes s by per s onal l y r ef us i ng t o acknowledge h i s
s o c i a l l eader s , under whose gui di ng power Man has been l ed as t r ay. I t i s
s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t t h i s l a t t e r poi nt i s made most emphat i cal l y i n t he l a s t
pl ay he wrot e bef or e l eavi ng f o r America. On t he Fr o n t i e r i s a pl ay
wi t hout energy, wi t hout t he i n t e l l e c t u a l exci t ement Auden us ual l y gener at es
wi t hi n h i s work. Although Auden mai nt ai ns an academic i n t e r e s t i n t he
I
1
mot i f of t he ' Ques t ' , mat ur i t y o r perhaps a ki nd of complacency o r boch,
have depri ved h i s wr i t i ng of t h a t f e e l i n g of urgency he had imparted LO
r eader s of h i s e a r l i e r poet ry.
Auden' s development of t he Quest-motif t hrough t he ' t h i r t i e s i s
i n t e g r a l l y r e l a t e d t o h i s per sonal s ear ch f o r a r t i s t i c i de nt i t y. A s an
ar t i st he looked f o r a ' ver bal cont r apt i on, ' an ' a r t i s t i c f a br i c a t i on'
t h a t would pr es ent a f a i t h f u l anal ogy t o t he Good Li f e and t he Good Pl ace
he had of f er ed a s nebul ous cl i maxes t o t he i ndi vi dua l ' s seeki ng out .
A s Auden hi msel f has s t a t e d:
Every poem ... i s an at t empt t o pr es ent an
anal ogy t o t h a t par adi s al s t a t e i n which
Freedom and Law, System and Order a r e
uni t ed i n harmony. Every good poem i s
ver y near l y a Ut opi a. Again, an anal ogy,
not an i mi t at i on; t he harmony i s pos s i bl e
and ver bal only. 27
I n t he e a r l i e s t work, Auden' s ba s i c poet i c t one i s t h a t of t he ur gent
warni ng t o manki nd' t o undert ake a ques t and t o beware f a l s e prophet s
expounding f a l s e i d e a l s which tempt Man from h i s endl es s seeki ng. Iii
consequence, t he poet r y i s v i t a l but obscur e, di r e c t e d towards a gr oa? of
i n i t i a t e d i n t e l l e c t u a l s who s har e Auden' s own knowledge and l ove of t h a t
per s onal mythology Chr i s t opher Isherwood has descr i bed i n h i s aut obi o-
gr a phi c a l novel , Li ons and Shadows. I n t he l a t e r work t he t one changes
t o a cal mer, more l uci d s t y l e which cul mi nat es i n t he t h e a t r i c a l par abl es
,/--1
Auden wrot e i n col l abor at i on wi t h Chr i s t opher dherwood. The e f f e c t on
t h e quest -mot i f of Auden' s at t empt s t o r each as l ar ge an audi ence a s
pos s i bl e , i s t o r e j e c t t he br e a t hl e s s v i t a l i t y of t he e a r l i e r warnings and I
t o examine wi t h an i n t e l l e c t u a l har dness t he i mpl i cat i ons of t he r i c k
I
mot i f he has been us i ng t o uni f y h i s work. A t t h i s poi nt Al~den comr,,cr,ct?s
an exami nat i on of t hose s p i r i t u a l and s o c i a l l eader s he has pr evi ousl y
I
I
s a t i r i z e d . I t i s t h e moment of h i s r e a l i z a t i o n of a r t i s t i c
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t owar ds h i s r e a de r s .
I n h i s l a t e r d e l i n e a t i o n of t h e ' Que s t , ' Auden' s devel opi ng
i nvol vement wi t h it ma ni f e s t s i t s e l f i n h i s concer n f o r Zngland and h i s
growi ng r e l a t i o n s h i p t o a count r y which ha s pr ovi ded a c o n s i s t e n t bnck-
c l o t h t o t h e pe r e gr i na t i ons of h i s que s t i ng i ndi vi dua l . H i s poems rccord
t h e s p e c i f i c i t y of h i s phys i c a l p o s i t i o n as t he y r e l a t e i t c ons t a nt l y to
t h e l a r g e r s o c i a l f l a ws i n t h e na t i on. With Auden' s growi ng concer n f o r
t h e st at e of Engl and comes h i s i mpl i ed panacea f o r ' t h i s count r y of our s
where nobody i s wel l . ' 28 Thi s panacea of Love i s exempl i f i ed i n t h e work
and l i v e s of t hos e f r i e n d s t o whom Auden d e d i c a t e s h i s i ndi vi dua l volumes. 29
I t i s s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t t h e images of hope which a ppe a r s c a n t i l y t hr oughout .
t h e p o e t ' s e a r l y canon become a s s o c i a t e d wi t h t h e mys t er i ous appear ance of
one of t h e s e c l o s e f r i e n d s . Here t h e most obvi ous exampl es l i e i n t h e
homage pai d t o Rex War ner ' s s on, J o h n , a t whose b i r t h Auden r ecor ded h i s
own i r o n i c v i s i o n of t h e f u t u r e , and t h e t r i b u t e pa i d t o Chr i s t ophe r
I sher wood t o whom Auden addr es s ed h i s most compel l i ng words on a r t i s t i c
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . Wi t hout c a l l i n g t h e c l i q u e , as v i s u a l i z e d by Auden, a
community, i t i s s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t i n a pe r i od of supposed Marxism, h i s
s o l u t i o n s f o r t h e f i n a l f u l f i l l me n t o f t h e Quest a r e drawn f a r from any
sympat hi es wi t h t h e common peopl e. Only i n t h e Tr ul y St r ong Men amongst
h i s f r i e n d s - i n a f r i e n d s h i p which i s al mos t a n image i n Auden' s poet r y -
i s t h e r e a s ugge s t i on of t h e s uc c e s s f ul compl et i on of t h e Quest .
Nor t hr op Frye, i n t h e Anatomy of ~ r i t i c i s m , ~ ~ unr a ve l s t h e compl exi t y
whi ch s ur r ounds t h e ' Quest ' as a l i t e r a r y mot i f based on a popul ar myth.
H e d i v i d e s t h e ' Ques t ' i n t o t h r e e d i s t i n c t s t a ge s . The f i r s t s t a g e i s
AGON o r t h e s t a g e o f t h e p e r i l o u s j our ney cor r es pondi ng i n Auden' s work
t o t h e Her o' s de s c e nt from t h e mount ai ns of h i s i s o l a t i o n t o t h e v ~ l l c y s
o f s t a gna t i on and d e s p a i r which s e r ve as ba t t l e gr ound f o r t h e second
stagi.. This i s PATHOS o r t h e s t a g c o f thc c r u c i a l st rcg8l . c i n w h i c h
Auden' s Hero must d e f e a t t hos e el ement s wi t hi n, t hos e l a t e n t neur os es
which t h r e a t e n t o br eak o u t and d e s t r o y him. i n t h e poe z ' s treatrci,-,n: o;
t h e myth, t h i s second s t a g e of t h e j our ney i s r e pr e s e nt e d by t l - , ~ ' T c s t , '
The l a s t s t a g e i nvol ve s t h e e x a l t a t i o n of t h e Hero o r ANAGNORISIS even i f
h e does not s ur vi ve t h e c o n f l i c t . Thi s s t a g e cor r es ponds t o t h e
g l o r i f i c a t i o n of t h e f a i l u r e s who abound t hr oughout Auden' s work i n t h e
' t h i r t i e s .
The c e n t r a l el ement of t h i s ' Quest i s c o n f l i c t and i t assumes two
main c h a r a c t e r s - a he r o anal ogous t o t h e myt hi cal Messi ah o r d e l i v e r e r
and a n enemy anal ogous t o t h e demonic powers of a l ower worl d. Such a
s t r u g g l e t a k e s pl a c e i n t h e real wor l d of Man and i s c ha r a c t e r i z e d by fk,e
c y c l i c a l movement of na t ur e . As i n Poem XVT of Poems, t h e enemy i s
a s s o c i a t e d wi t h wi n t e r and t h e accompanying da r kne s s , conf us i on and
s t e r i l i t y of t h e convent i onal mind. I n t h i s same poem, t h e he r o i s
l i n k e d d i r e c t l y t o s p r i n g , dawn, o r d e r , f e r t i l i t y , vi gour and yout h.
Fr ye c i t e s as t h e reward f o r t h e ' Ques t ' a br i de :
Th i s br i de - f i g u r e i s ambiguous:
h e r ps yc hol ogi c a l connect i on wi t h
t h e mot her i n a n Oedi pus f a n t a s y i s
, more i n s i s t e n t t han i n comedy.31
The b r i d e - f i g u r e i s o f t e n found i n a p e r i l o u s pl a c e , i n a c c e s s i b l e t o 211
b u t t h e most f e a r l e s s of champions. Thus, i n a f u r t h e r s t a t e me nt of
Man' s f a i l u r e , Auden, i n Poem XVI of Poems, s e e s h i s her o:
deep i n c l e a r l a ke
The l o l l i n g br i degr oom, b e a u t i f u l , t he r e .
And, i n a supposedl y s uc c e s s f ul c onc l us i on t o a ' Que s t , ' Mi chael Ransom
embr aces h i s Mother on t h e summit of F6 - a mot her who wears t h e hu- *i ; f i c
gowns of a new b r i d e . Such a l l e g o r i c a l p o r t r a i t s of c ont i nua l f a i ; z r c
f i n d t h e i r p a r a l l e l i n Fr y e ' s di s c us s i on of Da nt e ' s ' Ques t ' i n t h e
Commedia:
The human na t ur e of Da nt e ' s que s t i s
e s t a b l i s h e d by t he f a c t t h a t he i s
una bl e t o overcome o r even t o f a c e
t h e monst er s who c onf r ont him a t t h e
begi nni ng: h i s que s t t h u s begi ns i n
a r e t r e a t from t h e convent i onal kni ght -
e r r a n t r ol e . 32
i n c onc l us i on, Fr ye s a ys of t h e quest -romance i t s e l f t h a t i t i s :
t h e s e a r c h of t h e l i b i d o o r d e s i r i n g
s e l f f o r a f u l f i l l me n t t h a t w i l l
d e l i v e r it from t h e a n x i e t i e s of
r e a l i t y but wi l l s t i l l c ont a i n t h a t
r e a l i t y . 3 3
Auden' s poe t r y, o f t e n c o n t r o l l e d by h i s i r o n i c v i s i o n of s o c i e t y , a t r a c i t s
t h e p r e v a i l i n g i n t e l l i g e n c e of t h a t segment of s o c i e t y 02 which he is a
member. A s t h e Airman of The Or a t o r s , he may under s t and t h e need f o r
change, but he r emai ns p a r t i a l l y i n l ove wi t h t h e decadence he a t t z c k s .
By l ooki ng c l o s e l y a t t h e mot i f of t h e ' Ques t ' as i t u n i f i e s each
volume of Auden' s work dur i ng t h e ' t h i r t i e s , I i nt e nd t o t r a c e t h e p o e t ' s
changi ng a t t i t u d e t owar ds it and a t t e mpt t o uncover an or ga ni z a t i ona l
i mpul s e deep wi t hi n t h e poe t r y whi ch hol ds t h e r e s t l e s s ener gy of t h e
v e r s e i n t i g h t c ont r ol . For t h i s pur pose, I s h a l l r e f e r t o t h e f ol l owi ng
vol umes, devot i ng one chapt e; e a c h t o Auden' s Poet r y and h i s Pl a ys :
I
i
Poems ( Ba s i c a l l y , t h e 1933 volume wi t h
r e f e r e n c e t o t h e e d i t i o n s of 1928 and 19301, ( 2 N ~ ~ . , 1 9 ~ 3 )
The Or a t or s ( 1.9 May, 1932)
The Dance of Deat h ( 9 November, 1933)
The Dog beneat h t h e Ski n ( 2 0 May, 1935)
The Ascent of Fb ( 2 4 Sept ember, 1936)
Look, St r anger ! ( :2 Oct ober , 1936)
On t h e F r o n t i e r ( 27 Oct ober , 1 9 3 8 1 ~ ~
These main t e x t s wi l l be suppl ement ed by r e f e r e nc e t o t he n t i i ~ r o u s ,
unc ol l e c t e d poems publ i s hed dur i ng t h e per i od and t o s e t - p ' i C C t 2 S b d i i ~ CLS
' Spa i n' ; L e t t e r s from I c e l a nd ( 1937) ; J our ney t o a War ( 1339) ; ,nd
Anot her Time ( 1940) . What I a m pr i ma r i l y concer ned wi t h, howcver, i s
Auden' s changi ng p o e t i c and i n t e l l e c t u a l i n t e r e s t s as mani f es t ed i n his
va r yi ng t r e a t me nt of t h e quest - mot i f be f or e h i s emi gr at i on t o r.i~.c:Lca i n
1939. The ve r y Engl i s hne s s of h i s v e r s e and t h e n a t u r a l r e l e va nc e of
Engl and t o h i s own t empor al and s p a t i a l i d e n t i t y i s p e c u l i a r l y i gcor ed
by c r i t i c s . I i n t e n d t o show t h a t Auden' s emi gr at i on t o America rn~i-kcci
t h e pe r s ona l cul mi nat i on of t h e a dvi c e he had been gi vi ng t o h i s country-
men ove r t h e pr eceedi ng decade.
NOTES TO THE INTRODUCTION
La r ki n, The Spe c t a t or , p. 104.
Le a vi s , r ev. of W. H. Auden, Look St r a nge r ! (London, 19361, Scr uzi ny,
V (December 1936, 323-327.
3 T
" u s t i n Re pl ogl e ' s ' The Gang Myth i n Auden' s Ea r l y Poe' i r y, ' <;ZG?, LXI
( J u l y , 1962) , 481-95, has done much t o d i s p e l c r i t i c a l b ~ i q i ; c; ci i ~; t ~nt ova 1-
t h e seemi ngl y meani ngl ess c h a r a c t e r s and o b j e c t s r e c u r r i n g f r e que nt l y LL
t h e e a r l y poet r y of W.H. Auden.
4
W. Z. Auden, Wr i t e r s and The i r Work, No.93 (London, 19571, p. 9.
The Poe t r y of W.H. Auden, (New York, 1963) , p.241.
5 a ~ e e , f o r exampl e, Ri char d Hoggar t ' s obs e r va t i ons on t h e e a r l y j oar ney i n
W. M. Auden, (London, 19571, p.9.
Loui se Bogan, Shenandoah, Vol. X V I I I , No.2. ( Wi nt er , l 567) , 45. T~T: S
i s s u e of t h e Pe r i o d i c a l wa s i n commemmoration of t h e s i x t i e t h bl r t hc- y of
W.H. Auden.
' Auden, (London, 1964).
' ' Gominant Symbols of Auden' s Po e t r y , ' Sewanee Review, LIX ( 145; ; , 392---3.
X. K. Spe a r s not ed t h a t War; l a ys a ge Mor al i s e; Love ( Er os , Logos m d A ~ L - L ; ;
The Ci t y , Psychosomat i c Di s eas e and t h e Quest domi nat ed t he i ma ge - c ; us ~e r s
of Auden' s poet r y.
' The Gang Myth, ' p. 485.
Se v e r t h e l e s s , i n d e l i n e a t i n g Auden' s devel opment i n t h i s way, :t i s ~ . . . ? L > C C - ~ ~ X ~ L
t o under s t and t h a t f o r t h e i ndi vi dua l h i s ' change of h e a i t ' depcndec sn h:s
own de f i a nc e of t h e a u t h o r i t a t i v e envi r onment which was t h e or r g- na; C,L>
of i n n e r decadence. Because of t h e e duc a t i ve f a c t o r s of ?LLii s I x r ~ r , - a .*
Teacher s , t h e gul f bet ween a ' Change of h e a r t ' and a ' chacg* of env,rona,;La
i nvol ved Auden i n but a s l i g h t change of emphasi s.
' The Gang Myth, ' p.483.
The Poe t r y of W.H. Auden, p. 138.
'' 1J.K. Auden, p.9.
14 ' Fr eud t o Paul : The St a ge s of Auden' s I deol ogy. ' Pa r t i s a n Review, XI; (1<;15'
437.
'' Poem I of Look, St r anger ! .
7
, P o l i t i c s and Li t e r a t u r e i n 1 3 3 , ' Hook;xrn, LXXXV ( l 9 3 3 ) , . .
13 .
i oc. c l t .
'O Pocm V I ~ of ~ o o k , S c - ~ n g c r ! F i r s t pr i nt e d i n - Cr i t t l r Son, J u l y , 15L3.
Ks pr i nt ed i n the Ca i i e c t e d Poems as ' Paysage Mor ai i s e. '
2 1
' The Gang Myth, ' 485.
22 AuJ?n: An I nt r oduc t or y i - : s s ~y, (London, 1951) , p. 145.
23 Toem XXX. IL w ~ s f i r s t p r i n t e d i n New Vcr s s , Oct ober-XovezLei 192, -..- ..-
t h e t i t l e ' To a Wr i t e r on h i s Bi r t hda y. ' I t i s addr es s ed LO 2 k r i s Ls L, ., :
T -
~s he r woou.
24 ' The Dominant Symbols, ' 404.
- -
25 The phr as e i s t aken from Auden' s e s s a y ' Psychol ogy and A r t ' which GY.;..
-
Gr i gson i nci uded i n The A r t s Today (London, 1935) .
2 6
' The Gang Myt h, ' 485.
2 7
Quoted by Za r ba r z Ev e r e t t , A~ d c n , p.63.
2s n,
i.ie Or a t or s (London, 19321, p.8.
-.
R ~ p e r t Doone; The Dog Beceat h Zhe Ski n ( 1935) t o Rober t : ~ G L > , - 1:- .
of FG t o John Bi c kne l l Auden; Look, St r a nge r ! t o Er i ka >-,;z L . - , ~ Or.
p--
F r o n t i e r t o Benjamin Br i t t e n .
30
The Anatomy of Cr i t i c i s m, ( Pr i nc e t on, 1957) .
see, in pa.-+; , , ~ ~ , i a r , -..- pp. 187-90, l 92- 96, 316-24.
3 2 Fr ye , pp.317-18.
33 Fr ye , p.193.
I
~
34 A l l t h e e d i t i o n s used a r e t h e o r i g i n a l Engi i s h e d i ~ l o n s a;., . .-.,.;? z , ,,.,;.,
t he a p p r o p r i a t e Engl i s h t i t l e s t o avoi d conf us i on wi t h t he<; ... . - r i c , . ~~ <ibL: - .
pa r t s .
CHAPTER ONE
Poems; The Or at or s ;
Look, St ranger!
I n t he poet r y wr i t t e n dur i ng t he ' t h i r t i e s , Auden was preoccupi ed
wi t h t he psychi c condi t i on of h i s fellow-men. Thi s deep concern sprang
from h i s a c t i v i t i e s a s a s a t i r i s t , f o r , a s Henry Fi el di ng once wrote:
The s a t i r i s t i s t o be regarded a s our
phys i ci an, not our enemyl
and t he poet ry of Auden r ecor ds such a di agnos t i c eye. Having probed
Man' s ba s i c weakness, t he poet pr es cr i bes a cour se of t r eat ment . Thi s
t r eat ment i s t he d i r e c t r e s u l t of h i s consuming i n t e r e s t i n psycho-
a na l ys i s . Man's road t o t he recovery of h i s former psychi c he a l t h i s
a l l e g o r i c a l l y drawn i n t he image of t he ' Quest . '
I n h i s de l i ne a t i on of t he ' Ques t ' , which s t r u c t u r e s h i s anal ys es ,
Auden made s us t ai ned use of Freudi an psychoanal ysi s and i t s de r i va t e s ,
i n p a r t i c u l a r f our c r i t i c s of Man's pr es ent psychol ogi cal di s or der -
E'reud2 hi ms el f , D.H. ~a wr e n c e , 3 Homer ~ a n e ~ and Georg rod deck.^ in
a s ynt hes i s of t h e i r f i ndi ngs which r e t a i n s t h e i r imagery and t one of
e ~ h o r t a t i o n ~ h u d e n at t empt s a poet i c p a r a l l e l t o t h e i r i nves t i gat i ons i n t o
t h e psyche of t he i ndi vi dual . The r e s u l t s of t hes e psychi c per cept i ons
mani f es t t hemsel ves i n Poems where t he poe t ' s d e s i r e f o r t he r e h a b i l i t a t i o n
of h i s fellow-man i s a l l e gor i z e d by t he image of t he ' Quest ' which uni fi t , : ,
t h e volume. Never t hel ess, t h e energy behi nd t he ' ~ u e s t ' stems d i r e c ~ l y
24
from t h e i nf or mi ng s our c e s of ps ychoanal ys i s .
Fr e ud' s concept i on of t h e mind a s a ' map' 6 o u t l i n i n g t h e t h r e e
t e r r i t o r i e s of t h e I d , t h e Ego and t h e Super-Ego c o n s t i t u t e s t he
a l l e g o r i c a l ba c kc l ot h t o t h e ~ u e s t . 7 The e s s e n t i a l con l i c t which
mot i va t e s t h e Wanderer i n h i s s p i r i t u a l pi l gr i mage i s he r e de pi c t e d i n two
ways, F i r s t l y , t h e pr i mar y, i n s t i n c t i v e demands of t h e I d r ul e d by t h e
' p l e a s u r e p r i n c i p l e ' i s seen by Fr eud t o s t r u g g l e e x t e n s i v e l y wi t h t he
' r e a l i t y p r i n c i p l e ' which a c t i v a t e s t h e Ego and t h e a u x i l i a r y Super-Ego.
Man e x t e r n a l i z e s t h e i n n e r c o n f l i c t i n pur posi ve neur os es by which t h e
Ego def ends i t s e l f a g a i n s t t h e e xc e s s i ve demands of t h e I d. Secondl y,
c o n f l i c t i s devel oped between Man' s i n s t i n c t u a l d r i v e s - t h e L i f e i n s t i n c t s
( Er os ) which Auden gr oups under Love, and t h e De s t r uc t i ve i n s t i n c t s
( Deat h) . Modern Man, h i s cons ci ous behavi our a r e pr e s s e d r e f l e c t i o n of
h i s t r u e n a t u r e , i s a t t r a c t e d by t h e t e mpt a t i ons of Deat h r e f l e c t e d i n
' i n e r t i a .
I 8
The d i s c i p l i n e d a n a l y s i s which c h a r a c t e r i z e s t h e work of Freud i s
ext ended by Lawrence i n t o a dogmat i c a s s e r t i o n of Man' s f r u s t r a t e d
l i b i d i n a l na t ur e . I n h i s pr os e t r e a t i s e s Ps ychoanal ys i s and t h e
Unconsci ous and i t s s uc c e s s or Fa n t a s i a of t h e Unconsci ous, Lawrence
i n v e s t i g a t e s t h e t r a n s f e r e n c e of c o n t r o l wi t hi n t h e i ndi vi dua l from t h e
Lumbar t o t h e Thor a c i c gangl i on. The pr i mar y c e n t r e of dynamic a c t i v i t y ,
l o c a t e d i n t h e S o l a r Pl e xus and acknowl edgi ng t k e i n s t i n c t i v e l i f e , i s s een
by Lawrence t o have been renounced f o r a new s our ce of a u t h o r i t a t i v e c o n t r o l
f r om t h e Thor a c i c gangl i on. The r e s o l u t i o n of t h i s c o n f l i c t ma ni f e s t s
i t s e l f i n a n i n d i v i d u a l overwhelmed by ' i dea- dr i ven c ont r ol . ' I n Modern
Man, t h e mind - 'a gangr ene' 10 - de ni e s t r u e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n t o i n n e r needs
and r e s u l t s i n h i s r e pr e s s i on.
The i d e a l mind, t he b r a i n , has become
t he vampire of modern l i f e , sucki ng up
t he blood and t he l i f e . There i s har dl y
an o r i g i n a l t hought o r o r i g i n a l ut t er ance
pos s i bl e f o r us. A l l i s s i c kl y
r e p e t i t i o n of s t a l e , s t a l e i de a s . l l
Chr i s t opher Isherwood, i n h i s aut obi ogr aphi cal ' novel ' Li ons a n d
Shadows, paraphrases t he d o c t r i n a l debt Auden owes t o Homer Lane:
There i s onl y one s i n : di sobedi ence t o
t he i nner l a w of our own nat ure. 12
The di sobedi ence mani f es t s i t s e l f i n psycho-genet i c di s eas e, t he
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r which r e s t s not s o much wi t h t he i ndi vi dual as wi t h h i s
par ent s and t eacher s. Es s e nt i a l l y Lane' s a t t i t u d e , as quoted by Isherwood,
i s a s f ol l ows:
I f t he consci ous mind were r e a l l y t he
c ont r ol l i ng f a c t o r , God would remain
i n pr i s on, t he world would become a
bedlam i n a few gener at i ons , and t he
r a c e aut omat i cal l y d i e out . So
di s e a s e s a r e neuroses come t o k i l l of f
t he of f ender s o r br i ng them t o t h e i r
senses. Di seases a r e t he r e f or e onl y
warning symptoms of a s i cknes s of t he
s oul ; t hey a r e mani f es t at i ons of God --
and t hose who t r y t o ' c ur e ' them wi t hout
f i r s t cur i n t he s oul a r e onl y s er vi ng
t h e Devi l . 19
Georg Groddeck' s Book of t he It r e s t a t e s t he e s s e n t i a l c o n f l i c t
e x i s t i n g wi t hi n t he i ndi vi dual . Per s oni f yi ng Fr eud' s i d a s t he It and
t h e f or c e of t he Ego by t he f i g u r e of t h e Mother, Groddeck s ees f r u s t r a t i o n
as t he base of Man's psychol ogi cal di s or der . Repressi on t akes phys i cal
shape once agai n:
Thus ext ravagance i s changed t o di ar r hoea;
parsimony i n t o cons t i pat i on; t he d e s i r e
t o gi ve b i r t h i nf o body pai ns. The sexual
a c t appear s i n danci ng, melody, drama, o r
bui l ds i t s e l f up, f o r a l l men t o s ee, i n a
church wi t h a pr oj e c t i ng male tower and t he
myst er i ous womb of t he v a u l t , o r shows
i t s e l f i n t h e t ender of an engi ne o r t he
rhyt hmi c stamping of t he road p l a s t e r e r ,
o r t he swing of t he woodcut t er ' s axe. l 4
The Oedipus Complex, t h e primary cause of Man's r e s t r a i n t , l eads t o an
unnat ur al cr avi ng f o r Death. Man's emot i onal l i f e ' r eaches a f t e r t h i s
mother-imago as l ong as he l i v e s , r eaches s o l ongi ngl y, t h a t t he year ni ng
f o r s l e e p, f o r r est , f o r pr ot ect i on, f o r deat h, may wel l be regardc-d as n
year ni ng f o r t he mother-imago. . . . ' l5
Auden, t hrough h i s i nformi ng s our ces , s ees Modern Man i n a per pet ual
s t a t e of t ur moi l . The Ego, t h e cust odi an of t h e val ues of Soci et y, i s
cons t ant l y c a l l e d upon t o r epr es s t h e e xe r t i ve demands of t he i nner man.
The l o s s of t h i s i n s t i n c t u a l l i f e , glimmerings of which p e r s i s t onl y i n
t h e Unconscious, r e s u l t i n t he di s eas ed condi t i on of Man, becoming pa r t
of t he ' f i l t h y s wa r m i n t h e r eces s es of t he s oul , t h e poi sonous swarm
which cor r upt s t he unconsci ous. ' I6 Lawrence views t h e r es ol ut i on of
c o n f l i c t a s ' t h e n u l l i f i c a t i o n of a l l l i v i n g a c t i v i t y , t he s u b s t i t u t i o n
o f mechanism, and a l l t he r e s u l t a n t hor r or s of ennui , ecs t as y, neuras-
t he ni a , and a col l aps i ng psyche. ' I 7 However, t he work of t he psycho-
a n a l y s t s does not end i n a st at ement but i n an exhor t at i on. It i s i n
t h i s addr ess t o t h e i ndi vi dual t o look deepl y wi t hi n hi msel f f o r a cur e
t h a t t he primary mot i vat i ng dr i ve f o r t he ' Quest ' i s found.
Si g n i f i c a n t l y , t he dominant f or c e of Auden' s e a r l y poet r y i s t h a t of
ur gent encouragement.
I n h i s es s ay ' Psychology and A r t ' , Auden f ol l ows Freud i n t r a c i n g
and emphasi zi ng t h e p a r a l l e l between A r t and Psychology:
The t a s k of psychology, o r a r t f o r t h a t
mat t er , i s not t o t e l l peopl e how t o behave,
but by drawing t h e i r a t t e n t i o n t o what t he
i mpersonal consci ous i s t r y i n g t o t e l l them,
and by i ncr eas i ng t h e i r knowledge of good
and e v i l , t o r ender them b e t t e r a bl e t o
choose, t o become i ncr eas i ngl y moral l y
r es pons i bl e t o t h e i r dest i ny. 18
What Freud s ugges t s , and what Auden r e s t a t e s i n Poems, i s t he i ndi vi dua l ' s
need f o r g r e a t e r sel f-knowl edge t hrough a more s t r i n g e n t sel f - exami nat i on.
Lawrence' s di s gus t f o r Man's pr es ent condi t i on i s tempered by h i s
opt i ni i s m t h a t ' not hi ng w i l l ever quench humanity and t he human p o t e n t i a l i t y
t o evolve something magni fi cent out of a renewed chaos . ' l g He ur ges
Modern Man t o break out of t h e i r condi t i oned r esponses, t o plunge
f e a r l e s s l y i n t o t he r eces s es of t h e i r s oul t o f i n d t h e i r t r u e s el ves .
Hi s exhor t at i on t o t he i ndi vi dual i s f o r a purpose. He bel i eves 'We have
g o t t o ge t back t o t he g r e a t purpose of manhood, a pas s i onat e uni son i n
a c t i v e l y making a world. 20 I n t h i s way Man may wi t nes s once more t he
evol vi ng of ' t he g r e a t spont aneous ges t ur es of l i f e . ' 21
Georg Groddeck and Homer Lane encourage t he i ndi vi dual t o examine
hi ms el f , t hus r e i t e r a t i n g Fr eud' s poi nt t h a t man's f i r s t dut y i s t o t a i
sel f-knowl edge: Groddeck, f o r example, bel i eves :
t h a t t h e e s s e n t i a l t hi ng i s t h a t one shoul d
begi n wi t h one s e l f , t h a t one shoul d f i r s t
look i n t o one' s own nooks and cor ner s , one' s
own c e l l a r s and di ni ng-rooms; t h a t one shoul d
f i r s t have t he courage t o s ee one s e l f , one' s
own vi l e ne s s , o r a s I pr e f e r t o s ay, one ' s own
human nat ur e. Whoever does not know t h a t he
hi msel f has st ood behi nd ever y hedge and ever y
door , and whoever cannot say what s o r t of muck
heaps l i e behind such a hedge, and how many
heaps he has hi msel f put t h e r e , such an one
w i l l not g e t f a r . The f i r s t requi rement t hen
i s honest y, honest y t o 0 n e s e l f . 2 ~
Thi s ' hones t y t o ones el f ' i s onl y a t t a i n a b l e by an i nve s t i ga t i on of t he
real m of t he unconsci ous. I n a t one of c h a r a c t e r i s t i c ent husi asm,
Groddeck encourages t he i ndi vi dual t o r i s e t o t h i s g r e a t e r knowledge:
Come t hen, my p r e t t y Dr . Faus t , t he mant l e i s
spr ead f o r t h e f l i g h t . For t h i nt o t he Unknown.. . . *3
Thi s ur gent c a l l t o Man, ampl i f i ed i n t he work of t h e psychoanal yst s,
f i n d s rei nforcement i n anot her of Auden' s b e l i e f s . J u s t as Man i s
paral ysed by ment al pr ocesses and t hus unabl e t o commit hi msel f t o a c t i o n ,
s o he i s unabl e t o respond c o r r e c t l y t o t he f or c e of evol ut i on which
changes each gener at i on. Thi s f u r t h e r c o n f l i c t i n which man i s engaged
has two proposed sources. Joseph Warren Beach, i n The Making of Lhe
.'\uden Canon, d e t e c t s t he i nf l uence of Geral d Heard whose argument i s
summarized by G. Lowes Di cki nson, i n h i s i nt r oduct i on t o The Ascent o:
Humanity:
... t her e begi ns t o emerge a new form of
consci ousness. It i s above t he i ndi vi dual
as t h e e a r l i e r form was below him. Hence-
f o r t h it begi ns t o be t he bus i nes s of man
not t o acqui r e but t o underst and by a
cooper at i ve e f f o r t . The age of s ci ence
has dawned and at i t s dawn we st and. The
problem bef or e us i s whet her t he hi gher
consci ousness t hus emerging w i l l be a b l e t o
c ont r ol t he l ower, t h a t i s bur s t i ng a l l
about u s , wi t h t he cr y of i ndi vi dual s
newly r el eas ed f o r t h e f r u i t s t h a t have
t ur ned s o sour i n t h e mouths of t h e i r
pr edecessor s. 24
A vague r e c ol l e c t i on of a remark made by Lenin t o t he e f f e c t t h a t
' i n t he most gener al sense Marxism i s a t heor y of evol ut i on1*5 l eads
Randal l J a r r e l l t o s ee t h i s evol ut i onar y pr es s ur e upon Man i n terms of a
p o l i t i c a l i d e n t i t y . Whatever t he sour ce of t h i s pr es s ur e, however, i t
merel y adds t o t h e ur gent ne c e s s i t y wi t hi n t he i ndi vi dual t o adapt h i s
per s onal needs t o a changi ng environment. 26
Consequent l y, t h e concept i on of t h i s psychol ogi cal i nves t i gat i on i n
t erms of a ' Quest ' under l i nes t he two primary needs of t he Modem Man -
t h e need t o change and t he need f o r a c t i v i t y a s t h e means t o t ha t end.
Never t hel es s , as I s h a l l poi nt out l a t e r i n t h i s chapt er , Poems si mpl y
r e f l e c t s Auden' s concern wi t h Modern Man's psychi c condi t i on and h i s
' Quest ' r epr es ent s t h a t concern. The ' Quest ' i t s e l f i s never undert aken.
The a c t ua l journey suggest ed by Poems i s an al l egor y of t he i ndi vi dua l ' s
s ear ch i n t o h i s s oul t o di s cover t h e courage t o at t empt t he r e a l ' Q ms t '
i n t o t he realms of t he Unconscious. I t i s t h i s suppr essi on, bot h i n
Poems and l a t e r i n The Or at or s , t h a t l ends t he t one of i mpat i ence an2
v i t a l i t y t o Auden' s e a r l y poet ry. I n t h i s l i g h t , t he ' Quest ' wi t hi n ;:ic
mind of t he i ndi vi dual i s f o r a deci s i on which w i l l commit him t o a n
i nt e ns e s e l f - di s s e c t i on. The moment of deci s i on i s r epr es ent ed by t he
image of t he Fr o n t i e r and t he cr os s i ng of t h i s na t ur a l b a r r i e r i s ' The
~ e s t ' 27 which, a s Chr i s t opher Isherwood has poi nt ed out , char act er i zed t he
work of many of h i s cont emporari es. I n h i s aut obi ogr aphi cal nove l , LLor,s
and Shadows, Isherwood t e l l s how he once planned t o wr i t e a novel wi t h c hi s
theme :
' The t r u l y s t r ong man,' calm, bal anced, aware
of h i s s t r e ngt h, s i t s dr i nki ng i n t he bar ; it
i s not necessar y f o r him t o t r y and prove t o
hi msel f t h a t he i s not a f r a i d , by j oi ni ng t he
Forei gn Legi on, seeki ng out t he most dangerous
wi l d ani mal s i n t he remot est t r o p i c a l j ungl es ,
l eavi ng h i s comfort abl e home i n a snowstorm t o
cl i mb t he i mpossi bl e g l a c i e r . I n ot he r words,
The Tes t e x i s t s onl y f o r t he t r u l y weak man:
no mat t er whet her he passes it o r whether he
f a i l s , he cannot a l t e r h i s e s s e n t i a l nat ur e.
The Tr ul y St r ong Man t r a v e l s s t r a i g h t acr os s
t he broad America of normal l i f e , t aki ng
always t he d i r e c t r easonabl e r out e. But
' America' i s j u s t what t he t r u l y weak man,
t h e neur ot i c her o, dreads. And s o, wi t h
immense dar i ng, wi t h an i n f i n i t e l y g r e a t e r
expendi t ur e of nervous energy, money, t i me,
phys i cal and ment al r es our ces , he pr e f e r s t o
at t empt t h e huge nor t her n c i r c u i t , t h e
l abor i ous , t e r r i b l e nort h-west passage,
avoi di ng l i f e ; and h i s end, i f he does not
t ur n back, i s t o be l o s t f o r ever i n t he
bl i z z a r d and t he i ce. 28
For Auden' s neur ot i c i ndi vi dual t h i s ' Te s t ' s i g n i f i e s a n assessment of h i s
p o t e n t i a l a b i l i t y t o Change. P r i o r t o coming t o t h i s b a r r i e r , t he
i ndi vi dual walks i n t o t he wi l der ness t o cont empl at e, t o regroup h i s i nne;
r e s our c e s . He i s s een by Auden as a Ch r i s t i n poem 3 , o r a S t . J oLn
t h e Ba p t i s t i n poem 6, r enounci ng t h e f l e s h l y worl d f o r a n a s c c z i c
e xi s t e nc e . I n a t t e mpt i ng ' t h e c r u c i a l t e s t ' of poem 4 , t h e f l e s h l y wo r l d
i s a n i ne xha us t i bl e suppl y of t empt at i on.
Pr i ma r i l y , t h e ' Te s t ' i nvol ve s a n a b i l i t y t o overcome t h e tenl?i,,; i o n s
o f a st at e of mind compl acent l y composed, knowing i nt i ni a t e i y rhc r c ~ l , ~ , 5;
cons ci ous nes s it hol ds and c ont e nt t o r e s t r a i n i t s a c t i v i t i e s withii-, rk;;
r eal m. The s t a gna t i on which r e s u l t s from t h i s com2lacency c h a r a c ~ e r i z c ;
t h e , roup known as ' They. ' The i n d i v i d u a l ' s psyche i s parL of c,,~~:
g e n e r a l degener acy Auden l a b e l s ' t h e enemy' Such pe r s ona l s t a gna t i on cs n
onl y be removed by e xpl or a t i on of t h e pr e vi ous l y unchar t ed r e gi ons of t h e
mind.
I n Poems,Auden s e e s t h i s s t a t e of mind r e f l e c t e d i n h a t s o c i a l cl ass
of which he was a member and whi ch, f o r conveni ence, c r i t i c s have c a l l e d
t h e Bour geoi s i e. However, as J u s t i n Repl ogl e ha s poi nt e d o u t , t h i s
s e ns e of a c u l t u r a l d e c l i n e r e s u l t s not from a n adher ence t o Ca p i t a l i s t
i de ol ogy b u t ' t o a n i na de qua t e devel opment of t h e i n s t i n c t u a l i l f e . 129
The r e f l e c t i o n of i n n e r d i s e a s e ma ni f e s t s i t s e l f i n t he s e s o c i a l i z e d
I
f or ces3' who r e s i d e on t h e ' s hor e . ' The s i g n i f i c a n t s e c u r i t y i mpl i ed by
I
t h i s remark i s r e i nf or c e d by l i n e s i n Pa i d on Bot h Si d e s , t h e l i t e r a r y
char ade i nc l ude d i n bot h 1930 and 1933 e d i t i o n s of Poems, where t h e Kew
Or de r i s expect ed t o. . . ' wear down t o stumps o l d syst ems/ whi ch awai t / The
l ast t r a n s g r e s s i o n of t h e s e a . ' I n Poems V I I and VIIT, t h e voi c e of t h e
enemy i s heard. A s a p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n of a s t a gna nt s t a t e of mind, i t
d e c l a r e s t o t h e i ndi vi dua l t h e n e c e s s i t y f o r ma i nt a i ni ng a s t a t i c pos i t i on.
It i s a c l e a r warni ng:
On n e i t h e r s i d e l e t f o o t s l i p ove r
I nvadi ng Al ways, e xpl or i ng Never,
Fo r t h i s i s h a t e and t h i s i s f e a r .
On nar r owness s t a n d , f o r s u n l i g h t i s
Br i g h t e s t onl y on s u r f a c e s ;
No a nge r , no t r a i t o r , b u t peace.
Th i s ps ychi c Es t abl i s hment i s gr ot e s que l y c a r i c a t u r e d i n Poem XI.
Spoken by a di s e a s e d but ami abl e Enemy i n dr y, l o g i s t i c a l l anguage tile
poem t u r n s on t h e i r o n i c u s e of ' Li vi ng. ' L i f e , t o t h i s Enefi:y, bzscL
on c e r t a i n t y and r o u t i n e , i nvol ve s ' Our honour a t l eas t , / And a r e a s o i i ~ 3 l e
chance of r e t a i ni ng/ Our f a c u l t i e s t o t h e l ast . ' I n t h e i r l ast s t a g e s of
!. decay b e f o r e t o t a l e x t i n c t i o n , t h e y r e t a i n conf i dence i n ' Our o l d r i g h t t o
abus e. ' A b i t t e r d e s c r i p t i o n of a mind r e l a x i n g wi t h t h e s t a t u s quo i s
s een i n Poem XXII:
Smokel ess chi mneys, damaged b r i d g e s , r o t t i n g wharves
and choked c a n a l s ,
Tr aml i nes buckl ed, smashed t r u c k s l yi ng on t h e i r s i d e
a c r o s s t h e r ai l s;
Powe r - s t a t i ons Locked, d e s e r t e d , s i n c e t hey drew t h e b o i l e r
f i r e s ;
Pyl ons f a l l e n o r s ubs i di ng, t r a i l i n g dead hi gh- t e ns i on
wires ;
Head- gear s gaunt on gr ass- gr own pi t - ba nks , seams aban-
doned y e a r s ago;
Drop a s t o n e and l i s t e n f o r i t s s p l a s h i n f l oode d da r k below.
The paysage mor a l i s e , however, i s i mpor t ant n o t onl y i n i t s s t a t e me nt of
i r r e v o c a b l e decay. I t s image of abandoned i n d u s t r i a l wor ki ngs suggeszs
a once pr oduc t i ve f or c e , whi c h ha s gr a dua l l y f a l l e n i n t o d i s r e p a i r . The
r e a s ons f o r t h a t d i s s o l u t i o n are e s s e n t i a l knowledge t o t h e Wanderer f o r
t he y r e p r e s e n t a n o t h e r o b s t a c l e t o t h e s uc c e s s f ul compl et i on of t h e Te s t .
Of c e n t r a l i mpor t ance t o t h e s uc c e s s f ul compl et i on of t h e TesC and
t h e means t o r ecover y of t h e i n d i v i d u a l i s Auden' s concept i on of Love,
h i s panacea. De s pi t e cr i t i cal a na l ys e s of i t s c ons t i t ue nc y, Love r emal cs
a n i n e x p l i c a b l e c r e a t i v e f o r c e i n Man. Hoggar t , f o r exampl e, s e e s s,
d e b t t o many 01 Auden' s ps yc hi c s ubs c r i be r s i n t h e composi t i on of ti-ie
word. The i mpor t ant remark r emai ns h i s own:
Love i s t h e s our c e of a l l t h a t i s ' Luci d1
and ' c i vi l i z e d' . . . i . n human s o c i c t i c s ; it
encour ages - - and f o r t h i s Auden al ways
f i n d s a landscape image - - a ' n a t u r a l
c l i ma t e , ' t h e b i r t h of a n a t u r a l or de r . ' 31
Ce r t a i n l y , Love ha s u n i v e r s a l application ' o p e r a t i n g not onl y i n oSvious
s e xua l r e l a t i o n s b u t t hr oughout a l l p r i v a t e and s o c i a l be ha vi our Y132 and
;Cs pe r ve r s i on i s t h e main c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e ' Enemy.' Thus, ~ c e
s cene of d e s o l a t i o n i n Poem X I i s t h e a l l e g o r i c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e i r
ne ga t i ve and s t e r i l e a t t i t u d e t owar ds t h e onl y means t o t h e i r s a l va " ' ~10s .
It i s , i n f a c t , t hr ough ne ga t i ve d e f i n i t i o n s of Love t h a t we can u r i d e ~ s ~ ; c i
t h e e n e r g i e s wi t h i n t h e i n d i v i d u a l which it i nvol ve s .
Pr i ma r i l y , Love demands a c t i o n . Unl i ke t h e Moon which i s evoked as
a symbol of a n i d e a l i z e d and t h e r e f o r e f a l s e l ove , i t n e c e s s i t a t e s ~ h e
a c t i v e p a r t i c i p a t i o n of t h e i ndi vi dua l . The war ni ngs popul ar i zed by
Auden' s r evi ewer s a r e t h u s ur ge nt couns el t o que s t i ng i n d i v i d u a l s t o b c w~ r e
t h e i n c o r r e c t appr oach. I n Poem XIX,Auden c i t e s exampl es of comic-book
he r oe s who f ound s uc c e s s i n f a c e of g r e a t oppos i t i on. The danger l i e s in
b e l i e v i n g t h a t what t h e ' s i l l y f o o i , t h e youngest son and t h e or phan'
achi eved wi t h such compar at i ve e a s e , can be a t t a i n e d by t h e i ndi vi dua l
si mpl y by r e a di ng about them. It r e q u i r e s a t o t a l i nvol vement t o pr event
Love becoming ' l o v e i n love/And t a l e s i n t al es/ Wher e no-one f a i l s . '
A s t h e exempl ar f o r a c o r r e c t a t t i t u d e t owar ds Love, Auden s t r e s s e s
t h e ' Anc e s t or s , ' :
Who br ought and t a ught
Unusual i mages
And new t une s t o o l d c o t t a g e s (Poem XXI )
Thi s ancest or - wor shi p r eaches i t s f u l l e s t expl anat i on i n t he hi r r na; . ' ~
Uncle Hari y i n Book I1 of The Or at or s. I n Poems, t hey a r e c i t e d t o t h r o w
i n t o r e l i e f t he shal l ow borrowings of contemporary Man a s i n Poem XXI where
c u l t u r a l de c l i ne i s a t t r i b u t e d t o succeedi ng gener at i ons who f a i l t o
respond i n new and heal t hy ways t o t he demands of Li fe. Here t he
Ancest or s who es t abl i s hed t h e i r new regime by di l i ge nc e and a c t i v i t y a r e
f ol l owed by t hose who, r ef us i ng t o acknowledge danger, r e pr e s s t h e i r f ear
u n t i l ' . . . i n t he n i g h t / I s waking f r i g h t . ' Li ke t he Moon, t he example of
t he Ancest or s has been s o i de a l i z e d t h a t it can no l onger have a f unct i on
i n everyday l i f e . What w a s a way of l i f e , a ' l i ve l i hood' has degenerat ed:
Is t a l l n e s s , st r ongness
Words and l ongness,
A l l gl or y and a l l s t or y
Solemn and not s o good
What Auden deni es i n Poems i s t h e ' s t r a nge l y e xc i t i ng l i e ' t h a t l ove o; xrares
myst er i ousl y and what i s emphasized i s l o v e ' s p r a c t i c a l oper at i on a t a l l
l e v e l s of Man's a c t i v i t y . I n t h i s s e n s e , i t comes c l o s e s t t o t he sexual
energy of t h e Freudi an Eros. Whatever i t s composi t i on, however, it Ls
Love which must r ecover 'What has been dar k and r i c h and warm a l l over '
(Poem XXVII).
I n t h i s l i g h t , we a r e b e t t e r a bl e t o underst and t he group anonynously
c l a s s i f i e d a s ' They. ' Subj ect t o per ver s i ons of Love, t hey have
renounced t h e i r sexual energy by r epr es s i ng it and t h i s has l ed t o:
. . . t he warning from t he i r on wood
... t he i n e r t i a of t he bur i ed: (Poem I V)
I n e r t i a , per s oni f i ed i n Poems a s one who accept s a l l meani ngl ess convent i ons,
beget s t h e Death-Wish. The i ndi vi dual , par al ysed by a d e s i r e f o r deat h,
s t a gna t e s and i l l u s t r a t e s t he decay and cor r upt i on which abound i n t he
ment al l andscape Auden evokes. Thus i n Poem I , i n which t h e I ndi vi dua l
i s warned by h i s psychi c i d e a l , t he Tes t i s seen a s an a b i l i t y t o r e j e c t
t h e confi nement of t he consci ous a r e a s of t h e mind which can onl y be p a r t
of ' De a t h' s happi ness. ' Thi s c a l l f o r expansi on f i n d s l i t e r a r y
ma ni f e s t a t i on i n t he mot i f of t h e ' Quest . '
Poem X I 1 t y p i f i e s t h e 'Enemy' ment al i t y. The i r ony which c ont r ol s
t h e movement of t he poem emphasi zes t h e pat hos wi t h which t h e enemy a r e
t o be r egar ded. Auden l oc a t e s t h i s s t a t e of mind s o c i a l l y i n h i s own
spher e of Upper Mi ddl e- cl ass England.
The poe t ' s i r o n i c c ont r ol of t h e i r
di s pa s s i ona t e language b e l i e s t h e i r d i s t o r t i o n of human bei ngs , t h e i r
murder of s pont anei t y i n ' mere boys. ' S t e r i l e and b e l l i g e r e n t , wi t h no
c onc r e t e obj e c t i ve s i n mind, a l l t hey can l ook ahead t o i s
Our honour a t l e a s t ,
And a r eas onabl e chance of r e t a i n i n g
Our f a c u l t i e s t o t h e last.
It i s i n t e r e s t i n g t h a t none of t he i ndi vi dua l s i n Poems a r e
s uc c e s s f ul candi dat es f o r t h e ' Quest . ' The i r s o l i l o q u i e s are s t at ement s
of f a i l u r e as t hey f e e l wi t hi n t hemsel ves t h e unmi st akabl e s t i r r i n g s of
i n h e r i t e d di s e a s e . I n Poem I X , t h i s di s e a s e i s accent uat ed by t he form
of t h e poem which par odi es t h e popul ar song. Here Auden d e p i c t s t he
hopel es s nes s of any a c t i o n by r e a f f i r mi ng t he Mot her - f i xat i on and t he
i nexor abl e pr ocess of e vol ut i on a t work wi t hi n t h e i ndi vi dual . He i s
consequent l y reduced t o a s ki ng unanswerabl e ques t i ons :
What' s t he good of goi ng t o Wales?
Here a m I, he r e are you:
But what does i t mean? What a r e we goi ng t o do?
H i s f a i l u r e emphasizes wi t hi n him t h e a r i d i t y of Life:
I ' ve come a ver y l ong way t o prove
No l and, no water, and no l ove.
Thie sense of ineradicable disease characterizes many of the individual
poems i n the collection. What gives Poem XXI I ite authority is the
speaker's understanding of his own predicament and hfs attempt to
communicate that knowledge to his fellow-men. The poem elso restates
atany of the points already proposed in this Chapter. The first section
returns to the allegorized landscape in which a new generation has failed
to respond to the challenge of a new life, The sscond section attempts
to find the root caueies of t hi s decay and blames 'the healers' who,
ignoring Activity which would Lead to an invigorating 'Quest' for psychic
health, have confined Man within the limitations of his inteilect,
These who have betrayed us nicely while wa took
them to our rooms,
The example of Parents, who, invaflably, are 'badg anccaetara, is also
tainted with guilt. The speaker's warning to his fellow-men rejects
both ways in which their influence could be a danger Co tho Individual:
Perfect patar. Urnellous miter. Knock the critic down
who dares --
Very well, believe It, copy, rill your hair is white as theirs.
Yours you say were parents to avoid, m i d then if you
please
Do the reverse on all occasions till you catch the same
di eease.
In Ehis society, the valuea of which are completely inverted, those who
were in a position to help have been banished!
Lawrence was brought down by smut-hounds, Blake went
dotty as he sang,
Homer Lane was killed in action by the Twickenhm
Baptist gang.
A5 the poem draws to its eanclusion, it generates an increasing urgency.
The speaker, realizing in vain the proximity of Death, proclaims a warning
remarkably similar t o the closing lines of Lawrence's Fantasia of the
Unconscious :
I f we r e a l l y want t o l i v e , we' d b e t t e r s t a r t a t once t o try;
I f we d o n ' t , i t d o e s n ' t ma t t e r , but we' d b e t t e r st ar t t o d i e .
Lawrence had e a r l i e r s a i d :
But s t i l l - we MIGHT l i v e , mi ght n' t we?
Fo r he a ve n' s s ake answer p l a i n l y ' No' , i f you f e e l l i k e
it. No good t empor i zi ng. 33
Knowledge of their i n t e r n a l decay domi nnt cs t he i n i i v i c i u r . 1 ~ wh o
unde r t a ke t h e Quest . I n Poem XV,the ' Tr a i ne d s py' i s qul c kl y s e d ~ c c d by
t h e t e mpt a t i on of a s t a t i c mind and f a l l s i nt o s l o t h f u l e a s e whi ch,
a ggr a va t e d by ni ght mar e, l e a ds i n e v i t a b l y t o Deat h. Poem X I , however,
makes i t c l e a r t h a t t h e f a i l u r e of t h e i n d i v i d u a l st ems d i r e c t l y from a
wrong appr oach t o Love. The l a t t e r s e c t i o n of t he poem i s , i ndeed, a
s t r o n g war ni ng t o t hos e who would embrace a f a l s e Love t o remai n wi t hi n
t h e a r e a s of t h e mind wi t h which t he y a r e most f a mi l i a r . Out s i de , t he
danger s a r e numerous and ubi qui t ous f o r ' Thi s l a nd, c u t o f f , w i l l not
communicate. '
I n a n a t t e mpt t o s ynt he s i z e t h e many s t r a n d s of t h e ' Ques t ' and t o
show t h e i r c onc r e t e ope r a t i on wi t hi n Poems, I s h a l l now examine i n some
d e t a i l Poem XVI, pr obabl y t h e key t o t h e volume of t h i r t y poems. I t s
t i t l e i n t h e Col l e c t e d Sh o r t e r Poems (1950) i s ' 1929' and i n i t s image of
r e vol ut i ona r y change i t owes much t o Ye a t s ' ' Ea s t e r , 1 9 1 6 . 1 3 ~
Poem XVI , di vi de d i n t o f o u r s e c t i o n s wi t h each s e c t i o n appr oxi mat i ng
a season of t h e y e a r , opens a t Ea s t e r -- t h e pr el ude t o Spr i ng, season of
change.' ..on t h e a r m/ A f r e s h hand wi t h f r e s h power.' De s pi t e t h e t one of
hope and optimism, Deat h r emai ns ' t h e ne c e s s a r y c ondi t i on' of change.
And t h e ps ychi c r ef or mat i on demanded w i l l l e a d t o pai n and s adnes s f o r t h e
common man:
But t hi nki ng s o I came a t once
Where s o l i t a r y man s a t weeping on a bench,
Hanging h i s head down, wi t h h i s mouth d i s t o r t e d
He l pl e s s and ugl y as a n embryo chi cken.
Th i s ' Ever yman' , unabl e t o r e l i n q u i s h a l l he ha s known, l ooks back
n o s t a l g i c a l l y and i s i mmedi at el y committed t o t h e Deat h-wi sh. It i s
s i g n i f i c a n t t hen t h a t t h e f i n a l image i n t h e f i r s t s e c t i o n i s one of
d e s t r u c t i o n as ' . . . on t h e p u b l i c gr ound/ l ay f a l l e n b i c y c l e s l i k e huddl ed
c or ps e s : '
The second s e c t i o n i nt r oduc e s t h e i n d i v i d u a l who, de s pe r a t e l y needi ng
change wi t hi n h i s s t a gna nt psyche, unde r t a ke s t h e ' Ques t ' f o r reform.
The means t o t h i s end i s a l l e g o r i c a l l y r e pr e s e nt e d by a j our ney whose
ar duous n a t u r e undermi nes a l l g l i b s t a t e me nt o f reward. Pr i ma r i l y, t h e
i n d i v i d u a l i s a t t e mpt i ng t o l i v e i n accor dance wi t h Lawr ence' s c a l l f o r
t h e harmoni ous yoki ng of powers wi t hi n man, e s p e c i a l l y h i s image c r e a t e d
i n Apocal ypse :
The r i d e r on t h e whi t e hor s e. Who i s he, t hen?
He i s t h e r oya l me, he i s my ver y s e l f and h i s
hor s e i s t h e whole MANA of a man. He i s my ver y me,
my s a c r e d e go, c a l l e d i n t o a new c y c l e of a c t i o n
by t h e Lamb and r i d i n g f o r t h t o conques t , t h e conquest
of t h e o l d s e l f f o r t h e b i r t h of t h e new s e l f .
It i s h e , t r u l y , who s h a l l conquer a l l t h e o t h e r
' power s' of t h e s e l f . And he r i d e s f o r t h , l i k e
t h e s un, wi t h ar r ows , t o c onque s t s , b u t n o t wi t h
t h e sword f o r t h e sword i mpl i e s a l s o judgement,
and t h i s i s my DYNAMIC o r pot e nt s e l f . And h i s
bow i s t h e bended bow of t h e body, l i k e t h e c r e s c e n t moon.35
Aus t e r e l y c onc e nt r a t e d by Auden i n t o t h e f i r s t t h r e e l i n e s of t h i s s e c t i o n ,
t h e c l a r i o n c a l l a c t i v a t e s t h e i ndi vi dua l :
Coming o u t of me l i v i n g i s al ways t hi nki ng,
Thi nki ng changi ng and changi ng l i v i n g ,
Am f e e l i n g as i t was seei ng- - - -
But , i n t h e season of v i o l e n t r ef or m, o t h e r s a t t e mp t c h a n g e . I gnor i ng
i t s s e v e r i t y , t hey popul a r i z e t h e i r s t r e nuous i n t e r n a l s t r u g g l e s as t h e
' f i n a l war/Of p r o l e t a r i a t e a g a i n s t pol i c e . ' The i n d i v i d u a l , ' Ti ny obs e r ve r
o f enormous wor l d' , sees h i s ge ne r a t i on c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e r e p r e s s i v e
f o r c e of t h e Oedi pus Complex wi t h i t s accompanying d e s i r e f o r Deat h,
' t h a t l ovi ng wi sh. ' Even t h e i ndi vi dua l a t t i me s , vi ewi ng t h e supposed
s e c u r i t y of o b j e c t and ani mal ar ound hi m, e nvi e s t hos e c ont e nt wi t h t he
r e s t f u l a r e a s of t h e mind. However, what he t a k e s f o r compl et eness i s
i n d i f f e r e n c e and what he s e e s as change i s h y s t e r i a . The s e c t i o n ends
wi t h t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s r e s o l u t i o n :
To l ove my l i f e , not as o t h e r ,
Not as b i r d ' s l i f e , not as c h i l d ' s ,
' Cannot , ' I s a i d , ' be i ng no b i r d now nor a c h i l d .
The t h i r d s e c t i o n , as t h e summer t u r n s qui c kl y i n t o aut umn, i s an
ur ge nt s t a t e me nt of Man' s need t o change o r d i e o f f . The i n d i v i d u a l ,
p a r t of a n overwhelming e vol ut i ona r y pr oc e s s , i s ne ve r t he l e s s t empt ed t o
r e t u r n t o t hos e t hor oughl y expl or ed a r e a s of t h e psyche where he no l onger
f e e l s bewi l der ed and l one l y. Consequent l y, he s eeks r e f uge from h i s
c ont i nuous ment al pr obi ng i n t h e unt hi nki ng n a t u r e of o t h e r l i f e - f or ms .
' Happy onl y t o f i n d home, a place/Where no t a x i s l e vi e d f o r be i ng t h e r e . '
A s he recommences h i s ps ychi c r e va l ua t i on by ' Moving a l ong t h e t r a c k which
i s hi ms e l f ' he abandons t h e convent i onal and s t a gna nt a r e a s of t h e mind
which c h a r a c t e r i z e h i s fel l ow-man. Of p a r t i c u l a r i mpor t ance i s t h e f a c t
t h a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l must devel op by t r i al and e r r o r - - t h e r e a r e no l a r g e
or ga ni z e d p a t t e r n s which h i s mind w i l l f i t . The area of t h e unconsci ous
i s i mpor t ant i n t h a t i t l a c k s a d e f i n i t e a nd t hus d e b i l i t a t i n g shape. I n
t h i s way, Autumn, as a pe r i od of change, i s f a r mor evi ol ent t han Spr i ng.
Af t e r va r i ous e va s i ons t h e i ndi vi dua l must s t r i v e s i n c e r e l y f o r r e va l ua t i on.
The war ni ng r emai ns t h a t i f t h e c ur e i s n o t a f f e c t e d i mmedi at el y, t h e
d i s e a s e of h i s fel l ow-men wi l l b r i n g down t h e ' f r oz e n buzzar d' of Death.
I n t h e f i n a l s e c t i o n of Poem XVI , Wi nt er i s evoked as t h e season of
u l t i ma t e Deat h - ' t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of e r r o r . ' Man, pa r a l ys e d, unabl e t o
a c t , r e pr e s s e d by t h e l i mi t i n g f i g u r e of t h e Mot her, moves c l o s e r t o t h e
end promi sed by h i s deat h- wi sh. On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e i n d i v i d u a l ,
r e t a i n i n g h i s psychi c d r i v e , must s ubj uga t e ' t h e i n t r i c a t e pl ay of the
mind' which has br ought him conf or mi t y and or t hodoxy and de pr i ve d !:im of
i n s t i n c t u a l dr i ve . Thi s f r u s t r a t e d , l i b i d i n a l na t ur e of Man ha s t r a ns f or xod
him i n t o ' t h e a r t i c u l a t e s ke l e t on. ' I n t h e l a s r par agr aph, ir, which chc:
ps ychi c i d e a l once a ga i n conver s es w i t h t h e Wanderer, Love i s seen as psccc~: a.
It i s , n e v e r t h e l e s s , based on an ener gy which ma ni f e s t s i t s e l f i n ti:?
Wander er ' s s t r e nuous ' Que s t ' and i nvol vi ng a n a c t i v i t y i n f o r g i n g new a r e a s
of t h e psyche by a v i o l e n t r e v e r s a l of va l ue s . Love, i ndeed;
Needs de a t h, de a t h of t h e g r a i n , our de a t h,
Deat h of t h e o l d gang;
A s t h e poem r e a c he s i t s cl i max i n t h e h o r r i f i c ' l o l l i n g br i degr oom' , t h e
' ~ u e s t ' i s once a ga i n s uppr es s ed. The e x h o r t a t i o n s , t h e war ni ngs, t h e vi ol en:
s t a t e me nt of t h e n e c e s s i t y f o r Change a r e a l l s t r e nuous l y a p p l i e d t o t h e
i ndi vi dua l . But t h e a c t u a l j our ney de l i ne a r e d wi t hi n t h e poem i s t h e
n e u r o t i c pr ogr e s s of t h e i n d i v i d u a l as he f a c e s h i s d e c i s i v e Te s t . The
i n t e n s e exci t ement ge ne r a t e d b y t h i s a t t e mpt t o r each a de c i s i on i s a i de d
by t h e c y c l i c na t ur e of t h e poem, s t r e s s i n g a r e p e t i t i v e n e s s which a r ous e s
t r ai t s of t r i v i a l i t y and i mpat i ence and c a t c he s t h e mood of t h e e n t i r e
c o l l a g e of Poems.
The t he ma t i c u n i t y of Poems, based a s i t i s on t h e c o l l a g e of ~: ; l r t y
poems, i s he l d t oge t he r l e s s by t h e ' Quest ' i n i t s e l f t han by a n u - - 5 ~ n t
e x h o r t a t i o n t o Man t o unde r t a ke h i s own ps ychi c exami nat i on. I n t h i s wi y
t h e emphasi s i n t h e volume r e s t s r a t h e r on t h e decay and c or r upt i on of a
s t a t i c mind t han i n f or mul a t i ng an e xa c t s o l u t i o n t o t he i n t e r n a l d i s e a s e
which r e s u l t s from it. Ce r t a i n b a s i c assumpt i ons can, however, be made
about i t . Pr i ma r i l y, t h e Quest depends on Change, on a n a c t i v i t y which
r e j e c t s compl et el y t h e complacency of a n enemy mind. For t h e s uc c e s s f ul
compl et i on of t h e Quest and a s a neces s ar y pr e l i mi na r y t o i t , t h e i n d ; v i ~ ~ s l
must br a c e hi msel f f o r a s t r e nuous or de a l . The d e c i s i v e moment of h i s
a c c e pt a nc e of t h a t o r d e a l i s p o e t i c a l l y r e pr e s e nt e d by t h e Te s t . It i s
t he n t h e pur pose of Poems t o s t r e s s t h e need and i mpor t ance of t h i s Te s t ,
o f t h e s uc c e s s f ul c r o s s i n g of t h e ' Fr o n t i e r . ' 36 Ce r t a i n l y t h e ' Ques t ' i n
i t s e l f demands a n i r r e v o c a b l e commitment on t h e p a r t of t h e i n d i v i d u a i
(Poem 11) and t h e pr oc e s s of i n t e r n a l r ecl amat i on i s l ong and e xha us t i ng
(Poem I V) but c onc r e t e r e s u l t s a r e not f u l l y drawn. For t h i s r eason, the
images of Spr i ng and Dawn a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y r e l e v a n t f o r t hey c a pt ur e t h e
t one of o p t i mi s t i c prophecy e s s e n t i a l i n t h e i n i t i a l s t a ge s . The j our ney
o f t h e Quest marks t h e pr ogr e s s of t h e ner vous a g i t a t i o n wi t hi n t h e
i n d i v i d u a l as he di s c ove r s h i s own pa t h t o ps ychi c he a l t h. That t h e
j our ney i s f r e que nt l y concei ved i n t er ms of a mi l i t a r y advance acccncunt es
i t s d i f f i c u l t i e s and t h e b e l l i g e r e n t a t t i t u d e of t h e mind t owar ds change.
I n Poem XIV,where a n exami nat i on i s made f o r pos s i bl e poi nt s of e n t r y i n
t h e i ndi vi dua l as a s t a r t i n g - p o i n t f o r t h e Ques t , t h e Mouth i s se1ec;ed.
I t i s s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t Lawrence has s a i d :
The f a c e i s of c our s e t h e g r e a t window of
t h e s e l f , t h e g r e a t openi ng of t h e s e l f
upon t h e wor l d, t h e g r e a t gat eway ....
The mouth i s pr i ma r i l y t h e g a t e of t h e
two c hi e f s e ns ua l c e n t r e s . It i s t h e
gat eway t o t h e b e l l y and t h e l o i n s .
Through t h e mouth we e a t and we dr i nk.
I n t h e mouth we have t h e t a s t e . A t t h e
l i p s , t o o , we k i s s . And t h e k i s s of t h e
mouth i s t h e f i r s t s e ns ua l connect i on. 37
And l at er he adds t h a t i s i s a l s o ' t h e g a t e by whi ch wc br e a t he . ' 3 s
Consequent l y, f o r Lawrence t h e mouth ha s r e f e r e nc e t o bot h Ma n ' s i nt e l l c l c t
and h i s s e xua l dr i ve . It i s , s i mi l a r l y , f o r Auden, t h e l o g i c a l pl a c e t o
begi n t h e i r harmoni ous i n t e r a c t i o n . The Ques t , t h e r e f o r e , i s f o r two ma i n
pur poses: one, i t expands t h e cons ci ous a r e a s of t h e mind whi ch, under
r e p r e s s i o n , mer el y s t a g n a t e ; t wo, i t demands t h e t r a ns f e r e nc e of power
wi t hi n he i ndi vi dua l from t h e mind t o a ba l a nc e of powers i n which t h e
h e a r t of Man, h i s i n s t i n c t u a l d r i v e s , c ount e r a c t t h e s o c i a l l y appoi nt ed
p r e s s u r e s of t h e di s e a s e d i n t e l l e c t .
I n surnmaly, it i s e s s e n t i a l t o s e e Poems as a pr el i mi nar y assembl age
of t hos e Audenesque themes which r e c ur wi t h i nc r e a s i ng f r equency t hr oughout
t h e f i r s t h a l f of t h e decade. The c o n t r o l and i n t e r n a l a c t i v i t y o f t h e
i ndi vi dua l poem wi t hi n t h e volume depends upon f o u r maj or f a c t o r s . F i r s t l y ,
t h e t e r r i b l e c e r t a i n t y i n t h e p o e t ' s knowledge of Man' s publ i c and p e - L sona!
decay d e s c r i b e s a framework of ext r eme ur gency, and a sequence of a l l e g o r i c a l
p o r t r a i t s of i n t e r n a l di s e a s e . Secondl y, t h e volume e x h i b i t s t h a t d e s i r e
t o change Mankind which i s mani f es t ed i n t h e mot i f of t h e ' Ques t . ' I n
t h i s l i g h t , t h e i ndi vi dua l poems a r e e x h o r t a t i o n s , t h e i r i n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e
dependent upon Auden' s s e ns e of t h e ur gency of Man' s pr edi cament . Thi r dl y,
Auden s t r e s s e s t he power of Love i n t h e worl d a s t h e means t o a f f e c t t h a t
change a t bot h publ i c and pe r s ona l l e v e l s wi t hi n s oc i e t y. Such a f o r c e
i s n e i t h e r a n i l l u s o r y a g e n t , r oma nt i c a l l y d e l i n e a t e d , nor an academi c
f or mul a. It i s a r e a l and p r a c t i c a l power i n men' s l i v e s . La s t l y , a s
an exarnplar of Love t o Man, Auden i nt r oduc e s t h e i de a of a ps ychi c i d e a l .
Th i s a u t h o r i t y i s t h i n l y drawn and a t t i mes i s s e c u l a r and a t times di vi ne .
Poem XXX, which c l o s e s t h e volume i n pr a ye r , pr e pa r e s u s f o r Auden' s
announcement of ' c onve r s i on' i n , t he e a r l y ' f o r t i e s . I n Poems, however,
Auden o f t e n concei ves of Love as a Ch r i s t i a n Love - a c r e a t i v e f o r c e wi t hi n
Man.
I n Auden' s second book, The Or at or s , every
tendency i n t he f i r s t book i s cont i nued.
But t he s ubj ect i s a l ar ge one, namely, t he
s t a t c of England. Consequent l y, t he poe t ' s
d i f f i c u l t i e s and c o n f l i c t s a s a poet a r e
i ncr eased and di s pl ayed broadl y. Apparent l y,
The Or at or s was s t a r t e d wi t h a good pl ot i n
mind, t h a t of a romant i c quas i - Fas ci s t
conspi racy t o purge and reform England under
t he l eader s hi p of an airman and by means of
subver si ve speeches t hroughout t he count r ys i de,
e s pe c i a l l y t o school chi l dr en and e s pe c i a l l y
a ga i ns t t he p a r a s i t i c val ues and h a b i t s of t he
lower mi ddl e- cl ass. 39
The Or at or s , f i r s t publ i shed i n 1932 ,40 has r e s i s t e d i nt ens e anal ys i s .
Bewi l dered, c r i t i c s of t he book have chosen t o a t t a c k i t s s t y l e r a t h e r t han
i t s cont ent . ' Exhi bi t i oni s t ' ; ' wi l f u l ' ; 41 ' i mpenet rabl y obscur e' 42 a r e
some of t he phr ases r es or t ed t o. Through t h i s i n a b i l i t y t o penet r at e a
work Auden hi msel f has c a l l e d ' t he f a i r not i on f a t a l l y i nj ur e d' , 43 t he
c r i t i c i s compelled t o under t ake gener al i zat i ons l i k e t hose of Delmore
Schwarz above. Taking i t s s u b - t i t l e 'An Engl i sh St udy' a t f ace r a t he r
t han a l l e g o r i c a l val ue, he has seen t he book a s an obscur e, s o c i a l t r a c t
by 'someone t a l e nt e d but near t he bor der of s a n i t y , who might we l l , i n a
y e a r o r two, become a Nazi. ' 44 A l l agr ee, however, t h a t d e s p i t e bei ng
based on t he ' a s s oc i a t i ona l l ogi c of a successi on of images' , 45 it i s an
' expl os i ve book. ' 46 Alan Pryce-Jones wrot e . . .I cannot throw away - The
Or at or s a s wor t hl ess bosh. It appear s t o be t he work of a sane i magi nat i on
wi t hout a mind - a f a r more compl i cat ed s t a t e t han t h e par anoi c' s - working
on fragment s of knowledge and exper i ence. ' 47 Recent l y, t h i s f r enzi ed
obs cur i t y has been seen as an ext ensi on of t he t endenci es i n Auden' s Poems.
Beach says:
Vi r t ua l l y ever yt hi ng. . . i s devot ed t o t he poet ' s
doubl e program of f r e e i ng men' s minds from t h e i r
chai ns and a t t he same t i me promoting t he
d i s c i p l i n e of c ha r a c t e r , e s pe c i a l l y among t he
I n i t i a t e s - t hos e e n l i s t e d i n t he s t r uggl e t o
make men ove r and s ave them from t h e decadence
t h a t was under mi ni ng Engl i s h s o c i e t y . @
I n t h i s s e ns e , t h e ' Ques t ' i s once a ga i n i mpor t ant . What ha s a l t e r e d i s
t h e emphasi s. Rat her t ha n c onc e nt r a t i ng h i s p o e t i c powers on ge ne r a l
p r o j e c t i o n s of h i s b e l i e f i n t h e n e c e s s i t y f o r Man t o under t ake a per sonal
' Que s t ' f o r per s onal o r d e r , Auden i s more i n t e r e s t e d i n ' s i mpl y d e f i n i n g
t h e s t a t e of t h e wor l d. ' 49 Th i s ha s l e d J u s t i n Repl ogl e t o excl ai m t h a t
' The Or a t o r s i s a huge s t or e hous e of odd c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s Auden used t o
i d e n t i f y h i s neurotic^.'^^ Ne ve r t he l e s s , a d e f i n i t i o n of t h e c a us e s of
t h e wo r l d ' s i n e v i t a b l e decay - s o v i o l e n t i n i t s d e t a i l - i s a c c e nt ua t e d
a l l t h e more by Auden' s concer n f o r humani t y. I n t h e ' J our na l of a n
Ai r man' , he c onc e nt r a t e s h i s p o e t i c a c t i v i t y on a s i n g l e f i g u r e , t h u s
dr a ma t i z i ng Man' s t r a g i c pr edi cament .
C r i t i c a l opi ni on ha s not f a l t e r e d i n i t s de t e r mi na t i on t o over l ook
any u n i f y i n g s t r u c t u r e t o t h e volume. It i s more t han a ' vol ume of
revsluLionary poems, ' 51 The Orators i s basically a statement of f a i l ur e .
The t h r e e Books of which it i s composed d e f i n e a s t a t e of mind i n which
s u c c e s s f u l unde r t a ki ng of t h e ' Ques t ' i s i mpos s i bl e. Even t h e images of
hope, i n p a r t i c u l a r t h e e l e v a t i o n of Rex Warner' s s on, ~ o h n , 5 2 t o t h e l e v e l
of ' h e a l e r ' a r e overwhelmed by s a t i r i c a l i n c i s i o n s i n t o t h e Enemy mind.
Thus, s t r u c t u r e i n t h e book i s based on s t a t e me nt and e xhor t a t i on. Book 1,
' The I n i t i a t e s , ' ' p e r s u a s i v e l y put s f or war d a c r i t i q u e of s o c i e t y r ecogni s abl y
r e l a t e d t o t h a t found i n t h e e a r l i e r Poems. ' 53 Th i s c r i t i q u e i s i ncl uded
i n a n o r a t i c a l a ddr e s s t o t h e ' r ui ne d boys' of t h e e a r l i e r volume t o become
' i n i t i a t e s ' i n t h e s a c r e d ceremony of s e l f - s a c r i f i c e neces s ar y f o r psychi c
a n a l y s i s . Book 11, ' J o u r n a l o f a n Ai r man, ' d e s c r i b e s t h e f u r i o u s e f f o r t s
of a would-be que s t i ng i n d i v i d u a l t o l e a ve behi nd a s t a t e o f mind embodying
' t he s e c u r i t i e s of a n e s t a b l i s h e d syst em a f t e r i t s j u s t i f y i n g s a nc t i ons have
di s appear ed. ' 54 The Book e nds , i n e v i t a b l y , i n f a i l u r e . The t h i r d Boo:,,
c o n s i s t i n g of s i x ode s , o f f e r s l i t t l e hope f o r f u t u r e ' Que s t s . ' B L ' ~ ail
t h e work can do, as Owen had e a r l i e r s a i d , i s t o ~ a r n . ~ 5 Such a wzrni ng
i s i mp l i c i t i n t h e p e r s i s t e n c e of t h e s o c i a l s a t i r e but o f f e r s i i t t l c
pr omi se of s ucces s i n f a c e of such overwhelming t empt at ' ~ o n s . X t C O ~ > L L ~ L , ~
a ' pr emoni t i on of a new and t e r r i b l e t i me coming - a t i me of s t r u g g l e ,zd
r e b i r t h . . . a n d t h e f e e l i n g t h a t ' you c a n ' t e s c a pe , i t ' s i mpos s i bl e t o t r y '
grew more ur ge nt and e x p l i c i t . 's6
I n The Or a t o r s , t h e s t a t e me nt and t h e e xhor t a t i on a r e based on t h e
same i nf or mi ng i de a s t h a t or ga ni z e d Poems. Lawrence, Fr eud, Groddeck aiid
Lane r e t a i n t h e i r pl a c e on Auden' s c ounc i l of ' h e a l e r s . ' Th e i r ways t o
ps ychi c h e a l t h , a l l e g o r i c a l l y and c o l l e c t i v e l y grouped under ' Love ' ,
mot i va t e t h e encouragement t h e i n d i v i d u a l r e c e i ve s be f or e a t t e mpt i ng t h e
' Te s t . ' Once a ga i n t h e ' s u b j e c t of l ove i s i ndeed e l u s i v e and pr ot e a n'
and once a ga i n it i s ' t h e g r e a t c o n s t r u c t i v e f o r c e i n human l i vi ng. I 5'
The Enemy mind i s t hus s een as a pe r ve r s i on of l ove , i nvol vi ng a d e s i r e f o r
t h e s t a t u s quo and t hus r e f u s i n g ' t o s e a r c h o u t anew a d i r e c t connecLlon zo
t h e spont aneous s our c e s of l i f e on which a l l new he a l t hy c u l t u r e s depend. 's8
The c u r e from t h i s o s s i f i c a t i o n by ge ne r a t i ons of unchangi ng cust oms iay i n
r e l e a s i n g t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s i n s t i n c t , e s p e c i a l l y t h e i n s t i n c t o f l ove , o r
sex. Wi t hi n t h e s t r u c t u r e of The Or a t o r s , t h e e xhor t a t i on t o t h e i ndi vi dua i
t o unde r t a ke t h e ' Quest ' by t h e s uc c e s s f ul compl et i on of t h e ' Te s t ' i s a
demand t o r e l e a s e t he s e a t r o p h i e d i n s t i n c t s .
Sook 1 opens wi t h t h e ' Addr ess f o r a Pr i ze- Day. ' St ephen Spender has
c a l l e d t h i s ' a ki nd of a g n o s t i c pr a ye r a g a i n s t s e l f - de c e pt i on, t he d e n i a l
of l i f e - f o r c e s by f r u s t r a t i n g convent i ons , and on behal f of an open
c ons pi r a c y of l i v i n g i n which l ove , whet her s o c i a l , per s onai o r s e xua l , I;
t h e s t a t e d a i m of l i ~ i n g . ' 5 ~ It i s r a t h e r moEa decl amat i on t han a pr cycc
i n which t h e Or a t or ur ge nt l y o u t l i n e s t h e symptoms of d i s e a s e i n Man.
Pr i ma r i l y , a l l d i s e a s e st ems from a pe r ve r s i on of l ove. Here i t i s scb-
di vi de d i n t o t h r e e gr oups a f t e r t h e example of Dant e. The f i r s t gr oup
a r e g u i l t y of e xc e s s i ve s e l f - l o v e o r a r e ove r - i ndul ge nt i n t h e i r l ove f o r
t h e i r nei ghbour s. The f or mer l e a ve behi nd ' d i a r i e s f u l l of incompi-nhen-
s i b l e j o t t i n g s ( s u r e l y a c l u e t o t h e c h a r a c t e r - i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of t h e
Airman) wh i l s t i n t h e l a t t e r t h e r e ha s been a ' gr a dua l a bdi c a t i on of
c e n t r a l i n f a vour of p e r i p h e r a l c ont r ol . ' Equal l y Lawr ent i an i s tl;,. c ur e
f o r t h e i r p s y c h i a t r i c c ondi t i on - ' They need l ove ' - and e qua l l y
emphasi zed i s t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of t h e i n d i v i d u a l i n t h i s ma t t e r . ' But
i s n ' t it up t o you t o he l p? ' The second gr oup a r e t h e d e f e c t i v e l ove r s .
Here r ui ne d l ands capes s ugge s t t h e decay and c or r upt i on of t h e i r psyche.
Syst ems r un t o a s t a n d s t i l l , o r l i k e t hos e
s hi p- c r a ne s a l ong Cl ydeband, which have done
not hi ng a l l t h i s ye a r . Owners of small
hol di ngs , t he y s i t by f i r e s t he y c a n ' t make
up t h e i r minds t o l i g h t , whi l e d u s t s e t t l e s
on t h e i r unopened cor r espondence and i n e r t i a
br anches i n t h e i r v e i n s l i k e a z i n c tree.
The remedy f o r s o s t a t i c a ps ychi c c ondi t i on i s a v i o l e n t change - a
s ugge s t i on similar t o t hos e of Lawrence and Lane. Accordi ng t o Chr i s t ophe r
I sher wood, Homer Lane had s a i d t h a t , ' P i t y ... i s ne ve r a h e a l e r , al ways a
d e s t r o y e r . ' Lane had once knocked down a ' Ti mi d, r e t i r i n g young man...
t o make him h i t back. ' Auden' s Or a t or recommends t h e same:
Gi ve them r e g u l a r but e a s y t a s k s and s e e
t h a t t he y do them pr oper l y. H i t them i n
t h e f a c e i f ne c e s s a r y. I f t he y h i t back
you w i l l know t he y a r e saved.
I n t h e t h i r d gr oup, psychosomat i c d i s e a s e c h a r a c t e r i z e s t h e pe r ve r t e d
l ove r s . Th e i r di s obedi ence t o t h e i n n e r l a w of t h e i r own n a t u r e ma ni f e s t s
i t s e l f i n such mi nor t r ai t s as a ' s l i g h t pr oneness t o i nf l ue nz a . ' Di s eas e
makes them ' h a t e r s of l i f e , a f r a i d t o d i e . ' And t h i s de a t h i s ' t h e har d
de a t h of t hos e who never have and never coul d be l oved. '
Thus, i n ' Addr ess f o r a Pr i ze- Day' , a s e ns e of profound
d i s i l l u s i o n me n t wi t hi n t h e cont emporary mind p r e v a i l s . The need f o r
t h e i ndi vi dua l t o a c c e pt h i s per s onal r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i n t h e c r i s i s i s
p a r t of t h e Or a t o r ' s c ons t a nt c r y f o r a c t i o n . I n ' Ar gument ' , however,
t h e pr ogr e s s of one who ha s under t aken such a ' Ques t ' i s de f i ne d. T h i s
s e c t i o n d e s c r i b e s him as he wakens ' wi t h a n i de a of bui l di ng. ' The
p r e v a i l i n g mood of enemy me nt a l i t y i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a ge ne r a t i on who
have r e pr e s s e d t h e i r i n s t i n c t u a l d r i v e s , whose ' pr i s one d bl oodt h a s
o v e r a c t i v a t e d t h e i n t e l l e c t . Thus, t he y a r e c ondi t i one d by ' d e s i g n s t
and ' The or i e s i n t e r - r e l a t i n g t h e syst em of f e uda l t e nur e wi t h met abol i c
g r a d i e n t s . ' The i n d i v i d u a l , ' A t t h e f r o n t i e r g e t t i n g down' , be gi ns t h e
l ong and ar duous t r e k t o pa s s h i s ' Te s t . ' H i s e xc e s s i ve l ove f o r h i s
Leader , t h e ps ychi c i d e a l , makes t h i s Tr ul y Weak Man unabl e t o t a ke t h e
most d i r e c t r o u t e t o pe r s ona l h e a l t h . I n s t e a d , compel l ed t o e x o r c i s e
h i s her o- wor shi p, he must t a ke t h e c i r c u i t o u s passage t hr ough t h e Nort h-
West - a voyage i n e v i t a b l y doomed:
The waving handker chi ef s r ecede and t h e
g u l l s wheel a f t e r scr eami ng f o r s c r a ps .
Throb of t u r b i n e s bel ow water, pa s s i ng t h e
mud i s l a n d s , t h e r e c u r r e n t l i g h t . Pa s t .
Ha ndr a i l , f unne l , o i l s k i n s , them, H i s w i l l .
The l a s t i n g sky.
Th i s c ont i nui ng pr esence of gloom and d e s p a i r t hr oughout t h e Book,
a c c e nt ua t e d as i t i s by t h e t r a g i c d e s t r u c t i o n o r i r ony, i s f u r t h e r
deepened by t h e second s e c t i o n of ' Argument. ' Thi s parody of a pr ayer
f o r de l i ve r a nc e from pur pos i ve neur os es i s a ddr e s s e d not t o t h e ' Sa vi our '
b u t t o t h e he r oe s of d e t e c t i v e s t o r i e s and B r i t i s h pubs who s ha r e p a r t of
t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e s e duc t i on of t h e mind. The emphasi s i s on
t h e a l l - p e r v a s i v e q u a l i t i e s of t h e d i s e a s e , i t s ma ni f e s t a t i on throug:;
a l l r anks of s oc i e t y.
For t hos e who cannot go t o bed; f o r
t hos e i n dor mi t or i e s ; f o r t hos e i n
p a i r s ; f o r t hos e who s l e e p a l o n e ,
0 Bu l l a t t h e Gat e, h e a r us .
I n t h e t h i r d s e c t i o n of ' Argument' we r e t u r n t o t h e pe r ve r t e d l ove of t h e
ge ne r a t i on 'who on t h e snow- l i ne were i n l ove wi t h de a t h, de s pi s e d
ve ge t a t i on. ' Thi s pe r ve r s i on i s shown as t h e r e s u l t of t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s
f a i l u r e t o f ol l ow t h e exampl e of t h e ps ychi c i d e a l . ' Af t e r we had
f a i l e d him a t t h e Roman Br i dge ' t h e f u l l ma ni f e s t a t i ons of d i s e a s e r e t u r n
t o pl ague s oc i e t y. Love, synonymous wi t h t h e psychi c i d e a l , i s ba s e l y
t r ans f or med t o ' i n f l u e n z a and g u i l t y r a s he s . ' The mind, ba r r e n and
compl acent ; i s unaware of t h e magni t ude of i t s l o s s and
On t h e s t e p s of H i s s t one t he boys pl ay
p r i s o n e r ' s ba s e , t u r n i n g t h e i r backs on
t h e i n s c r i p t i o n .
To emphasi ze t h e e x t e n t of i n t e r n a l decay, ' St a t e me nt ' d e f i n e s t h e <&a:
ps yc hi c c ondi t i on - a d e f i n i t i o n which p o i n t s t o t h e e f f e c t s wi t hi n t h e
i n d i v i d u a l and h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p s t hr oughout s oc i e t y. A s W.H. S e l l e r s
h a s poi nt e d o u t , t h e new s o c i e t y i s e s s e n t i a l l y t h a t which Lawrence
e nvi s i one d i n Fa nt a s i a and l a t e r i n The Plumed Ser pent ( 1926) , ' a s o c i e t y
i n whi ch a l l i n d i v i d u a l s , under t h e gui dance of a few wi se l e a d e r s ,
a c hi e ve compl et e s e l f - f u l f i 1 l ment and undi s t ur be d happi nes s : ' 60
Men, pass t hr ough door s and t r a v e l t o t h e
s e a , s t a nd gr ouped i n a t t i t u d e s of pl ay
o r l a bour , bendi ng t o c h i l d r e n , r a i s i n g
e q u a l ' s g l a s s , a r e many t i m e s t o g e t h e r ,
man wi t h woman. To each a n awar d,
s u i t a b l e t o h i s s e x, h i s c l a s s and t h e
power.
Thi s v i s i o n of a r e f a s hi one d s o c i e t y i s t h e end of t h e ' Que s t . '
Th i s i d y l l i c i n t e r l u d e i n Book I i s , however, f ol l owed by a s t a t e me nt
o f t h e a c t u a i psychi c c ondi t i on whi ch, t h u s , a c c e nt ua t e s t h e need f o r
s uch a ' Ques t . ' Contemporary s o c i e t y i s de s c r i be d i n which t h e
i n d i v i d u a l t a k e s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r one u n r e l a t e d f r agment of l i f e -
l o s t i s t h e a l l - e mbr a c i ng q u z l i t y of i ove . I n an a r i d a n a l y s i s of h i s
envi r onment , Man ha s s o r educed t h e a r e a of h i s cons ci ous nes s t h a t he i s
r e s i gne d t o ' f o s t e r i n g snowdrops i n a gr een bowl . ' Those who have
a t t e mpt e d a ' Ques t ' t o es cape Chis a n s i y t i c a l d e s t r u c t i o n have f a l l e n
v i c t i m t o dormant neur os es . Some, b e l i e v i n g t h a t t hey have achi eved
s uc c e s s , rest on t h e r ewar ds of a ma t e r i a l i s t i c mind. Thi s gr oup
i nc l ude t h e one who ' makes a f o r t u n e o u t of a l ocki ng de vi c e f o r l i f t s i
and t h e one whose mayor shi p i s 'cominemorated by a publ i c l a va t or y a t t h e
c r os s - r oa ds . ' But f o r a l l , t h e f i n a l prophecy of f a i l u r e comes wi t h t h e
ominous image of t h e ' r e d b i c y c l e ' -- ' and t h e c a nc e l l i ng o u t wa s
compl et e. ' Th e i r f a i l u r e i s Che r e s u l t of t h e i r i n a b i l i t y t o change.
Th i s means t o t h e end of t h e ' Ques t ' i s p o t e n t i a l wi t hi n a l l men but
demands e i t h e r a move t o a n unexpl or ed r e gi on of t h e unconsci ous o r a
r a d i c a l r e or ga ni z a t i on of t h e o l d a r e a s conf i ned by t h e psyche. It i s
i n f a c t t h e ' change of h e a r t ' of Poem XXX and i t w i l l br i ng a s o c i e t y
r e a c t i v a t e d by t h e power of i o v e - he r e e a s i l y i d e n t i f i a b l e as t h e s e xua l
d r i v e of Er os. The expansi on of t h e a r e a of t h e cons ci ous w i l l r e s t o r e
t h e ba l a nc e of powers wi t h i n t h e i ndi vi dua l - t h e harmoni ous r e l a t i o n s h i p
o f h e a r t and mind. Once t h i s i s e s t a b l i s h e d , Man can pr ogr e s s beyond
t h e mere phys i c a l advancement of t he ani mal s .
Sun i s on r i g h t , moon on l e f t , powers t o
e a r t h . The a c t i b n of l i g h t on da r k i s
t o caus e it t o c o n t r a c t .
The ' Le t t e r t o a wound' demons t r at es one r eason f o r f a i l u r e t o
unde r t a ke t h e ' Quest . ' I n s Cy l e , i t i s a t once ' a parody of a l ove-
l e t t e r , based on Cr oddr c k' s e p i s t o l s t o r y s t y l e i n The Book of t h e I t ,
and an e xt e ns i on of Auden' s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c d i s e a s e metaphor. The over -
i ndul gence which t h e i n d i v i d u ~ l di s pl a ys t owar ds h i s wound i s
sympt omat i c of an e xc e s s i ve s e l f - l o v e , t hus weakening PIan' s c a pa c i t y
f o r an e f f e c t i v e power of Love wi t hi n 11i.m. Auden r e s t a t e s t h i s concept
i n New Ver s e, i n t h e second of a sequence of f i v e poems:
Ther e i s a wound and who s h a l l s t a unc h it up?
Deepeni ng d a i l y , d i s c h a r g i n g a l l t h e t i me
Power from l ove. 62
Thus, e xc e s s i ve s e l f - l o v e draws power away from t h e i n s t i n c t u a l s exual
d r i v e i n t h e i ndi vi dua l . It i s a ' d e b i l i t a t i n g s e l f - de c e pt i on, a s u r e
s i g n of decadence, and e s s e n t i a l l y an e xpr e s s i on of a deat h- wi sh. 163
Vi ol ence i s r e s t r e s s e d a s t h e onl y pat h Lo a c u r e : ' t h e need of t h e
s ur ge on' s k n i f e , and t h e n e c e s s i t y of a c c e pt i ng t h e wound as a c ondi t i on
o f any r e t u r n t o h e a l t h . I b 4 ' J our na l of a n Airman' di s pr ove s t h e t heor y
t h a t The Or a t or s has
t h e r e l a t e d tlleme of br ave men banded
t o g e t h e r i n secre: i n a cr us ade t h a t
r e q u i r e s them t o work underground
u n t i l t h e day of open c o n El i c t , and
who must be i n p e r f e c t t r a i n i n g t o
meet t h e a t t a c k of a n enemy t h a t i s n o t
t o be de s pi s e d o r t r u ~ t e d . ~ S
Th i s second book emphasi zes t h e f a c t t h a t r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r change r e s t s
e n t i r e l y wi t hi n t h e i n d i v i d u a l , he r e r e pr e s e nt e d by t h e f i g u r e of t h e
Airman hi ms e l f . The r e c u r r e n t images of s p i e s , war f ar e and open c o n f l i c t
bet ween war r i ng gr oups , s ha r pl y di vi de d i n t o ' US' and 'THEM', a r e mer el y
f a n t a s t i c p r o j e c t i o n s i n t h e mind o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l a s he r e a l i z e s t h e
ext r eme har ds hi ps . which impede any d e s i r e t o change. And it i s t h i s
de t e r mi na t i on t o change which a c t i v a t e s t h e o b s c u r i t y of much of t h e
' J o u r n a l . '
For t h e Ai r man' s d e s i r e t o change i s modi f i ed by h i s i n n a t e
c or r upt i on - ' Li ke t h e f l awed he r oe s i n t h e mount ai ns, Auden' s Airman
s e e ks He a l t h b u t c a r r i e s s i c kne s s wi t h him. 16' A s h i s r e a l i z a t i o n of
t h i s c or r upt i on i n c r e a s e s , t h e f r e n z i e d i mpat i ence mounts and h i s ment al
meander i ngs or gani zed by a d i a r y beconie l e s s i n t e l l i g i b l e . Eve nt ua l l y,
as the ' J o u r n a l ' e l o e e s , the Ai r ma n 1s compel l ed t o r e s ol ve his inner
s i c kne s s by under t aki ng t h e ' Te s t . ' It seems a r gua bl e t h a t i n ' J our na l
f
of a n Airman' t h a t ' Te s t ' ends i n s e l f - d e s t r u c t i o n a s he f a i l s t o over -
come h i s i nhe r e nt d i s t a s t e f o r l i f e .
The f i g u r e of t h e Airman t hus becomes a symbol f or a l l t hos e i ndi vi dua l s
who s eek t o remedy t h e i r i n t e r n a l decay onl y t o di s c ove r i n t h e pr oc e s s
t h e e x t e n t of t h e i r d i s a b i l i t y . To show how e a s i l y r e c ogni s a bl e t h e
symbol i c va l ue of t h e Airman had become dur i ng t h e ' t h i r t i e s , J u l i a n
Symons quot e s a poem by t h e American poe t , Fr e de r i c k Pr okosch, where t h e
Ai r man' s hover i ng p o s i t i o n ove r Soc i e t y pl a ys a n e s s e n t i a l p a r t i n pr obi ng
t o t h e h e a r t of t h e Enemy me nt a l i t y:
We s e e men now a s an ai r man s e e s them: b e a u t i f u l , y e s ,
But onl y f r agment s i n a t e r r i t o r y s o v a s t a drama s o
Obscur e and i n t r i c a t e , we a r e l e a r ni ng mer el y
To f e e l and n o t under s t and:
The pe r pe t ua l e a g l e hangi ng over t h e c l i f f s , remot e
And o r e l e s s as a mi ne r a l , i s a symbol o f v i t a l i t y
Li nked wi t h doom. 67
Auden, l i k e Pr okosch, weaves el ement s of opt i mi sm and i n e v i t a b l e
f a i l u r e i n t o t h e symbol i c f i g u r e as c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e Ai r man' s
e f f o r t s t o uncover ps ychi c h e a l t h . J u s t i n Repl ogl e ha s poi nt e d o u t t h e
pr eval ence, i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e of t h e Auden ' Group,' of t h e f i g u r e which
hove r s ove r s o c i e t y and h a s t h e a b i l i t y t o p e n e t r a t e t o i t s i nner most
decay. 68 What ha s n o t been s t r e s s e d i s t h e p e c u l i a r Lawr ent i an q u a l i t y
o f t h i s image as i n Fa n t a s i a of t h e Unconsci ous:
But t h e r e a r e , of c our s e , a l s o t h e two ways
of v o l i t i o n a l v i s i o n . We can see wi t h t he
e ndl e s s modern c r i t i c a l s i g h t , a n a l y t i c , and
a t l e a s t d e l i b e r a t e l y ugl y. O r we can s ee
as t h e hawk s c e s t h e onc c onc e nt r a t e d s o t
where b e a t s t h e l i f e - h e a r t of our pr ey. tS 9
I n Auden, t h e p o r t r a i t o s o c i e t y t h e Airman s e e s ar ound him i s merel y
a p r o j e c t i o n of h i s own c h a o t i c psyche. But i n under s t andi ng t h e
ge ne r a l consequences of such conf usi on wi t hi n s o c i e t y and under s t andi ng
t h e i r mi crocosmi c ope r a t i on wi t hi n hi ms e l f , he can begi n t o remove t h e i r
r o o t caus es . He cannot , however, symbol i ze ' t h e f o r c e s of r e l e a s e and
l i b e r a t i o n , ' 7 0 but can onl y poi nt t o Man' s p o t e n t i a l f o r change,
p r e s e n t l y wi t hout or ga ni z a t i on.
The power of t h e Ai rman, t h e r e f o r e , l i e s i n h i s d i a g n o s t i c a b i l i t y
and h i s f a t a l weakness i s h i s i n a b i l i t y t o t r ans f or m t h a t di a gnos i s i n t o
i mmedi at e c ur e . H i s u n c e r t a i n t y , br ed of i n n e r decay, c a us e s him t o
post pone t h e e s s e n t i a l ' Te s t ' i n a s e r i e s of ment al meanderi ngs. The
Ai r man' s c r i t i c a l i n s i g h t i n t o s o c i e t y d e f i n e s t h e s ha r p d i v i s i o n of t h e
el ement s of c o n f l i c t wi t hi n t h e ' J our na l . ' ' U S ' and 'Them' a r e no more
t han a l l e g o r i c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of a r e a s of t h e Ai rman' s mind i n which
t h e enemy me nt a l i t y t y p i f i e s t h e decadent a r e a s of h i s own psyche. ' U s '
- t h e t r u e f o r c e s of h e a l t h - a r e i e s s marked i n t h e i r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
and p o i n t t o t h e unchar t ed r e gi ons of t h e unconsci ous - t h e wi l de r ne s s
wher e, l i k e Ch r i s t and John t h e Ba p t i s t , t h e que s t i ng i ndi vi dua l i s
s u b j e c t e d t o t h e t e mpt a t i ons of t h e worl d as t r i a l of h i s de t e r mi na t i on
and d i s c i p l i n e t o unde r t a ke t h e ' Quest . ' He i s armed wi t h Love whi ch,
i f i t can remai n u n t a i n t e d , wi l l d i r e c t t h e i ndi vi dua l t o t h e ends of t h e
j our ney. Auden draws t h e Airman a s t h e a ge nt of t h i s ' c e n t r a l awar eness'
of Love t hr ough whose r e vol ut i ona r y f o r c e t h e change wi t hi n t h e psyche of
t h e i n d i v i d u a l can t a ke pl a c e . Change r emai ns t h e g r e a t s a l ve :
Sooner o r l at er , t h e change comes t o
a l l a nd, once t h i s happens, i t i s
d e c i s i v e and i r r e voc a bl e - f o r , what-
e v e r t h e f i e l d , once thc mind bscomes
cons ci ous of a l t e r n a t i v e s , r e t r e a t
i n t o h a b i t i s c u t o f f ; e i t h e r a man
must make a d e l l b e r a t e c hoi c e ( c h a t
i s t o s ay become a c r i t i c as we l l as
a n a c t o r ) o r become par al ys ed . 71
It i s t h e Ai r man' s f unc t i on t o s ugges t t h e ur gency t o d i s r u p t t h a t
por t i on of t h e mind i n t o which t h e enemy ha s i nt r oduc e d ' i n e r t
v e l o c i t i e s ... ( c a l l e d by him Laws o r h a b i t s ) i n t e r f e r i n g wi t h
or ga ni z a t i on. ' Hoggart s e e s t h i s enemy me nt a l i t y as:
t h e d e s t r o y e r of l i f e and l ove , whose
a g e n t s a r e ma l a i s e , cowar di ce,
i n a b i l i t y t o ' c o p e ' , i n e r t i a , t h e
l ongi ng f o r de a t h, f r u s t r a t i o n , t h e
ingrown w i l l , r eason wi t hout emot i on,
s e l f - r e ga r d. 72
The ' J o u r n a l ' s e e s t h e gr ot e s que l andscape of Poems from a g r e a t e r
h e i g h t and a nar r ower a ngl e .
The b i t t e r i r ony t h a t c o n t r o l s t h e t one of t h e ' J our nal of an
Airman' ga i ns i t s e f f e c t i v e n e s s from t h e f a c t t h a t t h e c e n t r a l f i g u r e
i s summoning h i s i n n e r r e s our c e s t o f i g h t a g a i n s t t hos e el ement s of t h e
enemy he hi ms el f i s p a r t of . For , j u s t l i k e t h e Airman, t h e enemy have
' Th e i r e xt r a or di na r y i de a t h a t man' s onl y g l o r y i s t o t hi nk. ' Th e i r
r e l i a n c e on Man' s i n t e l l e c t u a l powers d i s r u p t s t h e f i n e bal ance of f o r c e s
wi t h i n them. Auden d e s c r i b e s t h e b a s i c d i f f e r e n c e bet ween t h e t wo
gr oups t hr ough ps ychol ogi cal puzzl es :
A Sur e Tes t .
r-
r i g . I
Give t he pa r t y you s us pect t he above f i g u r e and ask him
t o pi ck o u t a form from it.
I f he pi cks out e i t h e r of t he two c r os s e s below
( Fi g. 2)
Fi g. 2
You may accept him as a f r i e n d , but i f he chooses such
a form as Fi g. 3
I
i t i s w i s e r t o shoot a t once.
The Airman r e c ogni z e s a l s o t h e needf or a c t i v i t y t o br i ng about a
change wi t hi n him. 'Man mi s e r a bl e wi t hout di ve r s i on. Rut di ve r s i on
i s human a c t i v i t y . A man doi ng not hi ng i s n o t a man.' I n h i s
' J o u r n a l ' t h i s a c t i v i t y i s s uppr es s ed i n a s e r i e s of a dol e s c e nt
s c r i b b l i n g s as he f u l l y unde r s t a nds t h e n a t u r e of a d i s e a s e which
i n h i b i t s any d e s i r e t o a c t . A s t h e book c l o s e s t h e r e pr e s s e d f o r c e s
wi t hi n him can no l onger be s us t a i ne d i n f a n t a s t i c p r o j e c t i o n s of a
wa r r i ng enemy. They t u r n i nwar d, upon t h e Airman hi ms e l f , and
e v e n t u a l l y de s t r oy him.
I n much t h e same way, Book 11 of The Or a t o r s i nc l ude s i n s i g h t s i n t o
o t h e r q u e s t s which have f a i l e d i n e v i t a b l y . It must be poi nt ed o u t t h a t
a p a r t from t h e s uc c e s s f ul achi evement of t h e Ai r man' s Uncl e which s e r ve s
a s t h e exempl ar f o r t h e a c t i v i t i e s of t h e Airman, t h e f a i l u r e s r ecount ed
by t h e Airman a r e a l l e g o r i c a l a t t e mpt s by him t o pas s t h e ' Te s t . '
Thi s vi ew g a i n s cr edence from t h e f a c t of t h e Ai r man' s own knowledge of
h i s i n n e r c or r upt i on. De s pi t e t h e ur gency wi t h which he i s pr e pa r i ng
hi ms el f ps yc hol ogi c a l l y f o r che ' T e s t ' :
L i t t l e d i d t he y gues s when t he y c ha i r e d me
what ki nd of per son i t wa s t o whom t he y were
awar di ng t h a t honour.
Such l a c k of conf i dence i s e ve nt ua l l y seen a s t h e f a mi l i a r d e s i r e f o r
Deat h:
Agai n, Always t h e sane weakness. No pr ogr e s s
a g a i n s t t h i s t e r r i b l e t hi ng.
The ps ychi c c ondi t i on devel ops wi t hi n t h e Airman as a consuming i n t e r e s t
i n h i s hands. C r i t i c s have seen t h i s as a pur posi ve n e u r o s i s symbol i zi ng
Kl ept omani a o r ~ o m o s e x u a l i t ~ . ~ ~ Whatever i t s o r i g i n , it pr e s e nt s a n
i ns ur mount abl e b a r r i e r t o t h e i ndi vi dua l on h i s ' Qu e s t . '
Th i s ha s been demonst r at ed i n che Ai r man' s o t h e r a t t e mpt s t o a c hi e ve
ps ychi c he a l t h. I n one, he was t oo e a s i l y r e a s s ur e d by t h e c r y ' A t r e a t y
ha s been a r r a nge d' a f t e r which he r e t ur ne d to t h e f a l s e que s t i ngs of t h e
e s t a b l i s h e d mind. Dur i ng a not he r , t he Airman p a l l i a t e s h i s own f a i l u r e
by a t t r i b u t i n g it t o a ' f r i e n d . ' But i n t h e s t a t e me nt ' Der ek w a s k i l l e d '
l i es h i s own a t t e mpt t o i gnor e t h e r e a l i t i e s of t h e s i t u a t i o n .
His f i n a l a t t e mpt t o pas s t h e c r u c i a l ' Te s t ' i s r ecor ded i n a s e r i e s
of count-downs t o a c t i on. Here t h e t went y- ei ght days of mobi l i z a t i on,
wi t h i t s accompanying i magery of War, i t s f r o n t i e r s , i t s s p i e s , coul d be
concei ved of as ' c onvul s i ons t a ki ng pl a c e i n t h e minds and s o u l s of men
i n t h e pr oc e s s of making t hemsel ves over . ''3 Convul si ons, pr esumabl y,
which de s t r oy t h e uns uc c e s s f ul a p p l i c a n t . The d i a r y e n t r i e s which
p a r a l l e l t h e pr e pa r a t i ons of t h e Airman r ecount t h i s f i n a l a t t e mpt l e a di ng
t o t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of t h e enemy wi t h i t s ma ni f e s t a t i ons of t h e dormant
deat h- wi s h t hr ough pur pos i ve neur os es o r l a r g e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of ' keepi ng
d i s o r d e r l y hous es , ment al c r u e l t y , l o i t e r i n g , nepot i sm, onani sm, pi r a c y
on t h e hi gh s e a s . ' But s o i n e v i t a b l e i s t h e f a i l u r e of such a mi ssi on
t h a t a n i mpos s i bl e t a s k i s s e t t h e a p p l i c a n t .
A t G p.m. pas s ages of unpr epar ed t r a n s l a t i o n
from dead d i a l e c t s a r e s e t t o a l l non-
combat ant s. The paper s a r e c o l l e c t e d a t
6-10. A l l who f a i l t o o b t a i n 99% make t h e
supreme s a c r i f i c e . Candi dat es must wr i t e
on 3 s i d e s of t h e paper .
I n h i s e f f o r t s t o r e s i s t h i s f a t e , t h e Airman i s dr i ve n t o c ons i de r a t i on
o f de s pe r a t e ends. The domi nant anal ogy i s t o a c a p t i v e br e a ki ng o u t of
a ps ychi c pr i s on ' c a l c u l a t i n g t h e dr op f or mul a by p r a c t i c a l exper i ment ,
empl oyi ng war der s of va r yi ng we i ght s . ' But t h e a t t e mpt i s i n va i n.
Af t e r 25 days of mounting p r e s s u r e , c e r t a i n dormant weaknesses br eak o u t
i n t o t h e open - weaknesses which compel1 t h e Airman t o a n i n t e n s e a n a l y s i s
of h i s s e l f - de c e pt i on:
My i n c r e d i b l e b l i n d n e s s , wi t h a l l t h e f a c t s s t a r i n g
me i n t h e f a c e , n o t t o have r c a l i z c u t h e s e el ement ar y
t r u t h s .
1. The power of t h e enemy i s a f unc t i on of our
r e s i s t a n c e , t h e r e f o r e
2. The onl y e f f i c i e n t way t o de s t r oy i t - s e l f -
d e s t r u c t i o n , t h e s a c r i f i c e of a l l r e s i s t a n c e ,
r educi ng him t o t h e s t a t e of a man t r y i n g t o
wal k on a f r i c t i o n l e s s s ur f a c e .
3 . Conquest can onl y pr oceed by a bs or pt i on o f ,
i . e . i n f e c t i o n by, t h e conquered. The t r u e s i g n i f i c a n c e
of my hands. ' Do not i r i agi ne t h a t you, no more t ha n any
o t h e r conquer or , es cape t h e mark of gr os s ne s s . '
They s t o l e t o f o r c e a hear i ng.
The exor ci sm compl et ed, t h e Airman pr e pa r e s t o under t ake t h e ' Te s t . '
The b i t t e r l y t r a g i c i r ony of t h e e n t i r e s i t u a t i o n of ' J o u r n a l of an
must remove from hi msel f a l l t r a c e s of i nhe r e nt di s e a s e . H i s onl y rncans
t o t h a t end l i e s i n s e l f - d e s t r u c t i o n . Li ke Derek and h i s t r u e Ances t or ,
Uncl e Henry, t h e Ai r man' s de a t h i s s e l f - i n f l i c t e d . Thi s i s t h e i r o n i c
v i c t o r y he ga i ns ove r t h e p a r t s of h i s mind occupi ed by enemy f o r c e s .
I n c onc l us i on, Ri char d Hoggar t ha s c a l l e d t h e Airman, ' t h e He a l e r ,
t h e t r u l y s t r o n g man, t h e f r i e n d of l i f e and of c r e a t i o n , t h e symbol of t h e
r e f u s a l t o be a f r a i d , of t h e a b i l i t y t o r i s e t o a l a r g e ge s t ur e . ' 7 4 I n
f a c t , it i s i n t h e Airman' s compl et e i n a b i l i t y t o ga i n t h e cour age t o
Change t h a t h i s t r a ge dy l i e s . H i s h e r o i c s t a t u r e i n Audenesque t er ms i s
p a r t of h i s de t e r mi na t i on t o a t t e mpt t h e ' Que s t ' i n s p i t e of h i s b a s i c
weaknesses. And t h e main theme of Book 11 r emai ns t h e need f o r
r e vol ut i on i n ' t h i s count r y of our s where nobody i s wel l . ' It i s , however,
a r e vol ut i on accor di ng t o Bl a ke , Homer Lane, Lawrence, Groddeck and Fr eud.
A t t h i s s t a g e Marx i s e f f e c t i v e l y deni ed by ' Auden' s mes s i ani c myt hol ogi zi ng
and h i s d i r e c t Ske l t oni c s n e e r s at Chc wor ki ng c l a s s . 1 7 5 A s we s h a l l
s e e , t h e Mar xi s t s o l u t i o n s f o r t h e ' Qu e s t ' r e c e i ve a somewhat f u l l e r
t r e a t me nt i n Auden' s l a t e r works dur i ng t h e T h i r t i e s .
Book XI1 c ont a i ns s i x ode s , each of which a c c e nt ua t e s a p a r t of t h e
' Qu e s t ' mot i f . I n a l l c a s e s , however, t h e Or a t o r i s a n i n d i v i d u a l f o r
whom t h e ' Qu e s t ' i s i mpos s i bl e. Pe r ve r t e d and r ender ed i mpot ent by
i n t e r n a l d i s e a s e , h i s e s s e n t i a l t a s k i s t o warn. For exampl e, i n t h e
f i r s t ode , t h e Or a t or s e e s two r eas ons f o r t h e ge ne r a l at mospher e of
' t h a t y e a r decayi ng' - t h e de a t h of Lawrence and t h e Ri se of Fasci sm,
a n o t h e r ma ni f e s t a t i on of t h e enemy mind. Al t hough unde r s t a ndi ng t h e
need t o r e c t i f y t h e s i t u a t i o n , he i s unabl e t o a c t , a f f e c t e d as he i s by
symptoms of d i s e a s e i n ni ght - dr eams and ' wi t h a wound hur t i ng. ' He i s
r e s t r i c t e d t o war ni ng s o c i e t y and t h e ur gency and v i t a l d r i v e wi t hi n t h e
poem r e s u l t from h i s d e s i r e t o commence t h e t a s k. Thi s d e s i r e adds
s t r e n g t h t o t h e r h e t o r i c a l que s t i ons which end Che poem:
Have you he a r d of someone s wi f t e r t ha n Syr i a n
hor s e s ?
Has he thrown t h e b u l l y of Cor i nt h i n t h e sanded
c i r c l e ?
Has he c r os s e d t h e I st hmus a l r e a dy? i s he s eeki ng
b r i l l i a n t :
At hens and us ?
One i mpor t ant p o i n t r a i s e d by t h i s Or a t o r , however, i s t h e war ni ng t o t h e
i n d i v i d u a l t o beware t h e f a i s e h e a l e r s - ' gr anny i n mi t t e ns , t h e Mop;
t h e whi t e s u r g e o n , / ~ n d l oony Layar d. ' What he emphasi zes i s t h e
n e c e s s i t y f o r t h e i ndvi dua l who under t akes t h e ' Ques t ' t o f ol l ow a t r u e
ps yc hi c i d e a l , one of t h e he a l t hy members of t h e t r i b u n a l a l r e a d y
enumer at ed i n Poem XXI I .
I n i t i a l l y , t h e second ode i s a j oyous c e l e b r a t i o n of Sedber gh' s rugby
v i c t o r y ove r Sandroyd i n 1927. Gr adual l y, however, as t h e poem devel ops ,
t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e two ceams becofi~e i d e n t i f i a b l e wi t h t h e
f undament al q u a l i t i e s of t h e two gr oups known a s ' U s ' and 'Them. ' Thus,
t h e wi nni ng team a r e c ha r a c t e r i z e d by t h e i r a c t i v i t y ' a l i gne d l i k e a
squadr on of Bombers, ' and become a s s o c i a t e d i n t h e last f o u r s t a nz a s wi t h
t h e f o r c e s of Er os a s bot h win unexpect edl y a g a i n s t overwhelming odds.
Once a g a i n , a c t i v i t y i s t h e key t o psychi c whol eness, so t h a t each n i g h t ,
' J oy docked i n ever y d u c t , we t o t h e r i g h t s l e e p come.' On t h e o t h e r
hand, t h e l o s e r s become a s s o c i a t e d wi t h t h e f o r c e s of t h e enemy as l i k e
'Them' :
De f e a t s on them l i k e l a va s
Have f a l l e n , f e l l , ke pt f a l l i n g , f e l l
On them, poor l ovi e s .
And l i k e t hem, unaware of ma i nt a i ni ng harmoni ous bal ance wi t h i n , t hey
c o u r t danger by t h e i r ' pur s e- pr oud, swank-limb, cock- wi t ' and wage
i n e f f e c t u a l b a t t l e .
The t h i r d ode i s a s t a t e me nt of f a i l u r e by t hos e who have at t empt ed
t h e ' Te s t . ' A s a r e s u l t of i t s uns uc c e s s f ul compl et i on, t h e mind becomes
pa r a l ys e d by meani ngl ess s o c i a l convent i ons. The i n d i v i d u a l , thrown o u t
o f ba l a nc e , becomes a mere obs e r ve r of l i f e f o r whom t h e f u t u r e hol ds
not hi ng more t han a ' Pr omi se of pi c ni c s . ' Unable t o change, t hey a r e
l i ke ne d t o p a t i e n t s i n a Sanat or i um whose t r a g i c i r ony i s summed up i n t he
phr a s e 'We are he r e f o r our h e a l t h . ' F i n a l l y , t h e i r conf i dence i n t h e
s t a t u s quo l e a ds t o a complacency which i n t u r n l e a ds t o s t a gna t i on.
Al t hough t he y may ' r e s t wi t hout r i s k , ' t h i s i n e r t i a can onl y l e a d t o
Deat h. These c ondi t i ons of d i s e a s e , unna t ur a l b a r r i e r s t o t h e s uc c e s s f ul
unde r t a ki ng o f t h e ' Qu e s t ' , r each t h e i r f i n a l d e f i n i t i o n i n t h e last s t a nz a :
Hear l a s t i n c or ne r
The pffwungg of bur ner
Accept i ng d e a r t h
The shadow of deat h.
The f o u r t h ode i nt r oduc e s t h e i ndi vi dua l bor n t o compl et e tile ' Te s t '
wi t h s ucces s . H i s i d e a l pr e s e nt a t i on a s a l e a d e r i s , however, somewhat
overshadowed by t h e i n s i s t e n c e wi t hi n t h e poem on t h e p o r t r a i t of England
i n i t s pr e s e nt ' o b s o l e t e ' c or i di t i on. I t i s a n i s l a n d i nha bi t e d by an
' Ashamed, u n i n t e r e s t i n g and hope l e s s r a c e , ' s u f f e r i n g , t hr ough r e pr e s s i on,
f r om n e u r o t i c t r ai t s. An el ement of pe r ve r s i on e n t e r s t h e i r ver y
obs e r va t i on of l i f e as t he y cont i nue:
Spyi ng on a t h l e t e s pl ayi ng on a gr e e n,
Spyi ng on k i s s e s shown on a s cr een.
Th e i r pr e s e nt ' h e a l e r s ' are bogus f i gt i r es . The p o l i t i c a l f i g u r e s a r e
summari l y di s mi s s ed: ' We' r e g e t t i n g a l i t t l e t i r e d of boys, / Of t h e ni nny,
t h e mawmet and t h e f a l s e alarm,' They remai n de f e nde r s of t h e s t a t u s quo
and pr oge ni t or s of d i s e a s e and i n t e r n a l c o n f l i c t . Ther e i s l i t t l e
pr omi se i n Engl and' s pr e s e nt yout h who si mpl y ' b o l t f o r mama.' It i s
l e f t f o r ' J ohn, son of Warner' who ' Wi l l / Save. ' I n t h e ode he i s a i de d
by t h e e voc a t i on of Spr i ng, season of change. But a l t hough h i s need ha s
been s een as pur el y s o c i a l i n t h e poem, i t i s wi t hi n t h e i ndi vi dua l t h a t
h i s s a vi ng gr a c e s w i l l be most needed:
To each unhappy J os eph and r e pr e s s e d Di ana
Say Bo t o t h e i n v a l i d s and t a ke away t h e i r r ugs ,
The war-memorials decora' i e wi t h member-mugs,
The gauche and t h e l one l y he w i l l i nt r oduc e of c our s e
To t h e smaller gr oup, t he right f i e l d of f or c e :
I f c ur e d, t h e i ndi vi dua l would p r o j e c t h i s i n n e r h e a l t h i n a s o c i e t y a t
harmony wi t h t h e i d e a l s of i t s members. The obvi ous assumpt i on i s t h a t
t h i s new s o c i e t y w i l l be i n b i t t e r c o n f l i c t wi t h t he. pr e s e nt one whose
i n h a b i t a n t s are:
Li vi ng i n one pl a c e wi t h a s a t i s f i e d f a c e
A l l of t h e women and most of t h e men
Sh a l l work wi t h t h e i r hands and not t hi nk agai n.
To a c t i v a t e s o r a d i c a l l y d i c l e r e n t a v i s i o n i n ' t h e season of change 04
h e a r t , ' t h e poem r e s t a t e s t h e ur ge nt need f o r a ' h e a l e r ' who w i l l gui de
Man t owar ds t h e ends of h i s ' Quest ' f o r s e l f l e s s r easons. Thi s a c t of
Love wi l l r e s t o r e England t o ' The Di r e c t e d cal m, t h e a c t u a l gl or y. '
The f i f t h ode, 'Ode t o my P u p i l s ' , s e e s t h e l i f e of t h e i ndi vi dua l
i n mi l i t a r y t er ms as he ma i nt a i ns a c ons t a nt ba c kl e a g a i n s t any per ver s i on
o f a wor l d, o r i g i n a l l y wrought by h i s a nc e s t or s : ' t h e t a l l whi t e gods ...
s k i l l e d ... a ppoi nt i ng o u r / f e a s t days. ' The Or a t or , a dopt i ng t h e t one of
a s chool mas t er a ddr e s s i ng h i s p u p i l s , s t r e s s e s t h e pr e pa r a t i on neces s ar y
f o r s o cont i nuous a n i n t e r n a l s cs uggl c:
Are you i n t r a i n i n g ?
Are you t a k i n g c a r e of y o u r s e l f ? are you s u r e of
pa s s i ng
The endur ance t e s t ?
The c ons t a nt b a t t l e i s s een as a f i g h t a g a i n s t t empt i ng s i n s whi ch,
t o g e t h e r , a r e on t h e s i d e of Deat h a g a i n s t t h e u n i t y of ' He a r t and head. '
The i n d i v i d u a l , a f a l l e n vi c t i m, ha s f a i l e d t h e t e s t and t h e r e s u l t i s a
psyche concei ved i n t er ms of Auden' s us ua l scene of depr es s ed
i n d u s t r i a l i s m:
Th e r e ' s no f i r e i n t h e wai t i ng- r oom now a t t h e
Cl i mber ' s J u n c t i o n ,
And a l l t h i s y e a r
Work ha s been st opped on t h e power-house; t h e
Wind wh i s t l e s under
The h a l f - b u i l t c u l v e r t s .
Y e t a g a i n , ener gy i s t h e c ur e but n o t a rest l ess, i l l - d e f i n e d ener gy,
whi ch i s i n e v i t a b l y d e s t r u c t i v e . The Or a t o r sees t h e need f o r t h e
i n d i v i d u a l t o ha r ne s s h i s ener gy t o under cake t h e ' Que s t . ' What i s
s t r o n g l y emphasi zed i n t h e poem i s t h e d i r e c t e d ener gy as ' A l l l e a ve i s
c a nc e l l e d t o- ni ght ; we must s ay goodbye. ' We must assume t h a t such
v i t a l d r i v i n g power wi t hi n Man i s onl y r e l e a s e d i n t h e a c t i v i t y o f Love.
The f i r s t f i v e odes see Man' s pr e s e nt ps ychol ogi cal c ondi t i on
i nc a pa bl e of t h e T e s t ' s s uc c e s s f ul compl et i on. Thus, t h e s i x t h ode i s
a ddr e s s e d t o God beyond t h e t a i n t e d r each of Man. It s e e s t h e
i n d i v i d u a l ' s ps ychi c t ur moi l caused by Man s e t t i n g h i s ' maddened f o o t '
' Aga i ns t your d i r e c t l i g h t ' - t h e l i g h t of a ps ychi c i d e a l . I n t h i s
s e ns e God i s seen a s t h e means t o achi eve t h e Love which ha s been
/
s t r e s s e d as neces s ar y t o e f f e c t Man' s change. The l ast l i n e s of t h e
l as t ode i n t h e volume a r e a d i r e c t a ppe a l f o r d i v i n e i nt e r ve nt i on.
The Or a t o r s concl udes on a not e which mi ngl es hope wi t h unsur mount abl e
d e s p a i r :
Be not a not he r t han our hope;
Expect we r out e d s h a l l
Upon your peace; wi t h r a y di s a r m,
I l l u mi n e , and not k i l l .
It ha s been s a i d t h a t :
One s e e s t hen i n The Or a t o r s , t h e v i c t o r y of
t h e i d e a of a ps yc hol ogi c a l c u r e , which i s
al ways predomi nant as an a s p e c t of Auden' s work.76
I f we s e e i n The Or a t or s t h e v i c t o r y of an i d e a , we a r e n o t wi t ne s s t o
i t s s uc c e s s f ul a p p l i c a t i o n t o r e a l i t y . To a t t e mpt s o ne c e s s a r y a
t r ansf or mat i on, Auden per meat es h i s second volume wi t h ur ge nt war ni ngs
t o Man on h i s pr e s e nt ps yc hol ogi c a l c ondi t i on and e xhor t a t i ons t o Man
t o change t h a t di s or de r . I n h i s ' Epi l ogue , ' t h e poet r e a s s e s s e s t h e
s i t u a t i o n :
' 0 where a r e you goi ng?' s a i d r e a de r t o r i d e r ,
' That v a l l e y i s f a t a l when f ur na c e s bur n,
Yonder ' s t h e midden whose odour s w i l l madden,
Tha t gap i s t h e gr ave where t h e t a l l r e t ur n. '
' 0 do you i ma gi ne , ' s a i d f e a r e r t o f a r e r ,
' Tha t dusk w i l l de l a y on your pa t h t o t h e pa s s ,
Your d i l i g e n t l ooki ng di s c ove r t h e l a c ki ng
Your f o o t s t e p s f e e l from g r a n i t e t o g r a s s ? '
' 0 what was t h a t b i r d , ' s a i d h o r r o r t o h e a r e r ,
' Di d you s e e t h a t shape i n t he t wi s t e d t r e e s ?
Behi nd you s wi f t l y t h e f i g u r e comes s o f t l y ,
The s p o t on your s k i n i s a shocki ng d i s e a s e ? '
' Out of t h i s house' - s a i d r i d e r t o r e a de r
' Your s never w i l l ' - s a i d f a r e r t o f e a r e r
' The y' r e l ooki ng f o r you' - s a i d h e a r e r t o hor r or
A s he l e f t them t h e r e , a s he l e f t them t he r e .
Her e, t h e de f e nde r s of t h e s t a t u s quo - t h e r e a d e r , t he f e a r e r and t h e i r
h a b i t u a l r e a c t i o n t o change i n hor r or - a r e i n d i r e c t oppos i t i on t o t h e
r i d e r , t h e f a r e r and t h e h e a r e r f o r whom a c t i v i t y i s an e s s e n t i a l p a r t
of l i f e . A s The Or a t or s c l o s e s , we s e e Man i n one l ast a t t e mpt t o l e a ve
behi nd h i s f or mer s t a t e of c o n f l i c t , t o under t ake h i s ' Ques t : '
A s he l e f t them t h e r e , as he l e f t them t he r e .
Look, St r a nge r ! , publ i s hed i n London i n Oct ober , 1936, c ont a i ne d
t h i r t y - o n e poems, t went y- f our of which had appear ed i n p e r i o d i c a l s and
a n t h o l o g i e s ove r t h e pr ecedi ng f o u r year s . 77 Whi l st t h e volume a s a
whol e i s n o t u n i f i e d t he ma t i c a l l y by t h e mot i f of t h e ' Ques t ' as wa s
Poems, Auden vi ews as i n t o l e r a b l e t h e pr e s e nt s p i r i t u a l c ondi t i on of
Man. It i s i mmedi at el y n o t i c e a b l e t h a t t h e seven unpubl i shed poems of
1936 e x h i b i t a t r a n q u i l i t y i n c l a s hi ng c o n t r a s t t o t h e ur ge nt i n t e r n a l
a c t i v i t y of t hos e pr e vi ous l y publ i s hed. Her ei n l i e s a s l i g h t p o i n t e r
t o t h e Audenesque s e a r c h f o r Cl ar i t as whi ch h a s e ve nt ua l l y l e d him t o
t h e The a t r e a nd, i n p a r t i c u l a r , On t h e Fr o n t i e r . Thr ee r e a s ons can be
p u t f or war d t o account f o r t h i s devel opment . F i r s t l y , Auden ha s si mpl y
l o s t i n t e r e s t i n t h e mot i f as evi denced by t h e oc c a s i ona l q u a l i t y of
Poem XXII and h i s growi ng out put of such v e r s e i n t h e e a r l y ' f o r t i e s .
Secondl y, s o d i s t i n c t a l o s s of ur gency may r e s u l t from Auden' s growi ng
awar enes s of h i s own a r t i s t i c r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t owar ds h i s publ i c .
Ce r t a i n l y , t h e d i d a c t i c el ement h a s al ways been pr e va l e nt i n h i s poecr y,
p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e e xhor t a t or y ve r s e of Poems, b u t . t h e work i n and a f t e r
1936 i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y less conf us i ng and draws l e s s on t h a t per s onal
myt hol ogy Auden c r e a t e d wi t h Isherwood wh i l s t a t Oxford. La s t l y , I
would s ugge s t t h a t Auden i s l o s i n g conf i dence i n Man' s a b i l i t y t o change.
The ' Ques t ' r emai ns as Auden' s hope f o r Mankind but i t s d e l i n e a t i o n
a c q u i r e s a g r e a t e r f or ma l i t y. Whatever t h e r e a s ons , Look, St r a nge r !
de mons t r a t e s a marked d i f f e r e n c e i n t one from t h e e a r l i e r volumes:
It ha s f l ue nc y, w i t and a c u t e r e p o r t i n g ;
i t i s n o t unne c e s s a r i l y d i f f i c u l t ; but it
l a c ks t h e p r e c i s i o n and compr essi on of t h e
b e s t e a r l y work. Some of t h e c l a r i t y of
t h e s e mi d d l e - t h i r t i e s ha s been gai ned a t
t h e expense of t h e c ut t i ng- e dge of t h e 1930
volume. Look, St r a nge r ! r e l i e s t oo much
on v i r t u o u s i t y and i s over - cons ci ous of i t s
audi ence .78
I n Poem XXX, a ddr e s s e d t o Chr i s t ophe r I sher wood, t h e p o e t ' s
pe r s ona l f r u s t r a t i o n p o i n t s o u t t hos e i n c u r a b l e dilemmas which c ha r a c t e r i z e
Look, St r a nge r ! as a ' pr of oundl y p e s s i mi s t i c volume. ' 79 Al t hough t h e
poem i s not pr i ma r i l y concer ned wi t h a l l e g o r i c a l r e pr e s e nt a t i ons of t h e
' Qu e s t , ' i t does l ook back t o a pe r i od when bot h Auden and Isherwood were
ext r emel y s e n s i t i v e t o probl ems concer ned wi t h ps ychi c degener at i on.
But t h e ur gency which d r i v e s t he i n t e r n a l a c t i v i t y of t h e poem r e f l e c t s
not t h e need f o r a c ur e b u t Auden' s pr e s e nt pr eoccupat i on wi t h t h e f unc t i on
of t h e ar t i s t . H e concei ves of I s her wood' s ' s t r i c t and a d u l t ' pen as a
power f ul i ns t r ume nt t o d e t e r Man from s p i r i t u a l i mpot ency, t o pr opose
t h e c a s e f o r ' a c t i o n ur ge nt : '
So i n t h i s hour of c r i s i s and di smay,
What b e t t e r t han your s t r i c t and a d u l t pen
Can warn u s from t h e c ol our s and t h e c ons ol a t i ons ,
The showy a r i d wor ks, r e ve a l
The s qua l i d shadow of academy and gar den,
Make a c t i o n ur ge nt and i t s n a t u r e c l e a r ?
Who gave u s n e a r e r i n s i g h t t o resi st
The expandi ng f e a r , t h e s avagi ng di s t a nc e .
T h i s , c a l l f o r a d i s c i p l i n e d a c t i v i t y i l l u s t r a t e s a maj or s t a g e i n Auden' s
p o e t i c development~,for,throughout h i s work i n t h e ' t h i r t i e s , t h e amount
of s a t i r i c a l obs e r va t i on e xt r a ne ous t o t h e main d i r e c t i o n of t h e i ndi vi dua l
volume ha s decr eas ed. With h i s r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t a pe r s ona l mythology
s u i t a b l e framework f o r a ' Cur e' f o r ps ychi c a i l me n t s , Auden' s l at er s o c i a i
comment pr obes i n sor r ow t h e s e r i o u s f l a ws wi t hi n s oc i e t y. It i s now a
t i me ' of c r i s i s and di smay' occas i oned by t h e deepeni ng i s o l a t i o n of
Modern Man as he i s dr i ve n by f a l s e l oves . Pa r a doxi c a l l y, t h i s f a l s e
l ove i s t h e panacea t o ps ychi c i l l s Auden had hi msel f pr oposed i n Poems:
t h e word i s l ove.
Sur e l y one f e a r l e s s k i s s would c ur e
The mi l l i o n f e v e r s , a s t r o k i n g br us h
The i n s e n s i t i v e r e f u s e from t h e bur ni ng cor e.
Was t h e r e a dr agon who had c l os e d t h e works
While t h e s t a r v e d c i t y f e d it wi t h t h e Jews?
The l ove would tame it wi t h h i s t r a i n e r ' s l ook.
I n a mood of sad r e f l e c t i o n , t h e ne xt s t a nz a begs pardon f o r a l l t h e s e
c h i l d i s h b e l i e f s , f o r ' p r i v a t e j oki ngs i n a pa ne l l e d room, ' f o r be l i e vi ng
' t h e whi s per i n t h e doubl e bed' - ' par don f o r t h e s e and e ve r y f l a bby
f ancy. ' The s e ns e of pe r s ona l f r u s t r a t i o n which i nf or ms t h e poem st ems
f r om Auden' s r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t he ha s no a l t e r n a t i v e t o t h e s e summarily
di s mi s s e d cur es . He, i n h i s a dvi c e t o Isherwood:
Can warn u s from t h e c ol our s and t h e c ons ol a t i ons ,
The showy a r i d wor ks, r e ve a l
The s q u a l i d shadow of academy and gar den.
and even pr opose a d i s c i p l i n e d and d i r e c t e d a c t i o n , b u t , f i n a l l y , t h e
A r t i s t t oo must b e a t t h e wind. Wi t hi n t h e s t r u c t u r e of t h i s s i n g l e poem,
t h e c l a r i o n c a l l f o r a c t i o n i s overwhelmed by a compassion f o r humanity
s t r a n g e l y a bs e nt i n t h e e a r l i e r works. The r e , t he c onc e nt r a t e d ener gy of
s a t i r e wa s d i r e c t e d a g a i n s t t h e s o c i a l l e a d e r s , gr os s pa r odi e s of Auden' s
concept i on of ps ychi c ideals. I n t h i s poem and i n t h e volume as a whol e,
t h e concer n i s f o r t h e peopl e t hemsel ves and f o r t h e i r l e a de r s - t h e
Ar t i st s. It i s t h e l at t er s' t a s k t o d i s t u r b t h e d u l l and danger ous
s i t u a t i o n de s c r i be d i n t h e openi ng s t a nz a :
~ u g u s t f o r t h e peopl e and t h e i r f a v o u r i t e i s l a nds .
Da i l y t h e s t eamer s s i d l e up t o meet
The e f f u s i v e welcome of t h e p i e r , and soon
The l uxur i a nt l i f e of t h e s t e e p s t one v a l l e y s ,
The s a l l ow ova l f a c e s of t h e c i t y
Begot i n pas s i on o r good- nat ur ed h a b i t ,
Are caught by wa i t i ng coaches , o r l a i d ba r e
Bes i de t h e undi s c r i mi na t i ng s e a .
Thus, i n i t s s t at ement of i n e v i t a b l e decay, i n i t s pe s s i mi s t i c a p p r a i s a l
o f s o l u t i o n s t o t h a t decay, Poem XXX u n i f i e s t h e volume. Addressed a s
i t i s t o Chr i s t ophe r I sher wood, t h e poem a l s o c ont i nue s t h a t image of
f r i e n d s h i p s o n o t i c e a b l e i n t h e Odes of t h e t h i r d book of The Or a t or s .
The i n t i ma t e j uxt a pos i t i on of t h e mot i f of ' t h e Quest ' and t h e names of
Audenl s i n t i ma t e f r i e n d s s ugge s t s t h e p o e t ' s i n n a t e b e l i e f t h a t it i s
onl y i n t h e c i r c l e of h i s f r i e n d s t h a t a wort hy que s t i ng i ndi vi dua l can
be found. De s pi t e t h e i r ony by which he c o n t r o l s t h e ode t o John Warner,
Auden advances h i s vi ew of t h e r e l i a b i l i t y and i nhe r e nt n o b i l i t y o f h i s
f r i e n d s . Af t e r Pai d on Bot h Si de s and Poems i n which Mankind was ur ged
t o begi n pr e pa r a t i on f o r t h e ' Que s t , ' it i s a s i g n i f i c a n t devel opment that
i n Look, St r anger ! Auden' s conf i dence i n t h e p o t e n t i a l of humani t y t o
redeem i t s e l f i s markedl y weakened.
Thus, wi t hi n t h e volume, Auden' s devel opment , i n p a r t i c u l a r h i s
s h i f t i n g a t t i t u d e t owar ds Love - t h e means t o t h e end of t h e ' Ques t ' -
i s amply demonst r at ed. The pr ol ogue, s t r u c t u r e d l i k e a convent i onal
pr a ye r t o God, comes c l o s e s t t o d e f i n i n g a ' Que s t ' and was o r i g i n a l l y
publ i s he d i n 1932. Th i s a ddr e s s t o t h e s a c r e d per son of Love r e i t e r a t e s
Auden' s e a r l i e r concer n wi t h Er os , concei ved o r i g i n a l l y i n Fr eudi an t er ms
t o i nc l ude bot h ego- and o b j e c t - l ove , the ur ge t o s e l f - p r e s e r v a t i o n and
pr e s e r va t i on o f t he s p e c i e s , a s e we l l as s e xua l l ove. Here Er os i s asked
t o a r ous e Man out of t h i s i n n a t e c or r upt i on mani f es t ed i n t h e st at e of
pe r pe t ua l ni ght mar e i n which he l i v e s - t h a t dream of ' u n i t i n g t h e dead
i n t o a s pl e ndi d empi r e1 which r e s u l t e d i n t h e numerous s cenes of ps ychi c
de s ol a t i on. The example of t he a nc e s t or s i s l o s t . They who were ' f a r -
s i ght e d a s f a l c ons ' have been superceded by a gener at i on who ' i n e r t l y wai t . '
A t t h i s poi nt t he mot i f of t he ' Qu e s t , ' r e t a i n s i t s promise f o r t he
i ndi vi dua l members of s oc i e t y and t h e ' Vi r gi n r oads t eads of our h e a r t s . '
I n t he volume, Auden i n s i s t s upon t he ' Engl i s hnes s ' of t he widcsprend
decay and has pl aced hi msel f i n an e xa c t r e l a t i o n s h i p t o i t . I n t h i s way
t h e poet cont i nues t he theme of The Or a t or s , s u b - t i t l e d 'An Engl i sh St udy, '
where he di agnosed t h e a i l me nt s of ' t h i s count r y of our s where no-one i s
wel l . ' Spear s says on t h i s mat t er :
The poet speaks f r e que nt l y i n h i s own per son,
l oc a t i ng hi msel f s p e c i f i c a l l y i n t i me and
pl ace ...; t h i s gi ve s s o l i d i t y t o t h e
l a r g e r vi s i on of England i n he r r e l a t i o n s t o
geography and hi s t or y. 80
I n t he pr evi ous l y unpubl i shed poems of Look, St r a nge r ! , however, r ef er ences
t o t h e Engl i sh l oc a l e grow l e s s numerous. ' The Que s t ' l os e s i t s c e nt r e
of r e f e r e nc e and i t s impact al t hough Auden s t i l l seeks out t hos e worthy of
Love t o under t ake h i s s ear ch. I n t he c ont r ove r s i a l ' A Communist To
Ot he r s ' (no.XIV) we r e c e i ve t h e f i r s t i nt i ma t i on of whom Auden cons i der s
worthy t o c a r r y out Love' s cur e. Despi t e i t s ove r t l y Mar xi st f a c a de , t he
poem i s an e xe r c i s e , an adopt i on of a per sona by Auden, c ha r a c t e r i z e d by
a t o t a l l ack of conf i dence i n t he ver y peopl e he i s t r y i n g t o ar ous e.
The ' masses' a r e not t hos e peopl e capabl e of r e s ol vi ng t h e ' Quest ' f o r
t hemsel ves; t h e i r f a t e i s t o remain pa s s i ve s pe c t a t or s of t hos e event s
which s h a l l al t er t h e i r l i v e s r a di c a l l y. It i s t h e ' we' of t h e poem who
must t a ke r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e f u t u r e and i n Poem X, Auden' s concern
wi t h f r i e n d s h i p shows t h a t r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o be i n t he hands of a few
pe r s ona l l y known t o him:
Love , s a t i s f a c t i on, t one, d e l i g h t ,
To t he s e pl a ye r s of Badminton t o- ni ght ,
To Favel , Hol l and, s p r i g h t l y Al e xi s gi ve.
De s pi t e i t s obvi ous i r o n i c ovc r t one s , t h e poem r e pr e s e nt s one f u r t h e r
example of ~ u d e n ' s concer n wi t h t h e wor t hi nes s of t hos e who under t ake
t h e ' Qu e s t . ' I n one s e ns e , i t i s a devel opment of Lawrence' s own Fasci sm
and t h e l o g i c a l c o r o l l a r y t o Auden' s b e l i e f i n t h e Tr ul y St r ong Xan.
Ne v s r t h c l e s s , i n Poem XI V t h e p o e t ' s concer n wi t h ' Br ot he r s ' i s symptomatic
o f h i s changi ng concept of Love. The e a r l i e r Er os i s now viewed a s an
i s o l a t i n g and s e l f i s h pr e s s ur e wi t hi n Man. Poem V I I us e s t h e anal ogy
o f Nodern Nan a s a cast away on a de s e r t e d i s l a n d year ni ng f o r t h e wat er
which he mciy s ha r e wi t h h i s companions. Me b e l i e v e s i mp l i c i t l y i n t h e
e a s e wi t h which he can a t t a i n t h e ends of t h e ' Qu e s t : '
Where ever y day was danci ng i n t h e v a l l e y s ,
And a l l t h e y e a r t r e e s blossomed on t h e mount ai ns,
Where l ove w a s i nnoc e nt , bei ng f a r from c i t i e s .
It i s h i s i mmedi at e ' g u i l t y Love' which r e nde r s him incommunicate and
e a s y pr ey t o t h e deat h- wi sh i n t h e ' i s o l a t e d pe r s ona l l i f e ' of Poem X.
I n ' A Communist t o Ot he r s ' Auden a t t a c k s t hos e he hol ds r e s pons i bl e
f o r Xa n' s i n t e n s e l one l i ne s s . Li ke Homer Lane, he blames t h e Pa r e nt s
and Teacher s - t hos e n a t u r a l l e a de r s i n Man' s ' Qu e s t ' whose s u b s t i t u t e s
Auden pe r pe t ua l l y seeks:
0 s pl e ndi d per s on, you who s t a nd
I n s p o t l e s s f l a n n e l s o r wi t h hand
Exper t on t r i g g e r ;
Whose l ovc l y h a i r and s hapel y l i mb
Year a f t e r y e a r a r e ke pt i n t r i m
T i l l b u f f e r s envy as you s w i m
Your Gr eci an f i g u r e :
The s a t i r e ga i ns i n i n t e n s i t y by i t s r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e whole mot i f of
t h e ' Qu e s t ' i n which t h e above f i g u r e i s but one of a s e r i e s of gr ot es que
c a r i c a t u r e s of Man' s pr e s e nt s o c i a l and ps ychi c l e a de r s .
Poem XX t r e a t s t h e ' Qu e s t ' i n t er ms of a s t r e nuous mount ai n- cl i mb
and br i ngs i n t o f ocus a l l t hos e el ement s i n d i v i d u a l l y demonst r at ed e l s e -
wher e. The poem i s t h e n a t u r a l predecessor t o The Ascent of F6 where
c o r r u p t mot i vat i on f o r t h e a s c e n t r e s u l t s i n a ba r r e n and s p i r i t u a l l y
unr ewar di ng cl i mb. St i mul a t e d i mpr oper l y by f e a r o f cont empor ar y
c o n d i t i o n s - ' t h e s h o r t - h a i r e d mad e x e c u t i v e s ' - and by a s e l f - l o v e which
ha s p l a c a t e d t h e change a c t i v a t e d by t h e w i l l , t h e i n d i v i d u a l s a r e
b i t t e r l y f r u s t r a t e d . A t t h e compl et i on of t h e j our ney, a l t h o u g h onl y a t
t h e begi nni ng o f t h e i r ' Qu e s t ' ;
i t was e ye s we l ooked a t , n o t t h e vi ew;
saw not hi ng b u t o u r s e l v e s , l e f t - h a n d e d , l o s t :
And t h i s l o s s of communication between men i s t h e r e s u l t o f t h e wrong
a ppr oa c h, bot h ps ychi c and s o c i a l , t o Love whi ch i s now u n s e l f i s h , n o t
n a t u r a l b u t t h e r e s u l t of e f f o r t and d i s c i p l i n e . The poet d e s c r i b e s h i s
r e a c t i o n s t o an's decay i n i l l u mi n a t i n g a l l e g o r i c a l t er ms:
Hear i ng of h r r v e s t s r o t t i n g i n v a l l e y s ,
Seei ng a t end of s t r e e t t h e b a r r e n mount ai ns,
Round c o r n e r s coming suddenl y on wa t e r ,
Knowing them shi pwr ecked who were l aunched f o r
i s l a n d s ,
We honour f ounde r s of t h e s e s t a r v i n g c i t i e s ,
Whose honour i s t h e image of o u r sorrow.
I n t h e poems of 1934, t h e mot i f of t h e ' Qu e s t ' i s overwhelmed by t h e p o e t ' s
pr e oc c upa t i on wi t h Deat h and t h e i n a b i l i t y of t h e i n d i v i d u a l t o c ur b t h i s
r e l e n t l e s s d e s i r e wi t h i n him. Deat h i s p a r t i c u l a r l y welcomed by t hos e
o v e r t l y d i s e a s e d who s e e i n i t a means t o change t h e i r s t a g n a n t s t a t e
(Poem XI ) but even t h e Tr u l y St r ong Man, who, a s ' t h e g r e a t e s t f i g u r e of
h i s d a y , ' d i s p l a y s a h e a l t h y f a c a de and per f or ms g r e a t e x p l o i t s , i s
s e c r e t l y i n l ove wi t h d e a t h - t h a t d e a t h r e s u l t i n g d i r e c t l y from t h e t r i v i a
of a d a i l y r o u t i n e . Thus:
h e s i ghe d f o r one
WkLo, say a s t o n i s h e d c r i t i c s , l i v e d a t home;
Did l i t t l e j obs about t h e house wi t h s k i l l
And not hi ng el se; coul d wh i s t l e ; would s i t s t i l l
O r p o t t e r round t h e gar den; answer ed some
Of h i s l ong mar vel l ous l e t t e r s b u t k e p t none. (Poem X I I I )
With t h e t h r e a t of d e a t h on t h e i n d i v i d u a l , vows of l ove br eak e a s i l y
and t h e r e s u l t a n t f e a r and conf us i on caus e ps ychi c de ge ne r a t i on (Pocm VI ) .
Poem I X e x p l o r e s d e a t h ' s a ppe a l a . demons t r at es i t s p a r a l l e l i n t h e
f a l s e ' Qu e s t . '
The mi r r o r wor l d whr r e l o g i c i s reversed,
Where ages bucorncr: tlhc handao~nc child at: l a s t .
I n t h i s f a l s e ' Qu e s t ' we r e t u r n t o t h e wor l d of l egend and r omant i c l ove
whi ch, a s Auden s a i d i n poems, i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r Man' s t o t a l de c e pt i on
and h i s i n a b i l i t y t o unde r t a ke t h e ' Quest ' f o r r e a s ons demanding
d i s c i p l i n e and abundant i f c o n t r o l l e d ener gy.
Once a g a i n , i n Poem I X , Auden a t t a c k s t h e Pa r e n t s ' e duc a t i on of t h e
c h i l d whi ch he h o l d s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r Man' s ps ychi c decay. Th i s
a c c e n t u a t e s t h e h o r r i f i c i r o n y of t h e openi ng s t a n z a , p a r t i c u l a r l y ' A l l
o u r t r a d i t i o n a l sympathy wi t h b i r t h ' a g a i n s t whi ch t h e r e a d e r wei ghs t h e
' r u i n e d boys' of Poems and t h e school boys t o whom t h e speeches of The
-
Or a t o r s a r e addr es s ed. Auden s e e s t h e deat h- wi s hi ng worl d c h a r a c t e r i z e d
by a s s t r i c t a conf or mi t y ' a s a na va l s c h o o l ' by which l ove i s ' a t once
i nf or med on and s uppr e s s e d. ' Lack of t h i s l ove r e s u l t s i n an a r i d and
d e b i l i t a t e d c h i l d whose f u t u r e devel opment i s s een i n t er ms of f a l s e
q u e s t i n g s . To t h i s p o i n t t h e poem i s a n o r d i n a r y Audenesque account of
a s o c i e t y oppr essed. But t h e pe r s ona l el ement s i n t r u d e i n t h e l a t e r
p a r t of t h e poem and from a n at mospher e of d e a t h and decadence embr aci ng
t h e whol e of Engl and, we t u r n t o t h e pe r s ona l l i f e of t h e s pe a ke r i n which
p r e s s u r e s of pa r e nt and t e a c h e r have de s t r oye d t h e t wi n i mpul ses of l ove
and a c t i o n . I n magni f i cent s ea- i mager y, t he ' Qu e s t ' i s revoked as Plan' s
t o t a l r es pons e t o h i s envi r onment t hr oughout h i s l i f e :
My s e a i s empty and t h e waves a r e rough:
Gone from t h e map t h e s hor e where chi l dhood pl ayed
Ti g h t - f i s t e d a s a pe a s a nt , e a t i n g l ove ;
Lo s t i n my wake t h 3 a r c h i p e l a g o ,
I s l a n d s of s e l f t hr ough which 1 s a i l e d a l l day,
Pl a n t i n g a p i r ~ c e ' s f l a g , a gener ous boy;
And l o s t t h e way t o a c t i o n and t o you.
Th i s s t a n z a c l a r i f i e s Auden' s t o t a l concept i on of t h e mot i f of t h e
' Qu e s t . ' Fian' s s e a r c h f o r o r d e r and meaning i n h i s l i f e cannot be
l i mi t e d t o one segment of h i s l i f e - s p a n o r t o one p a r t of a l l h i s
a c t i v i t i e s a s a human bei ng. The ' Qu e s t ' i s a c o n t i n u a l s e a r c h whose
r ewar ds , i f a ny, a r e onl y t h o s e r e l a t e d t o t h e ment al a c t i v i t y and
d i s c i p l i n e Man e a r n s t hr ough h i s s eeki ng. Th i s e x p l a i n s t h e p o e t ' s
concer n wi t h t h e chi l dhood of Man, when t h e i n d i v i d u a l can be depr i ved
of a t r u e ' Qu e s t ' by a p e r v e r t e d l ove devel oped t hr ough f a u l t y e d u c a t i v e
f o r c e s upon him. Th i s i s t h e theme of Poem 111 where t h e exampl e of t h e
ancestors - ' Our hunt i ng f a t h e r s ' - ha s been c or r upt e d by a g e n e r a t i o n who
f a i l e d t o r espond a de qua t e l y t o new e v o l u t i o n a r y p r e s s u r e s . Fo r Man,
t h e p o e t ' s demand f o r change t a k e s t h e shape o f a ' Qu e s t ' t o a t t a i n ' t h e
r i g h t n e s s of a god. ' But t h e poem ends i n gloom, d e p i c t i n g Man' s:
mat ur e ambi t i on
To t h i n k no t hought b u t o u r s ,
TO hunger , work i l l e g a l l y ,
And be anonymous .
The poems publ i s hed i n 1935 r e l y less on a s t a t e me nt of t h e deat h- wi s hi ng
n a t u r e of s o c i e t y t han on t h e means t o c u r e t h a t i l l n e s s . Poem XXIV
c a p t u r e s t h e mood o f s e n s e l e s s r e p e t i t i o n i n a r e pr e s s e d and ' h e a r t l e s s '
wor l d by t h e r e f r a i n : - ' Cr i e d t h e s i x c r i p p l e s t o t h e s i l e n t s t a t u e , /
The s i x beggar ed c r i p p l e s . ' Auden' s r e a c t i o n t o t h i s s t a t e of f r u s t r a t i o n
i s e xpr e s s e d i n Poem XXI wher e, i n an a d d r e s s t o ' A Br i de i n t h e T h i r t i e s , '
lie d e l i v e r s a c o n t r o l l e d a t t a c k on Eras concei ved of h e r e as an i s o l a t i n g
and s e l f i s h e s c a pe from r e a l i t y which ' Makes wor l ds a s i nnocent as Be a t r i s
2 o t t e P s . ' Such a l ove i n v o l v e s a r omant i c s e l f - d e c e p t i o n , t h e e f f e c t of
which i s a gr a dua l sappi ng of he pur pos ef ul and c ons t r uc t i ve e ne r gi c ,
wi t hi n Nan. Thi s ma ni f e s t s i t s e l f a t t h e s o c i a l l e v e l i n t h e ~ n d i v i d u a l ' s
t o t a l s ubs er vi ence and h y s t e r i c a l accl amat i on of such d i c t a t o r s a s Hitler
and ~ u s s o l i n i who i n f l a t e t h e i d e a l of l ove. It i s q u i t e c l e a r , however,
where r e s p o n s i b i l i t y l i e s :
But l ove , except a t our pr opos a l ,
W i l l do no t r i c k a t h i s d i s p o s a l ;
Wi t hout opi ni ons of h i s own, per f or ms
The programme t h a t we t h i n k of m e r i t ,
And t hr ough our p r i v a t e s t u f f must work
H i s publ i c s p i r i t .
Out of a scene of s e l f i s h decay occasi oned by s o pe r ve r s e a l ove , t h e r e
a r i s e s Man' s u l t i ma t e c hoi c e i n de c i di ng whet her o r n o t he i s capabl e of
s u c c e s s f u l l y compl et i ng t h e ' Qu e s t . '
Yours i s t h e c hoi c e , t o whom t h e gods awarded
The l anguage of l e a r ni ng and t h e l anguage of l ove ,
Crooked t o move a s a moneybug o r a cancer
O r s t r a i g h t as a dove.
Bot h Poem V and Poem XVI i n s i s t upon t h e growi ng s p e c i f i c i t y of t he poet
i n h i s r e l a t i o n t o p a s t t i me and space. From h i s pos i t i on c l o s e be s i de
' t h e s wan- del i ght i ng r i v e r ' and h i s c r y t o ' Look, s t r a n g e r , a t t h i s i s l a n d
now, ' t h e poet i s aware of t h e mi ght y e vol ut i ona r y pr e s s ur e s upon him.
-
H i s pr e s e nt s t a nc e i s t hr e a t e ne d by ' t h e common wi sh f o r de a t h' and by
Ka n' s i n h e r i t e d s p i r i t u a l de gr a da t i on wi t h ' t h e danger ous a ppl e t aken. '
Once more, Love, as panacea, l i e s not i n t h e s e xua l demands of Er os but i n
t h e a l l embraci ng Love which u n i t e s Man wi t h Man and s oot hes c o n f l i c t .
I t n e v e r t h e l e s s demands a n a c t i v i t y f o r :
How i n s u f f i c i e n t i s
The endearment and t h e l ook.
Thi s u n s e l f i s h l ove I , . . pr oduces s o c i a l cons ci ous nes s , aims a t t h e ' r e a l l y
b e t t e r ' worl d t o be produced by p o l i t i c a l a c t i o n . ' 81
Thc poems which mark Look, Stranger! a s a ' pr of oundl y p e s s i mi s t i c '
volume ar c t h o s e f i r s t publ i s hed i n 1936. Such pessi mi sm i s a t once t h e
r e s u l t of t h e p o e t ' s v i s i o n of i n e v i t a b l e f a i l u r e i n t h e wor l d ar ound him
and h i s consequent c e r t a i n t y t h a t Man cannot appr oach h i s pe r s ona l ' Qu e s t '
wi t h any s e r i o u s chance of s uc c e s s . Th i s l o s s of conf i dence ma n i f e s t s
i t s e l f i n a l o s s of ener gy wi t h i n t h e poem. I n ' Sp a i n ' which f ol l ows i n
1937 and On t h e F r o n t i e r , produced i n 1938, t h e l o s s i s most e v i d e n t .
Havi ng wi t ne s s e d t h e f a i l u r e of e a r t h l y l o v e , Auden i s growi ng g r a d u a l l y
t owar ds t h e concept of Di vi ne Love and h i s ' c onve r s i on' i n t h e e a r l y
' f o r t i e s . poem XI X demands t h a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l a c c e p t s and unde r s t a nds
h i s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r h i s a c t i o n s , even when t hos e a c t i o n s a ppe a r s uper -
f i c i a l l y . p o s s i b l y , t he y pr e f a c e a deat h- wi s h o r d e b i l i t a t i n g n e u r o s i s
b u t s e l f - q u e s t i o n i n g i s a v i t a l s t a g e i n t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s ps ychi c
r e c l a ma t i on i n h i s appr oach t o t h e ' Qu e s t : '
Who a r e you wi t h , f r o n whom you t u r n away.
A t whom you d a r e n o t l ook? Do you know why?
~ u d e n ' s t he or y of a r t i s t i c a u t h o r i t y h e r e r e c e i v e s h i s pe r s ona l conf i r mat i on
f o r he a s k s t h e q u e s t i o n s as model s f o r h i s s e a r c h i n g audi ence.
Thus, it i s t h i s l a c k of i nvol vement whi ch c h a r a c t e r i z e s t h e poe t r y
publ i s he d i n 1936. . Ce r t a i n l y t h e o l d themes a r e r e pe a t e d. Man' s
debasement of t h e exampl e of h i s a n c e s t o r s (poem X I I ) ; h i s consequent
knowl edge and d e s i r e f o r d e a t h (Poem IV) and even a r ewor ki ng o f t h e
Lawr ent i an i d e a l of t h e compl et e Man i n whom t hought and a c t i o n a r e
i n e x t r i c a b l y mi ngl ed (poem X X I I ) . But , b a s i c a l l y , wi t h t h e l o s s of t h e
pe r s ona l mythology of t h e e a r l i e r p o e t r y , wi t h t h e d e s i r e t o r e a c h a
l a r g e r a udi e nc e and t h e r e s u l t a n t l u c i d i t y and cal mness of t o n e , t h e
Volume l a c k s t h a t s e ns e of pe r s ona l i nvol vement i n t h e mot i f of t h e ' Ques t . '
I n Poem V I I T , however, an ' Angel ' and a ' whi t e wa t e r f a l l ' s ugge s t t he
f i n a l goa l f o r t h e que s t i ng i ndi vi dua l 2nd h i n t a t t h e r eas ons f o r Auden' s
growi ng c e r t a i n t y i n t h e worl d ar ound him.
The Epi l ogue t o Look, St r a nge r ! i l l u s t r a t e s t he mood of n o s t a l g i a
whi ch pe r ne a t e s ttx volume as a whole and s ugge s t s r eas ons f o r Auden' s
l a c k of i nvol vement wi t h h i s immediate s o c i a l envi r onment . I n Poem XX); I
t he c i t y i s seen 2s an e xt e ns i on of Man' s n a t u r a l a c t i v i t i e s as a human
bei ng and a r e f l e c t i o n of h i s i n n a t e c or r upt i on. I t i s used by Man' s
f a l s e l e a d e r s t o c onc e nt r a t e rumours and l i e s i n one t i g h t s pot . Thus,
i n t h e c i t y , c or r upt i on i s a t i t s most obvi ous. And Man' s de s ol a t e
i s o l a t i o n i s owing t o t h e bani shment o r de a t h of Man' s t r u e Leader s:
Nansen/ Schwei t zer and t he n:
Ther e were Freud and Groddeck a t t h e i r candi d
s t u d i e s
O f t h e mind and body of man.
The poem a l s o c ont i nue s Auden' s b e l i e f i n t h e f unc t i on of t h e ar t i s t
wi t hi n s oc i e t y. He i s now t h e i n s t i g a t o r of Man' s ' ~ u e s t ' - not a
' c omf or t e r and a l i ar ' b u t one who pr obes wi t hi n Man' s memory d i s t u r b i n g
compl acency, and a c t i v a t i n g t h e neces s ar y d e s i r e f o r change. Thus:
Lawrence r e ve a l e d t h e s e ns a t i ons hi dden by shame,
The s e ns e of g u i l t w a s r ecor ded by Kafka,
Then t h e r e wa s Pr ous t on t h e s e l f - r e ga r d
but t o t h i s poi nt t h e r e ha s been f a i l u r e . p a r t l y t h e e s s e n t i a l
s t u p i d i t y of t h e Engl i s h peopl e, p a r t l y t h e unyi e l di ng cour s e of
e v o l u t i o n i s r e s pons i bl e f o r t h e c ont i nui ng ps ychi c d i s o r d e r s . But , i n
t h e f u t u r e , Auden l ooks t o t h e ar t i s t t o s e r ve as Man' s ps ychi c i d e a l ,
l e a d i n g him by s t r i c t anti hone s t endeavour on h i s ' Que s t ' t o di s c ove r
o r d e r and meaning i n h i s l i f e .
NOTES TO THE FIRST CHAPTER
1
Quot ed by Loui s A. Landa i n h i s i nt r oduc t i on t o Gu l l i v e r ' s Tr a ve l s ,
( Bost on, 1960) , p. v i i i .
L
W.H. Auden i nc l ude s Sigmund Fr eud on h i s t r i b u n a l of ' h e a l e r s ' i n
Poem X X I I of poems: He a l s o makes d i r e c t r e f e r e nc e t o t h e psycho-
a n a l y s t i n h i s e s s a y ' Psychol ogy and A r t Today' a nd, i n Anot her Time
( 1940) , acknowl edges h i s de bt t o Freud i n a p o e t i c t r i b u t e .
' Auden a l s o ment i ons D. H. Lawrence by name i n t h e same poem of Poems.
H i s i ndebt ednes s t o Lawrence i s b e t t e r s een i n t h e numerous i de a s
a da pt e d and used t hr oughout Auden' s e a r l y work, and r ecor ded i n p a r t
by Repl ogl e i n h i s e s s a y , ' So c i a l Phi l osophy i n Auden' s Ea r l y Poe t r y, '
Cr i t i c i s m, 11 ( F a l l , 1960) , 351-61.
Homer La ne ' s i nf l ue nc e on t h e poet i s r ecor ded by Chr i s t ophe r Isherwood
i n h i s a ut obi ogr a phi c a l nove l , Li ons and Shadows ( Nor f ol k, Conn., 1947) ,
p. 299-300.
Georg Gr oddeck' s Book of t h e I t seems t o have f ur ni s he d some i de a s f o r
t h e e a r l y Auden even i f t hos e i d e a s are used i r o n i c a l l y . I n L e t t e r t o
Lord Byron, t h i s ' i nde bt e dne s s ' i s par odi ed i n a t y p i c a l l y Audenesque
manner :
I c a n ' t t h i n k what my It had on i t s mind,
To g i v e me f l a t f e e t , a b i g behi nd. (p. 202)
Reuben Osborn i n h i s book, Marxism and Ps ychoanal ys i s (London, 1965)
e l u c i d a t e s Fr e ud' s a l l e g o r i a l concept i on of t h e
mind as a map di vi de d i n t o d i s t i n c t and s e p a r a t e t e r r i t o r i e s .
' Fr e u d ' s own concept i on of ps ychoanal ys i s was i t s e l f a l l e g o r i c a l , t h e
i n t e n s e pr obi ng of t h e psyche r e pr e s e nt e d by a j our ney t hr ough undul a t i ng
t e r r a i n .
The word i s a c t u a l l y us ed i n poem IV of poems. I n f a c t , i t c h a r a c t e r i z e s
a whole ge ne r a t i on of Audenesque f i g u r e s .
D.H. Lawrence, Fa nt a s i a of t h e Unconsci ous, p. 119.
lo I b i d . , p. 122.
I b i d . , p. 106.
l2 Li ons and Shadows, p.300.
l3 The Book of t h e It (London, 19501, pp. 100-101.
I bi d. , p. 67.
I b i d . , p.32.
Fa nt a s i a of t he Unconsci ous, p.119.
' Psychol ogy and A r t , ' 18.
Fa nt a s i a , p. 123.
I bi d. , p. 144.
I b i d . , p.145.
The Book of t he I t , p.23.
I bi d. , p. 16.
Joseph Warren Beach, The Making of t he Auden Canon (Mi nnesot a, 1957) ,
p. 118.
' Changes of At t i t ude and Rhet or i c i n Auden' s Poe t r y, ' Sout her n Review,
V I I ( l 9 4 l ) , 326-349.
For a more d e t a i l e d expl anat i on of t h i s poi nt , s e e J ul e s Repl ogl e' s
' Soc i a l Phi l osophy i n Auden' s Ear l y poet r y. '
The wi despread popul a r i t y of t h i s ' Te s t ' can be judged by Gavin Ewar t ' s
parody of i t i n h i s poem ' Audenesque f o r an I n i t i a t i o n , ' where he a s ks
of Soc i e t y i n ge ne r a l and t h e Li t e r a r y Est abl i shment of F.R. Leavi s i n
p a r t i c u l a r ;
Are t hey up t o t h e Fu l l F r u i t St andar d, would t hey pass t he
Spe l l i ng Te s t ?
Li ons and Shadows, pp. 207-8.
' Soc i a l phi l osophy , ' , 355.
See, i n conf i r mat i on, Geof f r ey Bul l ough' s Mi r r or of Minds: Changing
Ps ychol ogi cal Be l i e f s i n Engl' ish Poet r y. ( Tor ont o, 1962) , pp.234-242.
Ri char d Hoggart , Auden: An I nt r oduc t or y Essay, (London, 19511, p.131.
3 L
Bul l ough, Mi r r or of Minds, p.234.
34 The i n t e r p l a y of change and de a t h suggest a l s o t he i nf l uence of T.S. El i o t ,
p a r t i c u l a r l y ' The Journey of t he Magi.'
For a b r i e f st at ement of poe t i c i nf l ue nc e s on Auden, C, Day Lewis' A
Hope f o r Poet r y (London, 1934) i s s t i l l q u i t e us e f ul . I n p a r t i c u l ~ r ,
not e t h e f i r s t t hr e e c ha pt e r s .
35 Thi s quot at i on i s used by G.S. Fr a s e r , spokesman f o r t he Apocalypse
movement, i n h i s i nt r oduc t i on t o t h e whi t e horseman (London, 1942).
36 The r ecur r ence of t h i s image has been t r a c e d by Repl ogl e i n h i s e s s a y
' The Gang Myth.'
37 Fa nt a s i a , p.98.
38 I b i d . , p.99.
39 Delmore Shwart z, ' The Two Audens ,' Kenyon Review
40 I n t h i s and a l l subsequent c ha pt e r s , a l l quot a t i ons a r e t aken from t he
f i r s t e d i t i o n of The Or a t or s , publ i shed i n London, 1932.
41
Hoggar t , Auden, pp. 13, 17.
42 Eve r e t t , Auden, p.27.
43 I n h i s i nt r oduc t i on t o t h e Col l e c t e d poe t r y, publ i shed i n New York i n
1945.
44 ~ u d e n ' s own i nt r oduc t or y st at ement t o t h e l at est and r e vi s e d e d i t i o n of
The Or a t or s , (London, 1966).
45 J.G. Bl a i r , The Poe t i c A r t of W.H. Auden, p.29.
46 St ephen Spender , ' I t Began A t Oxford, ' New York Times Review, (March 13,
1955) , !4-5.
47 The London Mercury, XXVI (May 1932) , 171.
48 Beach, The Auden Canon, p.781
49 lair, The Poe t i c A r t , p.29.
5 0
' The Gang Myt h, ' 490.
51 Beach, p. 13.
5 2
See, i n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e f o u r t h ode of Book 111 of The Or a t or s .
53 Ev e r e t t , p.29.
54 D. A. Tr a v e r s i , ' ~ a r x i s m and Engl i s h poe t r y, ' Ar ena, l ( 0 c t . Dec. 1937) )
199.
55 The s p e c i a l s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h i s remark f o r zhe poe t s of t h e ' t h i r t i e s
i s d e a l t wi t h by C. Day Lewis i n . A- Hope Tor poe t r y, i n p a r t i c u l a r ,
Cha pt e r 3.
56 Lehmann, p.32.
57 Beach, pp. 18-20.
59 Quot ed by Beach, p. 17.
60 ' ~ e w ~ i g h t On he Or a t o r s , ' PYLA, LXXXII ( Oct . , 1967) ) 455-464.
Monroe K. Spe a r s , ' La t e Auden: S a t i r i s t as Luna t i c Cl er gyman, ' se\ ranee
Review, ( Wi nt er 1951) ) 50-74.
62 One of
5 poems publ i s hed i n New Ver s e, 5( Oct ober , 19331, 14-17.
63 Beach, p. 17.
6 4
Tr a v e r s i , ' ~ a r x i s m and Engl i s h Poe t r y, ' 208.
66 Repl ogl e, ' The Gang Myth, ' 490.
67 Quot ed by J u l i a n Symons i n ' O f C r i s i s and Dismay:
A St udy of Wr i t i ng
i n t h e ' T h i r t i e s , ' Focus, vol . I , 1945, 101.
68
I n p a r t i c u l a r , ' The Gang ~ y t h . '
6 9
Fa n t a s i a of t h e Unconsci ous, p.103.
The 'Infrrzducticmk CQ T ~ Q In'ei.mte Journals of C b ~ l u a X3audabiw,
trmas. ChrSstophex Xwhemmrd tBoston, 19571, XX. First pubtishad in
Chapt er TWO
The Pl ays : The Ques t Motif i n pa i d on Bot h Si de s ;
The Dance of Deat h; The Dog beneat h t h e Ski n;
The Ascent of F6 and On t h e Fr ont i e r .
I n h i s ' Ci l i l de Koland To The Dark Tower Came' , Rober t Browning
r. akes u s e of t h e myth of t h e ' Qu e s t . ' The s e a r c h i n g i n d i v i d u a l ,
pr csumabi y ~ ! I C ' s t r o n g man' of ' p r o s p i c e , ' remembers 'The Band' - t h a t
gr oup of f r i e n d s who ' t o t h e Dark Tower ' s s e a r c h a ddr e s s e d/ The i r s t e p s , '
a n d , from t h i s memory, he g a i n s conf i dence. Al t hough mi ndf ul of t h e i r
d e s p e r a t e e nds , t h e s e a r c h i ~ g i n d i v i d u a l cannot concei ve of a bi essi ah
coming f r om o u t s i d e t h e i n t i ma t e e nvi r ons o f t h i s c l i q u e . Gi l e s and
Cu t h b e r t nay have f a i l e d i n t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e ' Qu e s t s ' b u t t h e community
beyond a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a f a mi l i a r moribund l ands cape, s c a r r e d and
r avaged :
Xo! penur y, i n e r t n e s s and gr i mace,
I n some s c r a nge s o r t , were t h e l a n d ' s por t i on.
Onl y t h e i n d i v i d u a l s i n s i d e ' The and' a r e c a pa bl e of s avi ng t hems el ves
and s e r v i n g a s exempl ar s t o t h e r e s t of mankind.
Br owni ng' s ' Band' s u g g e s t s a r emar kabl e p a r a l l e l t o ~ u d e n ' s Oxford
compani ons, somet i mes c a l l e d ' The Gang.' Auden and Isherwood were l c c d c r s
i n t h i s gr oup of wr i t e r s who i nc l ude d C. Day Lewi s, Rex Warner and Edward
Upward. Of t h e i n d i v i d u a l volumes which r e s u l t e d from t h i s c l o s e
f r i e n d s h i p , a l l were s t r u c t u r e d by t h e myth of t h e ' Qu e s t . ' Rex wa r ne r ' s
The Wild Goose Chase, Edward Upward' s Jour ney To The Bor der and Lewi s'
of t hc c a s t e and de di c z t e d t i l c i r voluiLlcs t o one a not he r .
~ u d e n ' s col l abor a' i i on with Chr i s t ophe r Isherwood began i n t h e
i,.& , i Li i mcy . of a va c a t i on t oge t he r on t h e I s l e of wi ght i n t h e summer of
1926, a f t e r a chancc mect i ng l at e in 1925 d u r i n g Auden's first year ar
Oxford :
O n c h i s i s l a n d , amid p r i v ~ t c j okes and
?, or sepl ay, Aucien s nd Isherwood f as hi oned
a p r i v a t e rriyth of t h e i r own.:
I n 1928, wi t h t h e publ i c a t i on of h i s f i r s t novel ~ l l t h e Cons pi r a t or s ,
I sher wood gl ve s t e n t a t i v e shape co t h i s myt hi cal worl d and employs t h e
i na ge of t h e ' Qu e s t : '
The p a i n t e r ha s d e f i e d h i s f a mi l y and
r un away from a n o f f i c e j ob i n t h e c i t y .
2
s i g n i f i c a n t l y , t h e work ends i n f a i l u r e as t h e p a i n t e r wi t hdr aws from a
p a i n f u l i s o l a t i o n i n t o t h e comf or t abl e Oedi pal f i g u r e . I n t h e same ye a r
Auden had publ i s hed, on St ephen s p e n d e r ' s hand- s et p r e s s , a volume of
t went y- ei ght poems. s i n e of t h e poems were r e p r i n t e d i n poems ( 1930) ,
and of t h e s e , f o u r were r e t a i n e d f o r t h e second e d i t i o n i n 1933. AS I
have a l r e a dy shown, t h i s l a t t e r volume i s u n i f i e d by t h e myth of t h e
' ~ u e s t . ' Obvi ousl y, t h e r e f o r e , f o r t h e i r l a t e r t h e a t r i c a l c o l l a b o r a t i o n ,
b o t h men drew wi del y upon & common s t oc k of a l l u s i o n s and a profound
conf i dence i n t h e image of t h e ' Qu e s t ' t o s t r u c t u r e them.
I n 1928-29, Auden v i s i t e d Be r l i n and came t o admi r e t h e German pl ay-
wr i ght Be r t o l t Br echt whose i nf l ue nc e I s h a l l di s c us s l a t e r . About t h e
same c i n e , I sher wood, t o o , v i s i t e d Be r l i n and h i s exper i ences t h e r e formed
t h e b a s i s f o r h i s Be r l i n S t o r i e s . H e was a l s o t o become an admi r er of
Br echt a nd, wi t h D. Vesey, t r a n s l a t e d Br e c ht ' s ~ r e i ~ r o s c h e n r o ma n .
I n t h i s way, t h e c o l l a b o r a t i o n was based n o t onl y on a mut ual l y
a c c e p t a b l e s t r u c t u r e b u t a l s o on s i mi l a r c onc e pt i ons of t h e a t r i c a l
p r e s e n t a t i o n .
I t sccrns l o g i c a l t o assume t h a t wh i l s t Auden performed e l oque nt
p o e t i c s o l o s , i t was I sher wood who was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r ma i nt a i ni ng t h e
c o n t i n u i t y of t h e pl ay. A s l a t e a s 1937, ~s he' r wood s a i d :
when we c o l l a b o r a t e , I have t o keep
a s hz r ? cye on him - o r down f l o p
t h e c x r a c t e r s on t h e i r knees. . .:
anot l - s r cons c a n t danger i s t h a t o f
c h o r a l i n t e r r c p t i o n s by a nge l - voi c e s .
I f Auden had h i s way, he would t u r n
ever y pl a y i n t o a c r o s s between gr and
ope r a and h i g h nas s . 4
. Af t er e a c h of t h ? t h r e e p i a y s wa s compl et ed, Ruper t Doone a t t e mpt e d t h e
s t a g e v e r s i o n f o r pr oduct i on i n t h e Group Th e a t r e and had much pr uni ng
and r e- s hapi ng t o do b e f o r e t h e f i n a l copy. He, i ndeed, s ugges t ed t h e
t i t l e f o r The Dog Beneat h The Ski n. ~ n d i t was t h e s t a g e v e r s i o n , i n
e a c h c a s e , t h a t was pc bl i s he d by ~ a b e r 6 Faber .
I n h i s ~ i b l i o g r a p h y , B. C. Bi oomf i el d r e c o r d s a cor r espondence about
t h e o r i g i n s o f t h z t pl ay and, i n s o doi ng, p r e s e n t s a v i v i d p i c t u r e o f
t h e i r wor ki ng ar r angement :
Isnerwood t e l l s me t h a t e a r l y i n
1935 Auden s e n t him t h e f u l l y r e v i s e d
v e r s i o n of a pl ay t i t l e d The Chase,
which was announced f o r p u b l i c a t i o n by
Faber and Fa be r on 23. >:arch 1935. He,
I sher wood, s ugges t ed some r e v i s i o n s and
i npr over nent s, and i n t h i s way t he y
' d r i f t e d inLo G c o l l a b o r a t i o n . ' When
Auden v i s i Led Copenhagen, where Isherwood
was s t a y i n g , L f i n &; d r a f t was evol ved.
Isherwood s ugges t ed t h a t t h e c o l l a b o r a t i o n
a r o s e be cad^^ L-. L w a s , a t t h a t t i me, s t i l l
a c t i n g a s c e ns dr t o much of Auden' s
poet r y. ?:,aL-.~~?ii l e , Ruper t Doone had g o t
a co?y.. ..kc w a s who gave t h e pl ay i t s
pr es enz L- t ; e. . . I sher wood s a y s most of t h e
p i a y 1s uy A,dene5
IC 1932, 1.1 c o i l a b o r a ~ i o n wi t h Rupcr t Doonc and numerous f r i e n d s ,
~ u d e n f ounded t h e Group The a t r e 6 i n London.
~ h c heat re had:
a e s t h e t i c ideas, i t had a s o c i a l a t t i t u d e ;
t h e f i r s t s ~ r i n g i n g l a r g e l y from Doone,
t he second from ~ u d e n . ~
s t r o n g l y i nf l uc nc e d by Be r t h o i t Br echt i n bot h form and d i r e c t i o n , t h e
a r e t h e l o g i c a l c o r o l l a r y t o the p o e t ' s consuming i n t e r e s t i n t h e ' ~ u e s t '
n o t i f . I t WAS n a t u r a l f o r a p e t whose concept i on of t h e poem w a s a s a
s o c i a l i ns t r umznt t o t e a c h, e xhor t and warn Mankind, t h a t he would
e v e n t u a l l y t u r n t o t ha t h e a t r e and t o t h e more obvi ous d i d a c t i c
p o s s i b i l i t i e s of t h e t h e a t r e .
The b e l i e f i n pa r a bl e a r t t h a t Auden o u t l i n e d i n ' Psychol ogy and A r t
TO-Day' , suggescs s t r i k i n g pax-cillels t o Br e c h t ' s t heor y of t h e e p i c
t h e a t r e . yhz iol:owLng t a b l e i l l u s t r a t e s t h e d i f f e r e n c e t h e German
playwrigh: i d s c r i b e d between t h e convent i onal ' ~ r a ma t i c Th e a t r e , ' and h i s
TIIS Dr a nz t l c The a t r e The Epi c The a t r e
?-.
,.-.c s t a g s e a bodi e s a secpence
of e ve nt s
i r , vol ves t h e s p e c t a t o r Ln an
a c t i o n , and
u s e s u s h i s ener gy, h i s w i l l t o
~ c t i o n
a l l ows h i m f e e l i n g s
communicates e xpe r i e nc e s
t h e s ? e c t a t o r i s br ought i n t o
a n ~ c t i o n
i s p l i e d wi t h s ugges t i on
s e n s a t i o n s a r e pr es ent ed
m a i s gi ve n as a known
q u a n t i t y
t e n s e i n t e r e s t i n t h e outcome
one scene e x i s t s f o r a not he r
l i n e a r c our s e of e ve nt s
n a t u r a non f a c i t s a l t u s
t h e wor l d i s what i t i s
w h a t nan shoul d
h i s i n s t i n c t s
. .
t hought det er mi nes re;,;;y
The s t a g e n a r r a t e s t h e sequence
makes him a n obs e r ve r
but
awakes h i s ener gy
demands de c i s i ons
communicates pi e c e s of knowledge
i s pl a c e d i n f r o n t of a n argument
wi t h ar gument s
t i l l t he y become i n s i g h t s
man a n o b j e c t of i n v e s t i g a t i o n
t e n s e i n t e r e s t i n what happens
each scene e x i s t s f o r i t s e l f
cur ved cour s e of e ve nt s
f a c i t s a l t u s
t h e worl d i s what i t i s becoming
what man must
h i s r e a s ons
i:
s o c i a l r e a l i t y det er mi nes t hought . -
Such a t a b l e becomes p a r t i c u l a r l y r e l e va nt t o ~ u d e n ' s d i d a c t i c purpose
xhc?n i t i s remembered t h a t t h e poet c o n c e i v e d , r e a l i t y as a s o c i a l
cons ci ence t hr ough which i t was pos s i bl e t o make a c t i o n ur ge nt and i t s
n a t u r e c l e a r , 9 t o mankind. It i s p a r t i c u l a r l y s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t Rupert
Doone had s ugges t ed c ha t i t was t h e pur pose of t h e The a t r e t o d e p i c t ' a
l i f e of a c t i o n and t h e s e ns e . ' l O ~ ~ a t c h i n g t h e dr amat i c p o r t r a y a l , t h e
a udi e nc e comes t o t e r a s i n t e l l e c t u a l l y wi t h t h e probl ems f a c i n g it. I t s
e n o t i o n a l a l i e n a t i o n from t h e t i r a mt i c a c t i v i t y r e j e c t s any d i s s i p a t i o n
o f t h a t i n n e r d i s c i p l i n e and o b j e c t i v i t y s o e s s e n t i a l i n conquer i ng such
d i f f i c u l t i e s . Consequent l y, t h e pl a ys emphasi ze:
t h e emot i onal d i s t a n c e s e t between t h e a u t h o r
and h i s s u b j e c t - m~ t t e r , between t h e s p e c t a t o r
and t h e s t o r y , and even ( i f pos s i bl e ) between
t h e a c t o r and t h e c h a r a c t e r he i mper sonat es.
The i n t e n t i o n i s t o keep t h e s p e c t a t o r from
us i ng up a l l h i s e a o t i o n a l f o r c e t hr ough h i s
p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e drama, and t o br i ng him
r a t h e r , a s a t hi nki ng and a c t i n g bei ng, t o
i n t e ? l e c t u a l c onc l us i ons t h a t may form a b a s i s
f o r a c t i o n . l1
The t he or y, i n t h i s way, s s s e r t s bol dl y a l i t h a t ~ u d e n had been obs c ur e l y
s hoa t i ng f o r t h e bewi l der ed r e c de r of h i s poet r y. Hoggart c a l l s t h e
pl a ys ' e x t e r n a l : '
t he y a r e pur pos i ve; :hey t hr ow t h e i r beams
out war d, and i n v i t e a c t i o n . The s p e c t a t o r
i s n o t r e qui r e d t o submi t hi ms el f
i ma gi na t i ve l y t o t h e s t o r y , nor t o i d e n t i f y
h h s e l f e x t e r n a l l y wi t h t h e c h a r a c t e r s .
The emot i ons may be t ouched, but t h e mind
shoul d remain i n c o n t r o l , s t i mul a t e d,
commenting, j udgi ng, c r i t i c i s i n g , deci di ng. 12
~ u d e n ' s que s t i ng i n d i v i d u a l , a ddr e s s e d i n t h e t h e a t r e , i s r e qui r e d t o
unde r s t a nd compl et el y t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l probl ems he i s f a c i ng. Once
under s t ood t he y form t h e b a s i s of f u t u r e a c t i v i t y in' t h e que s t . ' The
pl a ys t hemsel ves t hus a r e f a b l e s , modern mor a i i t y pl a ys ; t hey a r e
i n t e n d e d t o appci al t o t h e mi nds and n o t tlhc emot i ons of t h e a u d i e n c e ,
t o be e d u c a t i o n a l and p o l i t i c a l l y d i d a c t i c . ' 1 3
l i ude n' s pr e oc c upa t i on wi t h obs c ur e symbol i sm, j a gge dl y ai nbi guous
i n t e r v e n t i o n s , mel odr ani at i c e n t r a n c e s , b a l l e t s equences and a l l t h e
a c c o u t r e me n t s o f a n e a g e r mi nd, i s e x p l a i n e d by h i s &t t i t u d c t owar ds t h e
' p e s t .' Thr ough t h i s s eemi ngl y haphazar d d e t a i l and l o o s e l y const r uct zed
p l o t , h e a s k s t h e a u d i e n c e t o s e a r c h f o r meani ng. The c ha r a de becomes
a mi cr ocosm of t h e i r l i v e s , i n whi ch t h e i r own i n t e l l e c t u a l a c t i v i t y
as s umes r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e i r s a l v a t i o n . W e a r e now a b l e t o under -
s t a n d Auden' s u s e of t h e c ha r a de whi ch s u g g e s t s t h a t ' t h e p i e c e i s n o t t o
b e r e a d as a p l a y , t h a t i t w i l l have hi dde n meani ngs , and t h a t i t i s
i n t e n d e d t o be e n t e r t a i n i n g . ' l 4 I n s p e a k i n g o f p a i d on Bot h s i d e s ,
)Ionroe E;. Sp e a r s s a y s :
The p i e c e i s i nde e d on one l e v e l a q u c s s i n g
game i n whi ch t a b l e a u x and a c t i o n s r e p r e s e n t ,
n o t wor ds , as i n most c h a r a d e s , b u t i d e a s ;
and i n whi ch t h e a p p e a l t o t h e i n t e r e s t and
c h a l l e n g e of r i d d l e s i s c o n s t a n t . l 5
And i n t h e s e r i d d l e s l i e t h e a ns we r s t o Man' s c o n s t a n t q u e s t i o n i n g .
At one p r a c t i c a l l e v e l , Auden' s d r a ma t i c q u e s t r e s u l t e d i n f a i l u r e .
I n t e n d e d f o r ' a wi de and y o u t h f u l a u d i e n c e as e x h o r t a t i o n and as pr opaganda,
i t pl a ye d t o t h e i n t e r e s t s of t h e v e r y s e c t i o n of t h e communi t y it was
a t t a c k i n g . As J u l i a n Symons s a y s , ' The Gr oup Theat r e. . . was a g e s t u r e
rnadc by mi d d l e - c l a s s r a d i c a l s t o a mi d d l e - c l a s s l i b e r a l a udi e nc e . ' I 6
pa i d On Bot h Si d e s , f i r s t publ i s hed i n Cr i t e r i o n of J anuar y, 1930,
was i nc l ude d i n bot h t h e 1930 and 1933 e d i t i o n s of poems. I n i t s
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of a hope l e s s l y doomed c u l t u r e , t h e l i t e r a r y char ade
p r o j e c t s t hos e t hemes, i d e a s and images which s o permeat e t h e work of
w. H. Auden t hr oughout t h e ' Th i r t i e s . I n Poems, t h e el ement s of c o n f l i c t
were drawn wi t hi n Man' s di s e a s e d psyche; i n pa i d On Bot h Si de s , t h e
el ement s a r e pl aced i n a c u l t u r a l l andscape i n t h e form of a n e ndl e s s
f e ud between two e qua l l y i r r edeemabl e gr oups. everth he less, poet r y and
pl ay depend upon t he mot i f of t h e ' Qu e s t ' f o r t h e i r t hemat i c u n i t y and
demons t r at e t h e b a s i c ~ u d e n e s q u e pr emi ss t h a t ' i f Man i s t o be he a l t hy
h e must br eak away from t h e decadent l i f e i n which he f i n d s h i ms e l f . ' l 7
The r i c h i mpl i c a t i ons of such an exodus from t h e ' o l d syst ems' ( p. 13) ,
however, remai n s k e t c h i l y drawn, f o r Auden, l i k e h i s uns uc c e s s f ul
a p p l i c a n t s f o r t h e ' Qu e s t , ' c onc e nt r a t e s h i s p o e t i c powers on b i t t e r
s t a t e me nt s of s o c i a l and pe r s ona l decadence. ~ s s e n t i a l l y , t he image of
t h e ' ~ u e s t ' s ugge s t s ~ u d e n ' s s e a r c h f o r t h e panacea t o Plan' s decay and
a l l ows u s t o vi ew t h e char ade as somet hi ng more t ha n ' a t r a g i c s t o r y of
a bor de r f eud between r i v a l houses whose mal es, i n s p i r e d by t h e i r
ve nge f ul mot her s, k i l l each o t h e r o f f from ge ne r a t i on t o ge ne r a t i on. ' l8
The char ade opens i n ~ e a t h , d e s p i t e t h e b i r t h of a son t o Joan Kower.
For wh i l s t a baby shoul d pr omi se an expansi on of t he o l d s o c i a l o r d e r , he
hc r e mer el y cmphasi zcs t h e i n a b i l i t y of new ge ne r a t i ons t o r espond t o
t h e c ha l l e nge of a changi ng wor l d. I n i t s pr emat ur e d e l i v e r y , t h e c h i l d
i s unpr epar ed f o r t h e v i o l e n t war he must wage a g a i n s t t h e sl ow s t a i n of
poi sonous conf or mi t y s pr e a di ng wi t hi n s oc i e t y. A maj or cause of t h i s
dc f e nc e l e s s ne s s i s t h e pi ot her who, a s t h e pl ay opens, i s a l r e s d y aware of
t h e f r i g h t e n i n g power s he wi e l ds over h e r son. She knows: ' T h e r e ' l l be
some c r yi ng o u t when h e ' s comel t her e. ' ( p. 10) I n s o degener at e a
s o c i a l syst em, however, such oe di pa l r e s t r a i n t i s but one s t r a i n of
b a c i l l u s i n t h e di s e a s e d and dyi ng end of a worn t r a d i t i o n :
Our f a t h e r s shout ed once. They t a ught u s w a r ,
To scamper a f t e r d a r l i n g s , t o cl i mb h i l l s ,
To emi gr at e from weakness. . . ( p. 16)
Pe r ve r s i ons of a n c e s t r a l l ove embr oi l t h e c h a r a c t e r s i n a s t a t e of
pe r pe t ua l c o n f l i c t . The p o e t ' s e xhor t a t i on t o t h e i ndi vi dua l t o f l e e
h i s envi r onment i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n ~ i c k , t h e pr ot ot ype f o r a l l que s t i ng
he r oe s i n Auden' s work. De s pi t e h i s c e r t a i n knowledge of s o c i e t y ' s
d e p r a v i t y , he admi t s h i s d i f f i c u l t y i n l e a vi ng:
I have t hought i t a l l ove r and I t hi nk
i t i s t h e b e s t t h i n g t o do. ~y cous i n
wr i t e s t h a t t h e r anch i s a t hor oughl y
good pr opos i t i on. I don' t know how I
s h a l l l i k e t h e c ol oni e s but I f e e l I
must g e t away from her e. Ther e i s not
room enough. . . but t h e a c t u a l moving i s
unpl eas ant . ( p. 10)
I n a c u l t u r e s c hi s ma t i z e d by p e t t y c o n f l i c t , c l a nde s t i ne p l o t t i n g and
supr emel y amor al machi nat i ons , t h e theme of t h e char ade devel ops. Thi s
n a r r a t i v e must hol d t oge t he r t h e i mpor t ant c hor a l comment ari es and t h e
c h a o t i c c e n t r e t o t h e pl ay which a na l yz e s symptom and c ur e f o r s o c i a l
i l l n e s s . The p i v o t a l i n c i d e n t i s t h e c a pt ur e of a spy by Nower' s men,
f ol l owi ng which ~ o h n Nower exami nes t h e f e e l i n g s of g u i l t he ha s t o t h a t
p o i n t r e pr e s s e d wi t hi n hi ms e l f . I n a dr eam- vi si on, John, i n t h e i r o n i c
r o l e of pr os e c ut or , s t a t e s t h e v i t a l i s s ue :
Yes I know we have and a r e making
t e r r i f i c s a c r i f i c e s , but we cannot
g i v e i n. We cannot be t r a y t h e dead. . .
N O , we must f i g h t t o t he f i n i s h . ( p. 18)
The s o l u t i o n ~ o h n Nower o u t l i n e s when he pr oduces h i s r e vol ve r i s no
answer t o t h e probl ems c onf r ont i ng t h e s py, t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of t h e
doomed s o c i e t y . Immedi at e de a t h si mpl y g r a t i f i e s t h e pe r s ua s i ve deat h-
wi s h nur t ur e d by t h e mother-imago.
The t r i a l - s c e n e pr oposes t h a t Man a t t a i n whol eness t hr ough new and
v i t a l r es pons es t o t h e demanding pr e s s ur e s of e vol uf i ona r y l i f e - f o r c e .
or memory i s de a t h' a c c e nt ua t e s t h e danger s of mai nt ai ni ng t h e s t a t u s
quo. The means t o s a l v a t i o n i s:
by t a ki ng l e a ve ,
p a r t i n g i n a nge r and gl a d t o go
Where we a r e s t i l l unwelcome. ( p. 19)
I n t h i s wa y, ~ude n makes us e of t h e mot i f of t h e ' Qu e s t . ' The movement
b a s i c t o t h e mot i f p a r a l l e l s t h e p o e t ' s b e l i e f i n psychi c r e ge ne r a t i on
a s an's onl y c ur e wi t hi n socie' cy. A s i n poems, such a reawakeni ng can
onl y r e s u l t from t h e power of Love, s t i mul a t e d i n t o a c t i v i t y . The Love
i s n o t t h e narrow and c onf i ni ng f o r c e which pr e s e nt l y s e r ve s t o r e s t r i c t
t h e i n d i v i d u a l t o poi nt s of i s o l a t i o n ' ... t o accept / An i s l a n d gover nor -
s h i p , back t o e s t a t e s / Expl or e d as c h i l d ....' ( p. 23) The t r u e power of
Love i s expans i ve enough t o promote freedom f o r Man i n a l l h i s s o c i a l
r e l a t i o n s h i p s .
The s e ns e of hope l e s s ne s s which per vades t he ver y ar gument s of t he
t r i al s cene i s al l evi at ed by t h e humane f i g u r e of ath her ~ h r i s t ma s . TO
t h e p r i s o n e r , r e pr e s s e d and pe r ve r t e d i n t h e e x e r c i s e of h i s l ove , he s ays :
Leave him a l one . Thi s f e l l ow i s ver y ver y i l l
But he w i l l g e t wel l . ( p. 23)
Such a gl i mni eri ng of hope i n a dar keni ng c u l t u r e i s i mmedi at el y
e x t i n g u i s h e d by t h e r e p l y of Man-warnan which r e involces t h e f or mer d e s p a i r .
Th i s c h a r a c t e r , ' i n t h e g u i s e of t h e Man-Woman a s a p r i s o n e r of w a r behi nd
bar bed wi r e , i n t h e snow, ' r e p r e s e n t s t h e s uppr es s ed l i f e - f o r c e wi t h i n
t h e i n d i v i d u a l . ~ l t h o u g h it p o i n t s t o plan' s p o t e n t i a l f o r change, i t
cmphasi zes t h e r e j e c t i o n of a c t i v i t y by Man who p r e f e r s t h e e s t a b l i s h e d
p a t t e r n s of s o c i a l behavi our :
Love was n o t l ove f o r you b u t e p i s o d e s ,
~ r a f f i c i n memoirs, vi ews from d i f f e r e n t s i d e s ;
~ o t h i n g was any u s e ; t h e r e f o r e I went
Hear i ng you c a l l f o r what you d i d n o t want.
I l a y wi t h you; you made t h a t a n excus e
For pl a yi ng wi t h y o u r s e l f , b u t homesi ck because
Your mot her t o l d you t h a t ' s what f l o we r s d i d
And t hought you l i v e d s i n c e you were bor ed, n o t
de a d,
And coul d n o t s t o p . ( p. 24)
Convent i onal t r e a t me n t f o r Man i s r i d i c u l e d by t h e f i g u r e of t h e Doct or
who p o i n t s t o t h e f o l l y of a medi cal c ur e f o r s o f r u s t r a t e d an i n d i v i d u a l .
I n Poems, Lawrence, Fr eud and Lane w i l l be c a l l e d upon t o per f or m a
ps yc hol ogi c a l exami nat i on. A 1 1 t h e Doct or can di a gnos e i s ' Te nni s el bow,
Gr aves ' Di s e a s e , ~ e r b y s h i r e neck and Housemai d' s knees . ' ( p. 25) Never t he-
l e s s , he shows t h e way t o f u t u r e c u r e s by d i s c o v e r i n g t h a t t h e spy i s
s u f f e r i n g from a domi nat i ng i n t e l l e c t whi ch ha s r e p r e s s e d h i s i n s t i n c t u a l
d r i v e s and k i l l e d t h e power of Love wi t h i n him:
Ur n, ye s . Very i n t e r e s t i n g . The cons ci ous
b r a i n a ppe a r s normal e xc e pt under emot i on.
Fancy it. The De vi l c o u l d n ' t do t h a t . Th i s
advances and r e t r e a t s under c o n t r o l and poi s ons
e ve r yt hi ng round it. My d i a g n o s i s i s :
Adamant w i l l , c o o l b r a i n and l aughi ng s p i r i t . ( p. 25- 26)
The a r e a of concer n wi t h i n ?. l an, i s n o t i n t h e body b u t i n deepl y wi t hdrawn
t e r r i t o r i e s of t h e psyche.
Auden f o c u s e s h i s concer n f o r Modern Man on t h e c h a r a c t e r o f John.
I n him, t h e poet s e e s t h e e s s e n t i a l s t r e n g t h needed by a que s t i ng her o
and t h e i n e v i t a b l e f l a ws which deny him s uc c e s s . wi t hi n t h e c ont e xt of
t h e char ade, ~ o h n ' s c ont i nua l s e a r c h f o r a s o l u t i o n t o t h e s t a t e of
pe r pe t ua l c o n f l i c t i n t h e worl d ar ound him i s a c ons t r uc t i ve el ement .
Thi s el ement , however, i s doomed t o f a i l u r e , i n a worl d which, i r o n i c n i l y ,
i s n o t pr epar ed f o r a Redeemer. ~ o h n ' s l ove r emai ns t he i ns t r ument by
which he may a c hi e ve s a l v a t i o n , b u t s u c h . a f o r c e i s warped by t h e ~ o t h e r -
f i x a t i o n :
But l ove , s e n t e a s t f o r peace
From t unne l s under t hos e
Bur s t s now t o pas s
On t r e s t l e s ove r meaner q u a r t e r s
A noi s e and f l a s h i n g g l a s s . ( p. 28)
~t t h i s i n d i v i d u a l t r a ge dy, ' one i s l e f t wi t h a power f ul s e ns e of man' s
u n a l t e r a b l e mi ser y and f a t e . '19 But , t h e c hor us e s h e l p t o make J ohn' s
t r a ge dy an emblem of a l l t h a t i s wr et ched and i r r edeemabl e i n t h e human
s i t u a t i o n :
You have t a s t e d good and what i s i t ? For you,
Si c k on t h e gr een p l a i n , heal ed i n t h e t undr a , s h a l l
Tur n westward back from your a l one s uc c e s s ,
Under a dwi ndl i ng Al p t o s e e your f r i e n d s
Cut down t h e wheat . ( p. 34)
Repl ogl e s t a t e s t h e b a s i c problem c onf r ont i ng Mankind: ' BY c l i n g i n g t o
a t r a d i t i o n now outmoded, t o h a b i t s now t h e caus e of degener acy, t h e
s o c i e t y dooms i t s e l f . ' 2 0
The s uppr es s i on of t h e ' Qu e s t ' i n a l l but i t s most t e n t a t i v e form
i n Di c k' s emi gr at i on and i t s d e l i n e a t i o n of f a i l u r e f o r John Nower i s t h e
r e s u l t of a da r kl y p e s s i mi s t i c vi ew of t h e cont emporary s i t u a t i o n . AS
Monroe K. Spear s s a ys of pa i d On Bot h s i d e s :
What i s r e s pons i bl e f o r t h e
t r agedy i s and i s n o t j u s t a
c o r r u p t s o c i e t y o r mi s t akes i n
t h e r a i s i n g o f c h i l d r e n ; it i s
a l s o t h e unchangeabl e human c o n d i t i ~ n . ~ ~
I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o compare t h i s f or mul a f o r a ' Qu e s t ' wi t h t h e one
i mpl i ed by t h e f i r s t poem of accompanying Poems. I n Pai d On Bot h Si d e s ,
t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s p a t h t o ps yc hi c r e b i r t h i s away from
t h e s t r i c t u r e s of h i s d i s e a s e d s o c i e t y - ' t o e mi gr a t e from weakness.'
I n ' w i l l you t u r n a deaf e a r , ' t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s ps ychi c i d e a l warns him
of t h e t e mp t a t i o n s of a syst em wi t h i n whose bounds h e w i l l be compel l ed
t o work s u b v e r s i v e l y , l i k e t h e spy o f t h e char ade. what i s s ugges t ed
by two such a n t i t h e t i c a l met hods of d e l i n e a t i n g t h e ' Qu e s t ' i s a t o t a l
r e n u n c i a t i o n of s o c i e t y i n Pa i d On ~ 0 t h Si d e s , and a growi ng concer n f o r
i t s probl ems i n poems. I n t h e c h a r a d e , t h e ' ~ u e s t ' i s poor l y drawn and
b u t w a k l y s u g g e s t i v e of s u c c e s s i n t h e r e c u r r i n g images of Sp r i n g ,
s eas on of change. I n t h e poems, t h e demand f o r a Que s t i s decl ai med
f r om t h e g r e a t h e i g h t o f t h e p o e t ' s p o s i t i o n .
--. ,',L 9zcce of Dezch was f5-i-st 2roduced by the Group heatr re in its
season at xhe \<estminster heat re from October lst, 1935. In the
~rograr~zie acconpznying the perfo~ai~.nce, ' in a collection of aphorisms, ' 22
~uden stated certain of the dramatic beliefs he shared with Rupert Doone:
Drama began as the acL of a whole
community. Ideally there would be
no spectators. In practice every
member of the audience should feel
like an understudy.
Drama is essenLially an art of the
body. he basis of acting is acrobatics,
dancing, and all forms of physical skill.
- ikle L music hall, the Christmas pantomine,
and the country house charade are the
most living drama of today.23
Despite so confusing an analgam of technical forms, the charade is unified
by the motir of the '~uest. ' It is at once a 'sort of masque, or ballet-
recitation'24 and a 'revue a thbse, its style perhaps based on Eliot's
Sveeney Ag~nistes.'~~ Beach calls it 'a sort of modernistic musical show,
all song and dance and pantomine with occasional bits of comic dialogue.'
Later, however, he adds, 'It is symbolical and didactic.'26
Such criticai confusion results from ~uden's use of the charade to
create a ~rechtian alienation between play and audience, where, in the
confusion of song, dance and slapstick, the symbolism of the 'Quest' is
deliberately obscured. In consequence, the audience, like ~uden's
quesLing hero, must search for order and meaning amidst molten chaos.
As Auden understands :he incre&sing dangers facing Society, the charade
i n t h e i ~ s t pl ay of clic dec: , c~, On t he p r o n t i c r , t h e d i r e c t n e s s of t h e
' ~ a e s t ' s t r e a t me nt and t h e s t r e a g t h of i t s i nf or mi ng i de a s have produced
2 c l a r l ~ y i n s ha r p c o n t r ~ s t t o Lhe e ~ r i i e r obs c ur i t y.
Fundament al l y, The Dcznc? 05 :7cath exami nes and r e j e c t s va r i ous means
t o accom2l i sh t h e ' q u e s t ' s uc c e s s f ul l y. l dhi l s t pr obi ng common exampl es
of del uded )tan on Eal s e ' ~ u e s t s , ' t h e char ade s t r e s s e s t he need f o r each
i-A . . UivLdual t o assume pe r s ona l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r ps ychi c and s o c i a l
he a l t h. John i e h ~ a n n s uppor t s :his view:
The Dance of Deat h i s a not he r e s s a y on ~ u d e n ' s
f a v o u r i t e t heri e, t h a t bour geoi s s o c i e t y i s
dyi ng, because i t ha s t h e subconsci ous wi sh t o
de s t r oy i t s e l f . 2 7
~ h s AnnOUnCCr, from h i s f a mi l i a r p o s i t i o n of ~ u d e n e s q u e h e i g h t , makes t h i s
c l e a r a t t h e ver y begi nni ng of t h e pl ay:
We pr e s e nt t o you t h i s eveni ng a p i c t u r e of t h e
d e c l i n e of a c l a s s , of how i t s members dream of
a new l i f e , but s e c r e t l y d e s i r e t h e o l d , f o r
t h e r e i s de a t h i n s i d e them. We show you t h a t
de a t h as a dancer .
Snbsequent a c t i o n i n t h e ? l a y i nvol ve s t h e e f f o r t s of The ~ u d i e n c e t o seek
o u t t hi s ' d r e a a of a new l i f e ' a nd, by a c t i v a t i n g i t , c l e a ns e Man of h i s
i n h e r e n t l y dl s e a s e d s oul . The i mpor t ance of Lehrnann' s comment t h a t
' The Announcer . . . p e r s ua de s bot h t h e chor us and t h e audi ence t o f ol l ow him
on a n ext r emel y vague que s t f o r a n ' ~ n g l i s h ' r e v o l u ~ i o n ' 28 l i es i n i t s
s t a t e me nt of t h e s p e c i f i c r e l a c i o n s h i p of t h e dream t o Engl and, t h e deat h-
wi s hi ng s oc i e t y. Throughout t h e ' t h i r t i e s , Auden i s concer ned wi t h t h e
que s t i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e s o c i a l and ps yc hol ogi c a l problems of t h e
Engl i shman. I n The Dance of Deat h t h e emphasi s i s pr i ma r i l y on psychi c
pr obi ng as t h e neans t o i n n e r h e a l t h . ' YOU can r e f u s e / ~ h e i n v i t a t i o n / To
s e l f - e x a mi n ~ t i o n , ' but t h e consequences w i l l be a n i ndi vi dua l i n a
pe r pe t ua l st ; t e of chaos.
Co n f l i c t i n t h e pl ay c e n t r e s on t he b i t t e r s t r u g g l e between Li f e and
~ e a t h f o r c o n t r o l of ):an. The f o r c e s of L i f e i n t h e pl ay are s ymbol i cal l y
demonst r at ed 5y t h e i o~; ml l si ve movements and d e c i s i o n s of t he c a s t i n
i n s t i n c t i v e l y r e j e c t i n g Lhe masks of Deat h. The Dancer who r e p r e s e n t s
~; ; e death-wlsi;, p:evtilenL i n ;i,oderri s o c i e t y , i s s uppl e and s o ma l l e a bl e
of t h e v-, oi e c o~m~uni c y. 3 d ~ c i - &, seen a s ' The new l i f e , t h e t r u e l i f e /
- , ne 7 l i f e f o r you, ' i s r e s pons i bi c n o t onl y f o r t h e pe r ve r s i on of Man' s
n a t u r a l e ne r gi e s which would be b e t t e r s pe nt i n p u r s u i t of ps ychi c h e a l t h ,
b u t i t i s i n i t s e l f a f a l s e que s t . Through i t s pr omi ses of an i d e a l
f u t u r e , r e q u i r i n g l i t t l e e f f o r t a f t e r t h e i n i t i a l accept ance of t h e sl ow
i ne xor a bl e decay, Man s e e s i n m a t h a mi r r or wor l d of i d e a l pr opor t i ons
where he can f i n d t h a t which he wi shes t o f i n d :
vi t a l yomg man
Do what you can
7 o r our d u s t
We who a r e weak
Want a s pl e ndi d physi que
you must , you n b s t .
Do not f or s a ke u s , make u s , g i v e u s your word
AS s t r ong a s a hor s e a s qui ck as a b i r d .
y o u ' r e our i d c a l
~ a k e i t come r e a l
For us .
Vi t a 1 you;; tilac
go what YOL can
you 1xust.
Consequent l y, Deat h means and pr omi ses a n evas i on of s o c i a l and
ps yc hi c a i l me nt s . wd e n s t r e s s e s , i n h i s e xhor t a t i on t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l ,
a d i s c i p l i n e d d r i v e which w i i i e na bl e him t o f a c e t he s e probl ems and t o
pr obe s e c r e t s , hi dde n and ~ a n g e r o u s . Deat h b e t r a y s a l l t hos e who t r u s r
i n h i n , c r ude l y shown on s t a g e by t h e t h e f t of c l o t h e s , and Man cannot
r e ga r d t h i s c o n t e s t wi t h ~e a t l - . i n a nyt hi ng Like a f f e c t i o n a t e t er ms. I n
2oe;:ls anJ -,'1;e Or a t o r s , / , ui cni s qLlest i s concei ved of i n t er ms of a n armed
i ns ur gcnce a g ~ i a s t a decadent s o c i e t y pr ot e c t e d by an obdur at e army.
Thi s pr e s e nt embraci ng of ~ c a t h , t hr ough t h e l a c k of awar eness of i t s
t l l r e a t e ni ng n a t u r e , i s e n ~ h a s i z e d by t h e marchi ng song from t h e F i r s t
Korl d War. The i r ony masks sr. cxtreiiic s e r i ous ne s s :
They ar e e v e r s t e ppi ng onward
They a r e e a ~ c r w;th t h e hope of yout h.
-.P , . ~ y ncvcr Tear :he f oe
3.LL a g a l l a n t blow
30r ~ o d ~ n d t h e caus e of t r u t h .
Thi s c a r i c a t u r e of t h e que s t i ng her o i s i n s t a r k c o n t r a s t t o t h e
b l i n d accept ance of Deat h by t h e c a s t . Even when s eeki ng a means t o
end t h e i r h s i c i l l n e s s , t h y choose t hos e f or ms which poi nt t o a
symbol i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e deat h- wi sh wi t hi n them. Thus, havi ng
deci ded t h a t ' The Engl i s h ~ e v o l u t i o n / l s t h e onl y s o l u t i o n , ' t he y a r e
r e s t r a i n e d from t h e i r que s t by t h e Di c t a t o r , t h a t ' h e a l e r ' who i s such a
gr os s parody of t h e ps ychi c i d e a i a l r e a dy s ugges t ed i n Poems. I n t h e
r e s u l t a n t Fasci sm, t h e l ove which f or mer l y w a s seen a s t he mo t i v a t i ~ g
agency i n >;an, i s pe r ve r t e d i n t o an e xc e s s i ve l ove f o r o n e ' s c ount r y,
a r e l i s h l n g of phys i c a l s t r e n g t h and a c or r upt power i n which t h e
Lndi vi d~; l l a s e s a l l i mpor t ance. The c a s t may say i n t h e i r l ove of
f as ci s m:
\,'e';l s t e e r t hr ough them a l l t o what we r e q u i r e
Over monst eys deadl y i n t h e deep s e a sand
Our k e e l r i d e s on t o t h e pr omi sed Land.
b u t , i n f a c i n g danger arid e nc ount e r i ng o b s t a c l e s t o t h e que s t , t h e i r
i n n a t e c or r upt i on r e t u r n s .
When t h e dancer f &; z e r s i n t h e pl a y, t h e deat h- wi sh i n Man de c r e a s e s
and %a n i s t r u e i n s t i n c t u a l d r i v e s r e a s s e r t t hemsel ves. Fr e e of
r e s t r a i n i n g weaknesses, t key e nvi s a ge an e s s e n t i a l l y Lawr ent i an s oc i e t y: 29
Be t r u e
To t he i nner s e l f . Re t i r e t o a wood
The w i l l of t he blood i s t he onl y good
We must l ear n t o know it.
~t t h i s poi nt , t he dancer i s a r t i f i c i a l l y s t i mul at ed by t he f i g u r e of t he
~ o c t o r , ~ ~ s ugges t i ve of t hos e medi cal p r a c t i t i o n e r s who pr e f e r t o t r e a t
c an's symptoms and not h i s ba s i c di s eas e. I n t h i s way, t hey, t oo
i n d i r e c t l y s t i mul at e t he deat h-wi sh i n t h e i r pa t i e nt s . With t he
r esur gence of Deat h' s a c t i v i t y and power, Man r e t i r e s i n t o an i de a l
col ony farm where he i magi nes he has di scover ed t he ends of t he quest .
g u t it i s a romant i c del us i on, i n which Man di s cover s not hi ng except
t r i v i a :
We l i v e day and ni ght
I n t he i nner l i g h t
We cont empl at e our navel s t i l l we' ve second s i ght .
c an's t r u e ques t , it i s r e s t r e s s e d , i s for psychi c he a l t h not e a r t h l y
gl or y. The means t o t h a t end i s t he dr i vi ng f or c e of ErOS, t he
i s o l a t i n g power of Love:
He who would prove
The pri mal l ove
~ u s t l eave behi nd
~ l l l ove of h i s ki nd'
And f l y al one
To t he Alone.
I n t h i s ques t , Man needs a l e a de r , a psychi c i d e a l t o answer t he quest i on:
'who w i l l be t he o n e / ~ o t each us how t o f l y from t he al one t o t he lone?'
I n t he f i g u r e of t he p i l o t , Man di s cover s y e t one more f a l s e
l eader .
The P i l o t per s oni f i es t he deat h-wi sh. He i s pampered and pet t ed by a
s oc i e t y of i nval i ds . Thei r ment al i t y f i n d s i t s microcosm i n a ni ght cl ub:
who i s ugl y
who i s s i c k
who i s l onel y
Come on qui ck.
Hi t her .
The Audience responds e a ge r l y t o t h i s r e que s t , each member's per sonal
and d e b i l i t a t i n g ne ur os i s coming r a pi dl y t o t he s ur f a c e i n a deat h-wi sh.
such an i n f e c t i o n t hr e a t e ns a l l members of s oc i e t y - a poi nt which i s
r e s t r e s s e d i n ~ e a t h ' s w i l l i n which t he b e n e f i c i a r i e s a r e t y p i c a l l y
di s e a s e d pr oduct s of a c or r upt s oc i e t y and i ncl ude ~ l a c k ma i l e r s , Coi ner s ,
Boys, Thi eves, and Old Hacks and Tot s.
When a l l means t o t h e ends of t he ques t have been t hor oughl y
expl or ed and r e j e c t e d , Karl Marx appear s on s t a ge . H i s words suggest
t h e f i n a l s ol ut i on f o r t h e Engl i s h evolution earl i er i n t h e pl ay:
The i ns t r ument s of pr oduct i on have been t oo
much f o r him. He i s l i qui da t e d.
But t h e banishment of Death i s not d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o t h e appear ance on
s t a ge of t h i s c a r i c a t u r e of Kar l Marx. what Auden i s t r yi ng t o suggest
i s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of a c ur e f o r a di s e a s e d s oc i e t y, mani f est ed i n a
p o l i t i c a l and s o c i a l c ha r a c t e r . ~t i s t h e appear ance of an example
from t h e p a s t , i r o n i c a l l y handl ed by t h e pl aywr i ght t o s ugges t bot h c ur r e nt
s l o t h and an image of optimism f o r t h e f ut ur e .
what was a l l t h i s a gr e e a bl e nonsense about
a man dr e s s e d up as a dog (and a l ong- l os t
h e i r t oo) t o do wi t h chor us es pr ocl ai mi ng
t h a t :
under t h e l o c a l images your bl ood ha s c onj ur e d,
W e show you man caught i n t h e t r a p of h i s t e r r o r ,
de s t r oyi ng hi ms el f . 31
The ~ o g Beneat h t h e s k i n , t h e f i r s t of t h e pl a ys wr i t t e n i n
c o l l a b o r a t i o n wi t h c h r i s t o p h e r ~s h e r wo o d , was f i r s t produced by t h e Group
The a t r e i n t h e autumn of 1935. o r i g i n a l l y t i t l e d The ~ h a s e , 3 * t h e pl ay
marks a s i g n i f i c a n t devel opment i n ~ u d e n ' s d e l i n e a t i o n of t h e ' Que s t '
mot i f . ~ o l l o wi n g t h e e a r l i e r char ade pa i d On Bot h s i d e s and t h e s l i g h t l y
drawn s ke t c h of ps ychol ogi cal decay i n he Dance of ~ e a t h , he Dog Beneat h
t h e s k i n i l l u s t r a t e s t h a t b e l i e f i n t h e va l ue of pa r a bl e - a r t Auden f i r s t
o u t l i n e d i n h i s e s s a y ' psychol ogy and A r t TO-day:'
Ther e must al ways be two ki nds of a r t ,
e s c a pe - a r t f o r man needs es cape as he
needs f ood and deep s l e e p , and p a r a b l e - a r t ,
t h a t ar t which s h a l l t e a c h man t o unl e a r n
h a t r e d and l e a r n l ove. . . .
he el ement s of e s c a pe - a r t i n Auden' s work be f or e 1935 d e f i n e a ' ~ u e s t '
conceal ed by yout hf ul ent hus i as m and a d e l i b e r a t e l y p r i v a t e wor l d based
on a pe r s ona l mythology. 33 As t h e need f o r s uch a ' Que s t ' became more
ur ge nt i n t h e p o e t ' s eyes and as ~ u d e n sought p o s i t i o n s of g r e a t e r hei ght 34
f r om whi ch t o expound Man' s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o hi ms e l f , he came t o
under s t and t h e f u l l p o t e n t i a l of t h e drama as a d i d a c t i c i ns t r ument . I n
t h e same e s s a y he r e l a t e s t h e ' t a s k ' of ar t :
he t a s k ... i s n o t t o t e l l peopl e how t o
behave, but by dr awi ng t h e i r a t t e n t i o n t o
what t h e i mper sonal unconsci ous i s t r y i n g
t o t e l l them, and by i nc r e a s i ng t h e i r
knowledge of good and e v i l , t o r e nde r them
b e t t e r a b l e t o choose, t o become i nc r e a s i ngl y
mor al l y r e s pons i bl e f o r t h e i r d e s t i n y .35
Th i s a t t e mpt i s n o t compl et el y s uc c e s s f ul i n he Dog Beneat h t h e s k i n ,
a l t hough t h e ' Q U ~ S ~ ' mot i f i s t h e mani f es t theme of t h e pl ay. ~ o h n
~e h ma n n b e s t de s c r i be s c r i t i c a l r e a c t i on:
~ t s r e a l weakness, however, i s t h e e xc e s s of
p r i v a t e a l l u s i o n s and obs cur e j okes which wa s
s o n o t i c e a b l e i n The Or a t or s ; and t h e a ppe a l
i s s t i l l t o a s o p h i s t i c a t e d ' u n i v e r s i t y '
a udi e nc e , even more per haps t han he Dance o f
~ e a t h . 3 ~
But , wi t hi n t h e s t r u c t u r e of t h e pl a y, t h e p r i v a t e a l l u s i o n i s over -
shadowed by t h e s t r ong c e n t r a l ' p l o t ' and by t h e poet r y of t h e chor us es
whi ch r a i s e s Al an orm man's pe r s ona l s e a r c h t o an ur ge nt n a t i o n a l l e v e l .
H i s na i ve l y comic ' ~ u e s t ' which ~ u d e n hopes i s obvi ous t o t h e audi ence,
h a s a s e r i o u s ps ychol ogi cal ba s e - t h e overwhel mi ng ps ychi c decadence
o f t h e Englishman.
The pl ay i s , i n f a c t , a s ucces s i on of t a bl e a ux, each r e s pons i bl e f o r
d e p i c t i n g one a s p e c t of t h e e n t i r e c or r upt i on. I n an a t t e mpt t o demonst r at e
t h e wi despr ead pr eval ence of such c or r upt i on, t h e s cenes remai n i n j uxt a -
p o s i t i o n ' wi t hout adequat e i n t e r r e l a t i o n o r l o g i c a l sequence. ' 37 So much
s o t h a t ' t h e movement o f t h e pl ay r esembl es n o t a movie f i l m but a s e r i e s
o f s l i d e s . ' 38 I n t h e i r assembl age, Auden unf ol ds t h e f u l l wor t hl e s s ne s s
of t h e cont empor ar y me n t a l i t y , i n a s e r i e s of s cenes where a p o l i t i c a l
i d e n t i t y r e v e a l s t h e ps ychi c weakness i n i t s most i r r edeemabl e s t a t e .
The i mpr essi on t he pl ay c r e a t e s i s t he ' s e ns e of i nsurmount abl e human
l i mi t a t i o n 1 3 9 t hrough which t he ques t i ng i ndi vi dua l must f i n d h i s own way.
The openi ng scene i n pr es s an Ambo s t a t e s t he problem of t he pl ay i n
b i t t e r l y s a t i r i c t erms and proposes a s ol ut i on. I t i s a s t at ement of
t h e psychi c condi t i on of modern man a l l e gor i z e d by t he c a r i c a t ur e d
f i g u r e s of Vi l l a g e ' s Est abl i shment - ' i t s l o c a t i o n / ~ h e r e v e r your h e a r t
d i r e c t s you most l ongi ngl y t o l ook; you/ ar e l ovi ng t owards it.' The
v i c a r , t he Gener al and h i s wi f e, and I r i s Crewe produce i n t h i s v i l l a g e
of t h e h e a r t a gr os s f r agment at i on r epr es ent ed dr a ma t i c a l l y by t he
di s l oc a t e d speeches of t h e v i l l a g e r s . The i r d i s u n i t y i s t h e r e s u l t of
i ne pt and decept i ve l e a de r s hi p and savagel y t hrows i n t o r e l i e f t he v i c a r ' s
cl ai m:
I l abour t o expound t he t r u t h
To t r a i n t h e t e nde r pl a nt of yout h
And guar d t h e moral or de r .
Thi s l ack of l e a de r s hi p emphasi zes t h e v i l l a g e r s ' ur gent need f o r a
' Heal er . ' Alan orm man's ' ~ u e s t ' f u l f i l l s t h i s ba s i c need, f o r i n
l oc a t i ng Fr a nc i s , ~ l a n r e s t o r e s d i r e c t i o n t o t h e i r l i ve s . A s t hey
l ament ed pr evi ousl y:
wi t hout h i s f a c e we don' t know what t o do,
we ' r e undone.
The ' Qu e s t , ' however, i s a l s o de l i ne a t e d at t he i ndi vi dua l l e ve l .
I n seeki ng o u t Fr a nc i s , A ~ I f i n d s h i s t r u e vocat i on i n l i f e which i s t o
mai nt ai n t h e or de r and meaning he has found t hr ough h i s s ear ch by pur sui ng
s i mi l a r obj e c t i ve s a l l h i s l i f e . such cons t ant change i s t h e a n t i d o t e t o
t h e poi sonous s t a gna t i on of a s oc i e t y i n l ove wi t h t h e s t a t u s quo. ~ h u s ,
t h e pl ay r ecor ds Al an' s development from t h e t i m e he i s under t h e c ont r ol
of t h e e s t a bl i s he d mind, shown i n h i s pr of use def er ence t o t h e e s t a bl i s he d
e s t a b l i s h e d clowns of pr e s s a n Ambo, u n t i l h i s compl et e r e j e c t i o n of t h e
p a s t as t h e pl ay c l os e s . I n t h i s l a t t e r scene, t h e Es t abl i s hment i s
r educed t o a chor us o f . y a p p i n g ani mal s - t h e l o g i c a l end f o r t hos e who
f a i l t o r e a c t t o new e vol ut i ona r y pr e s s ur e s .
onc e a ga i n t h e r e i s s e ve r e war ni ng t hr oughout t h e pl ay t h a t o t h e r
a p p l i c a n t s have at t empt ed t h e ' Q U ~ S ~ . ' ~ o b b y s o l l e r s , s or bo ~ a m b and
f r i e n d s r e pr e s e nt t hos e ' T ~ U ~ Y weak' men who have t r i e d t h e ar duous
~ o r t h - we s t passage t o ps ychi c h e a l t h and f a i l e d mi s er abl y. Alan l o c a t e s
Lamb i n t h e Os t ni an r e d - l i g h t d i s t r i c t ' seduced by t h e Old ricks.'
H i s f a i l u r e i s s een as p a r t of a dormant deat h- wi sh which r os e t o
promi nence on t h e ' ~ u e s t ' i t s e l f :
when we are dead we s h a n ' t t hank f o r f l owe r s ,
we s h a n ' t h e a r t h e par son pr eachi ng f o r hour s ,
we s h a n ' t be s o r r y t o be ba r e whi t e bone
~t l ast we s h a n ' t be hungry and can s l e e p al one.
chi mp Ea gl e , f o r exampl e, i s di s cover ed a wa i t i ng s ur ge r y i n t h e pa r a di s e
pa r k ~ o s p i t a l . ~t i s made q u i t e c l e a r t h a t such a remedy can d e a l onl y
wi t h t h e symptoms and not wi t h t h e deep- r oot ed caus e of t h e malady. he
r e s u l t , once a ga i n, i s de a t h - t h a t f a t a l l ongi ng of t h e que s t i ng
i ndi vi dua l .
I n t h e openi ng s c e ne , a f a mi l i a r s o l u t i o n t o t h e i n h e r i t e d d i s e a s e of
t h e i n d i v i d u a l i s pr of f e r e d. Love r emai ns t h e means t o t h e f u l f i l l me n t
of t h e ' ~ u e s t . ' ~ h r o u g h o u t he Dog ~ e n e a t h t h e s k i n , Al a n' s s e a r c h i s
mi s - di r e c t e d o r i n t e r r u p t e d by pe r ve r s i ons of Love and i t i s onl y wi t h t h e
h e l p of h i s ps ychi c i d e a l , Fr a n c i s , t h a t he i s a b l e t o overcome t h e i r
t e mpt a t i ons . I t s t r u e n a t u r e i s de c l a r e d by t h e semi - chor us i n t h e
f i r s t scene:
Ent e r wi t h him
These l e ge nds , l ove ,
For him assume
Each di ve r s e form
AS l egend si mpl e
AS l egend queer
That he may do
what t he s e r e qui r e
Be, l ove, l i k e him
To l egend t r ue .
~ u d e n s e e s Love a s a v e r s a t i l e c r e a t i v e f o r c e ope r a t i ng i n a l l a s pe c t s of
human a c t i v i t y . ~ t s gener ous br eadt h i s c ont r a s t e d s t r ongl y wi t h t h e
nar r owl y conf i ni ng l ove of ~ l a n and Iri s which i n i t s e l f pr e s e nt s a f a l s e
end t o Al an' s ' ~ u e s t . ' 1t i s f o r t h i s r eason t h a t Fr a nc i s growl s ' ~ u s t
a s though he were j e a l ous ' , when Alan shows him a pi c t ur e . Pa r a di s e par k
a c t s a s a v a s t sanct uar y f o r t hos e who, t hr ough f e a r , seek t o r e t i r e from
t h e world and t h e vi gor ous hazar ds t h a t accompany Love' s oper at i on i n human
r e l a t i ons hi ps . For t he mind, momentarily overcome by t empt at i on, pa r a di s e
par k o f f e r s a s t agnant peace, a t hought l es s refuge, I t s i nha bi t a nt s a r e
i n v a l i d s r e v e l l i n g i n t he at mosphere of a conval es cent Home c a l l e d
England. he poe t , f o r example, i s g u i l t y of an exces s i ve s e l f - l o v e
which he us es t o c r e a t e a world of f a nt a s y a s pr ot e c t i on a g a i n s t r e a l i t y :
poe t ( t appi ng h i s f or ehead) : Here. Ever yt hi ng' s
-
he r e . you' r e her e. He' s her e. his pa r k' s her e.
his t r e e ' s her e. I f I s hut my eyes t hey a l l
di s appear .
i he l ove r s t oo, ' dr es s ed i n n u r s e r y - t e a p o t - ~u t c h costumes' , evade r e a l i t y
and t h e onl y end of t he ' Q U ~ S ~ ' by conj ur i ng t h e i r own dream world.
heir l ove i s t he exces s i ve nei ghbour l ove a l r e a dy out l i ne d i n t he f i r s t
book of The Or at or s :
L i t t l e whi t e dove, i t ' s you t h a t I l ove,
Fa i r e r t han hol l yhocks f a r !
HOW ni c e and how ne a t
Are your de a r l i t t l e . f e e t 1
you make my h e a r t beat !
How t e r r i b l y sweet , how t e r r i b l y sweet,
HOW t e r r i b l y . sweet you are!
~ h c f emal e i n v a l i d s , i n l ove wi t h t h e i r wounds, r e pr e s e nt t h e d e f e c t i v e
l ove r s whose f a i t h r e s t s i n t h e s ur ge on' s k n i f e as t h e prime f a c t o r of
Change. ~ u t t h e i r need f o r a n ope r a t i on i s a mere pe r ve r s i on of l ove.
I t i s a ps ychi c r e va l ua t i on t h a t i s ur ge nt l y r e qui r e d. pa r a di s e par k
h o s p i t a l , t he n, a l l e g o r i c a l l y r e p r e s e n t s a psyche i nha bi t e d by f a l s e
l oves . Th e i r b a s i c di s obe di e nc e t o t h e i n n e r l a w of t h e i r own na t ur e s
r e s u l t s i n t h e i nope r a bl e psychosomat i c d i s e a s e . he means t o such a
r ecover y i s a ' Que s t ' l i k e t h a t of Alan Norman. But i n t h e h o s p i t a l :
See pas s i on t r ansf or med i n t o rheumat i sm; r e b e l l i o n i n t o pa r a l -
y s i s ; power i n t o a tumour.
A s i n pa i d on ~ o t h Si de s , t h e f i g u r e of t h e Doct or i s gr os s l y c a r i c a t ur e d.
H i s p o s i t i o n i n t h e worl d as a ' h e a l e r ' i s s a t i r i z e d i n pa r odi e s of
r e l i g i o u s c r e e ds :
...I be l i e ve i n s u r g i c a l t r e a t me nt f o r duodenal u l c e r ,
c e r e b r a l a bs c e s s , p y l o r i c s t e n o s i s , aneur i sm and a l l
f or ms of endocr i ne di s t ur ba nc e .
~ e e d l e s s t o s a y, such s ur ge r y i s i nadequat e and de a t h i nt r ude s .
~t i s now pos s i bl e t o under s t and t h e ' p i c a r e s q ~ e ' ~ ~ s t r u c t u r e of
The Dog ge ne a t h t h e s k i n f o r t h e many and v a r i e d s e t t i n g s wi t hi n t h e pl ay
si mpl y r e pr e s e nt s t a t e s of mind, each of which i s c ont e nt wi t h a f a l s e and
pe r ve r t e d l ove. I n h i s ' Q u e s t l , i t i s ~ l a n Norman' s t a s k t o gr a ppl e wi t h
and overcome t h e t e mpt a t i ons o f f e r e d by such di s e a s e d psyches. AS i n t h e
f i r s t poem of poems, t h e ps ychi c i d e a l l e a ds t h e i ndi vi dua l back i n t o t hos e
d i s e a s e d areas which o f f e r t h e g r e a t e s t t empt at i on of ~ e a t h . he
s uc c e s s f ul compl et i on of t h e ' Que s t ' demands a compl et e r e j e c t i o n of t h e
deat h- wi sh i n which e va s i on of t h e r eal - wor l d i s s een a t i t s h i g h e s t
pi t c h. The savage terms i n which t h e Os t ni a n town i s de s c r i be d s ugge s t s
t h e ext r eme danger s i nhe r e nt i n such f a l s e que s t i ngs :
A human f o r e s t : a l l by one i n f e c t i o n c a nc e l l e d.
De s pa i r s o f a r i nvadi ng ever y t i s s u e ha s des t r oyed i n t he s e t h e
hi dden s e a t of t h e d e s i r e and t h e i n t e l l i g e n c e .
TWO r e a s ons are f or war ded f o r t h e i r r edeemabl e c or r upt i on. One, ' t h e
t yr anny of mot her s' and t wo, ' t h e s e l f - de c e pt i ons neces s ar y t o l i f e '
d r i v e t h e i ndi vi dua l t o t h e ext r emes of pe r ve r t e d l ove found i n t h e
Os t ni a n r e d - l i g h t d i s t r i c t . Her e, whores, s a d i s t i c s e xua l pl e a s ur e ,
homosexual i t y and dr ug a d d i c t i o n a t t e mpt t o d i v e r t t h e que s t i ng i ndi vi dua l
f r om h i s t r u e goal .
I n wes t l and, t h e s anat or i um r e p r e s e n t s t hos e psyches which have
evaded r e a l va l ue s . The i nmat es hol d c onve r s a t i ons ver y si mi l ar t o
t hos e i n o s t n i a and pr e s s a n ~ mb o and once a ga i n t h e i r l e a d e r s , i n t h i s
c a s e t h e Medi cal Or d e r l i e s , pr ove more c e r t i f i a b l e t han t h e i r char ges .
wes t l and i s a t o t a l i t a r i a n state. The Le a de r ' s voi c e , and t h e Cinema
r e p r e s e n t t h e s e duc t i ve f o r c e s a t work upon t h e i ndi vi dua l . I n ~ c t
~ h r e e , t h e Nineveh Hot el i s one more microcosm f o r a di s e a s e d wor l d and
macrocosm f o r a di s e a s e d i n t e l l e c t . The s t a g e d i r e c t i o n s c a pt ur e t h i s
s t a t e of mind. he e n t i r e s e t t i n g of t h i s scene shoul d convey a n
i mpr es s i on of b r u t a l , noi s y v u l g a r i t y and t a s t e l e s s ext r avagance. ' And
t h e Nineveh G i r l s r e pr e s e nt ' A l l t h a t i s mechani cal , s hal l ow, s i l l y ,
hi deous and unbear abl y t r a g i c i n t h e a n t i c s of a modern c a ba r e t chor us . '
I n t h i s decadent at mospher e, t h e mind i s hope l e s s l y pe r ve r t e d. Madame
~ u b b i pa r odi e s t h e i n s u l a r i t y of l ove when s he decl ai ms: 'Remember
B r i t i s h Love i s q u i t e t h e b e s t . ' I n t h i s same scene a d i n e r , unabl e t o
Love c o r r e c t l y , commits a v i o l e n t t r a v e s t y upon Love, by or de r i ng one of
t h e ~ i n e v e h Girls f o r di nne r : .
w i l l you have h e r r o a s t , s i r ,
o r on Japanese Toa s t , s i r ?
wi t h Sauce ~ l l e n a g n e , si r ,
O r st ewed i n whi t e wi ne, s i r ?
~t i s not s u r p r i s i n g t h a t i n such a n envi r onment d an's d e s t r u c t i v e , b r u t a l
i n s t i n c t s a r e i nde c e nt l y s t i mul a t e d. De s t r uc t i ve ~e s mo n d e pi t omi z e s t h e
v a s t , d i r e c t i o n l e s s r e s our c e s i n Man. wi t hout t h e l e a de r s hi p of Love,
t h e i n d i v i d u a l l o s e s h i s a b i l i t y t o c r e a t e .
A f u r t h e r s e duc t i on away from t h e t r u e ' q u e s t ' i s r e pr e s e nt e d by t h e
f i g u r e of LOU vi pond, t h e t a i l o r ' s dummy from whom Alan Norman r e c e i ve s a l l
t hos e r e p l i e s h e wi shes t o r e c e i ve by s peaki ng f o r he r . his i d e a l i z e d
l ove i s a not he r o b s t a c l e t h e que s t i ng i n d i v i d u a l ha s t o overcome. For
i n pr ovi ng hi ms el f t o h i s l oved one, t h e i n d i v i d u a l expends va l ua bl e
e n e r g i e s :
I would hunt t h e enormous whale i n t h e Ar c t i c l owl ands,
1 would count a l l t h e s t a r l i n g s i n t h e Br i t i s h I s l a n d s ,
I would r un t hr ough f i g h t i n g Europe i n a b s o l u t e s i l e n c e .
he s uc c e s s i on of t a bl e a ux i n he Dog ~ e n e a t h t h e s k i n a c c e nt ua t e s Auden' s
p o i n t t h a t man' s psychi c ' ~ u e s t ' i s n o t t o be achi eved i n i s o l a t i o n .
Tempt at i ons i nvol ve t h e t r i a l of t h e s oul b u t once t hey a r e r e pul s e d,
t h e i n d i v i d u a l , l i k e c h r i s t i n t h e wi l de r ne s s , i s r e s t or e d t o f u l l psychi c
h e a l t h .
DO n o t speak of a change of h e a r t , meaning f i v e hundred a
y e a r and a room of o n e ' s own...
V i s i t from house t o house, from count r y t o count r y: c ons i de r
t h e popul a t i ons
Beneat h t h e communions and t h e c o i f f u r e s : di s c ove r your i m -
age.
Man di vi de d al ways and r e s t l e s s al ways: a f r a i d and unabl e t o
f or gi ve :
For compl et e s a l v a t i o n t h e r e are t h r e e p r e r e q u i s i t e s . hey a r e t o Repent ,
i nvol vi ng a change of h e a r t ; t o Uni t e , meaning t h e harmoni ous uni on of
h e a r t and mind and n o t a s o c i a l br ot her hood; and t o ~ c t , i n which a
c o n s t r u c t i v e ener gy r e a c t i v a t e s t h e s t a gna nt psyche. p o s s i b l y , as Rober t
Bloom a r gue s , t he s e ' t er ms sound r a t h e r hol l ow; t oo much t h a t i s pe r ve r s e ,
u::changing, and i : l hcr ent has gone Se f or e . ' I 1 a u t s u r e l y ~ l n n ' s ' ~ u c s t '
h a s proved s u c c e s s f u l . H i s i n i t i a l r e a c t i o n t o t h e h i e r a r c h y of p r e s s s n
;lmbo suggests a mind ope r a z i ng wi t h i n s p e c i f i e d s o c i a l p a t t e r n s , s t a gna nt
s nd demanding change. when ~ I a n r e t u r n s t o t h e v i l l a g e , i t i s obvi ous
t h a t h i s ' Q U ~ S ~ ' ha s s t r i p p e d zway h i s s t u p i d l y ingrown b e l i e f s a bout
s a c i e t y . ~t he cl i max of thd pl ay i t i s n o t p r e s s a n ~ mb o t h a t ha s
c i ~ ~ n g e a >LC A i ~ n ' s ~ t t i t u d e 20 i t and it i s t hr ough h i s e ye s e v e n t u a l l y
; hat t h e ~ ~ d i e n c e i s as ked t o judge t h e i r s o c i e t y . I n t h i s s e n s e , ~ l & n
ha s been a gui de t o t h e Audi ence, s ugge s t i ng q u e s t i n g s t he y may c a r e t o
unde r t a ke .
AS t h e pl a y draws t o i t s c l o s e , t h e s t i f l i n g envi r onment i s r e j e c t e d
by a s e l e c t band wl~o s e e t h e ' Qu e s t ' a s a r unni ng and p e r p e t u a l b a t t l e
a g a i n s t stagnation. Thoagh a gr oup, i t i s t hr ough t h e i r i n d i v i d u a l
e f f o r t s t o change t h a t =hey can a c hi e ve s uc c e s s . AS Fr a n c i s , t h e gr oup' s
ps yc hi c i d e a l , s a ys :
you a r e u n i t s i n a n i nxens e army: most of you
w i l l d i e wi t hout e v e r knowing wha-c your l e a d e r s
a r e r e a l l y f i g h t i n g f o r o r even t h a t you a r e
f i g h t i n g a t a l l . \ $ e i l , I a m goi ng t o be a u n i t
i n t h e army of t h e o t h e r s i d e : b u t t h e b a t t l e -
f i e l d i s s o huge t h a t i t ' s p r a c t i c a l l y c e r t a i n
you w i l l never s e e me a g a i n . We a r e a l l of u s
compl et el y uni mpor t ant , s o i t would be ve r y s i l l y
t o s t a r t q u a r e l l i n g , woul dn' t i t ? Goodbye.
~ h i l s t t h e e s t a b l i s h e d mind s i n k s l o g i c a l l y t o a ba s e b e s t i a l i t y , Fr a n c i s ,
Al an, t h e T.S. ~ l i o t - Cu r a t e , a boy and t h r e e o t h e r v i l l a g e r s c ont i nue
t h e expans i on o f t h e i r mi nds. I t i s s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t t h e pl a y ends on a
n o t e of opt i mi sm. Af t e r Al a n ' s s u c c e s s f u l compl et i on of t h e pr e l i mi na r y
p a r t of a ' ~ u e s t ' which w i l l t a k e h i s e n t i r e l i f e , Auden f o r e c a s t s a n i d e a l
t i n e f o r t h e i n d i v i d u a l :
\$:?ere t i n e :iows on a s c ha l k s t r eam c l e a r
,~xd l o v e r s by chciilselves f o r g i v e n
he whole drca: , ~ gemi l i l e, t i l e charm mat ur e
~ a l l c i n t h e g r c ~ t azS g e n e r a l i i g h t
I n t h e i r d e l i g h t a p a r t o f heaven
I t s f u r n i t u r e and c h o i r .
TO each h i s need: from each h i s power.
I L i s s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t i n 1935 ~ u d e n ' s ' ~ u c s t ' r emai ns mot i vat ed by h i s
v i s i o n of ps yc hol ogi c a l d i s o r d e r . AS i n 3ance of Deat h, t h e t r a p p i n g s
b u t n o t t h e convictions o f ? i ; r xi ~n appear . s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l s a t i r e
i nerel y p o i n t t o ;he e x t e n t of >;sr. ' s ps yc hol ogi c a l d i s o r d e r . In t h e dr ar , a,
i t i s n o t u n t i l 1938, i n on tl?e F r o n t i e r , t h a t t h e d e s t r u c t i v e f o r c e of
s a t i r e i s modi f i ed by t h a t s o c i s l awar eness whi ch demands n o t a
ps yc hol ogi c a l b u t an envi r onment al r e b i r t h .
T; I ~ ASCcT. ; of ~6 was f i r s t performed by t h e Group heat re a t t h e
\ zycur y yheacr e i n London on 26t h ~ e b r u a r y , 1937. I n a c onve r s a t i on
w i ~ h B. C. ~ l o o i x f i e l d , c h r i s t o p h e r ~ s h e r wo o d s t a t e d t h a t t h e two d r a ma t i s t s
L ~ n a n d e d a I nor e d e f i n i ~ e p i o t 1 4 3 t o t h e pl a y f ol l owi ng t h e b i z a r r e form-
l 2 s s n e s s of he ~ o g g c n e ~ ~ h t k s k i n . s i n c e 1937 t he y have r e c e i ve d
c r l t i c a i ap?l aus e f o r a ' f z i r l y we l l d e i i n e d p l o t i n which a s e r i o u s
2s yc hol ogi c a l probl em i s devel oped i n t er ms of dr a ma t i c a c t i o n . ' 4 4 AS
i n poens and a l l ~ u d e n ' s work a f t e r 1930, u n i t y i s a c h i e
d e l i n e a t i o n of t h e myth of t h e ' ~ u e s t ' - h e r e , concei ved
' t h e cl i mbi ng of t h e mount ai n and i t s s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r M
I n c h i s l i g h t , t h e pl ay a p p e a r s t o f o l l o w t h e theme of a
ved by t h e
i ma gi na t i ve l y i n
i c h a e l Ransom. ' 45
Qu e s t f o r ps ychi c
h e a l t h whi ch s o per meat es t h e o t h e r work. here ha s been, however, a
s u b t l e s h i f t i n emphasi s. ~ i c h a e l Ransom i s n o t t h e Tr ul y weak Man whose
a t t e mp t s a t a ps yc hol ogi c a l r e b i r t h have pr e vi ous l y encount er ed such l i t t l e
s uc c e s s . He s ugge s t s t h e ps yc hi c i d e a l i t s e l f , whose war ni ngs s e r v e a s
s t i mu l i t o t h e Tr ul y weak Man. I is pr ot ot ype a ppe a r s i n poems ar ound
1930 as he t a l l u n , ~ o ~ f i d e d ; eader / of doomed compani ons. ' He r e- emer ges
a s a s h a d o ~ v l eader-s<: vi our ii-i yhe Or a t o r s r e f e r r e d t o onl y as ' ~ i m . ' 4 ~
Auidn had earlier exainincc the problcms conironting the questing
Lndividual as the attenptcd ~arzilcl to the activities of his 'healer.'
In he ijscent of ~6 he probes the psychology of the motivation which
prompts such a 'healer' to lead. Ail else is subordinated to 'a detailed
study 02 t hc hero figure and the problem of the will to power.. . . 147
Auden is chus reversing his normal approach to his unifying myth.
Hc aF;xzrs zd reach a ;rassiy pessimistic conclusion. For Ransom,
# -.
_ze Truly Scr~ng );an' to ~1,s ' - co.:;?anions, is essentially flawei,
Incvitcbly doomed to lose both the inner battle of the '~ruly Strong Nan'
against zhe tempta:ions of authority rnd the battle against the corrupting
relationsl~ip with hls mother and brother, His strength is revealed in
ihe play's long prose soiiloquies a d Lis inherent weakness in his
convers~tions with the ~ b b o z and "I- LLI C four companions who accompany him on
the '~uest.' AS aiair has said;
';\:ichael ' s strength i n relation to his own
groap is dramatized in his ability to
reconciic opposites, a necessary characteristic
of the truly strong man...In ~uden's eyes, the
truest strength iies in the ability to rise
above simple opposition to a higher synthesis. ' 48
In the face of opposition, the dormant disease in Ransom manifests itself
in the final desire for the mother-imago. The progressive disintegration
within >;ichael is parallelled In the dramatic action by the gradual
destruction of his companions.
he Ascent of ~6 probes beneath the surface health of the Truly Strong
>:an - 'the exceptionai. man who transcends the limitations of ordinary
hurnmi~y.'~g The ressiting diagnosis explains why he Ascent of ~6 is Cn
allegory of Love gone w ~ o n g ' ~ * in which ~ansom's search for a Love which is
not selfish, but pure cnd ennobling, is frustrated by the narrow and
confining xother-;ovd.
-- 1 r ~ e , ~ o v e f i n a l l y Is grcc. t ,
Gr e a t e r t han a l l ; b u i l a r g e t h e h a t e ,
Fa r lar2c-r t L n Nan can e v e r e s t i r a a t e .
:his e s p l s i n s Ranso;nls obs e s s i on wi t h ~ o w r ' f o r t h e d e s i r e f o r power i s
a p2rver:ed d e s t r e f o r l ovc. ' 5L I n Ta c t , xansom' s dilemma
' a r i s e s from 'ihe rc;;!. ization, by a ~12n
of cxcepL<onal , - r < c E s
C, , Llist cor r t i pLi oi ~
s c c ns i n e v i t a b l y LO f o l l o w froin t h e u s e
. - -
of power, t !i ~"i : ~e w r ; ~ i s i l sci i l i y i mpur e,
b u t t h a t :o r e a c t t her ef r om i n t o i s o l a t i o n
xsy be i t s e l f a n o ~ h e r form of s i n . ' 5 2
p a r t of t h i s c o r r u p t i o n st ems from ~ a n s o m' s i n n a t e d i s t r u s t o f t h e 'common
peopl e. ' - ' t h o s ? r agged de ni z e ns of t h e wa t e r f r o n t . ' It i s a b a s i c f l a w
whi ch ha s l e d ;oh2 8 i z i r t o c a l l him ' a n uncompromising i d e a l i s t 1 5 ~ and
,John iehmann a ' s c?er - p r i g . 154
Li ke ) : ar l owel s D r . Fa u s t u s , hj l chael Ransom ha s a t t a i n e d t h e peaks of
e a r t h l y fame. From h i s vs nt a ge - poi nt on ' The Summit o f t h e p i l l a r Rock,
above ' [ y ' a s t ~a l e , ' he cont empl at es h i s fel l ow-men i n t h e v a l l e y bel ow i n
' a l l i t s varieties of d e s p e r a t i o n . ' Sens i ng t h e i r i n v e r t e d v a l u e s and
deepl y entrenched c o r r u p t i o n , he evades t h e i r need f o r a ps ychi c i d e a l by
a c c u s i n g Dant e of i mposi ng a f a l s e mot i va t i on on Odysseus - t h e i r ' ~ u e s t '
was bas ed on t he dream of an l n ~ c t i v e f u t u r e :
t h e ugl y and cowar dl y who f or es aw i n a v i r g i n l and
an e r a of u n l i mi t e d a d e f f o r t l e s s i ndul gence.
i n cont empl at i ng a r e v i v i f i c a t i o n of v a l u e s wi t h i n $f anki nd, Ransom a c c e p t s
t k e i n e v i t a b l e f r u s t r a t i o n s whi ch w i l l d r i v e him f o r s h e l t e r i n t o t h e arms
o f h i s x o t h c r . Fo r , i n t h i s openi ng pr os e s o l i l o q u y , ~ i c h a e l Ransom s e e s
L i f e a s e v i l and c o r r u p t i n g . he s t r e n g t h of t h i s Tr ul y St r ong Man l i e s
i n h i s ver y i s o l a t i o n , i n h i s i n t r o s p e c t i o n . I n h i s t enuous connect i on
wi t h xr. and Mrs. A, l i e s one of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s which compel him t o
exami ne h i s mo t i v ~ s wi zh t h e n o s t s t r i n g e n t c a r e .
pl r . and >;is. A, i ~ l - ~ a b i c a world on s t a g e whi ch, by i t s i l l u mi n a t i o n ,
s ugge s t s a ni ght msr e c xi s t c nc e of narrow and r e s t r i c t e d a c t i o n .
~ l t h o u g h t h e worl d of t h e ' 1' s and Ransom' s more expansi ve empi r e never
meet , t h e i r ver y j u x t a p o s i t i o ~ s ugge s t s t he i n t e r n a l c o n f l i c t which
r avages Ra ns i x' s s oul . It i s a c o n f l i c t which ha s no r e s ol ut i on.
Havi ng cons i der ed t he Abbot ' s suggest ed c our s e s of a c t i o n , Ransom r e j e c t s
t h e t o t a l abnegat i on of t h e w i l l by r e t u r n i n g t o t h e world of h i s
companions. ~ u t , i n t r y i n g t o remain s e l f l e s s , he shuns a l l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
f o r t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s and a s k s h i s companions whet her o r not t hey wi sh t o
c ont i nue wi t h t h e cl i mb.
The A ' S r e pr e s e nt t h e t o t a l de s c e nt of t h e mind:
he drums of an enormous and r out e d army,
Thr obbi ng r a gge dl y, f i t f u l l y , s c a t t e r e d l y , madly.
Thei r f u t i l e efforts t o h e l p themselves are t y p i f i e d i n t h e i r nervous and
wast ed o u t b u r s t s of 'we a r e l o s t . We are l o s t . ' each s a ys t h a t :
):s. ui l i Mrs. A. r c b p wwn c t h c or di na r y home-
k z e ~ i n g peopl e ( s ugge s t i ng t h c PETITES GENS
of ~ a f o r g u e and of ~ l i o t i n ~ u r d e r i n t h e
c s t h e d r a l , as de s c r i be d by Loui s unger i n
he Man i n t h e Nzme. ) They have no
i n c l i n a t i o n f o r her oi sm and do not even c a r e
t o h e a r t oo much about i t i n ot he r s . 55
~ u t , f a r more i mpor t a nt l y, t he y r e pr e s e nt t h a t degr aded me nt a l i t y which
r e s u l t s from t h e absence o f a n i ndi vi dua l obj e c t i ve . such a ' ~ u e s t ' ha s
gi ve n Ransom some measure of h e a l t h . 1n t h i s p a r t i a l s uc c e s s he ha s
t ur ne d t owar ds t h e unchar t ed r e gi ons of t h e psyche, l i k e t h e e a r l i e r her oes
i n ~ u d e n ' s work. Ransom, however, ha s t h e a b i l i t y t o communicate.
I n pl a c e of a ~ s y c h i c i d e a l whose mot i va t i on ap: j ears b a s i c a l l y
u n t a i n t e d , t h e A s a r e domi nat ed' by a me nt a l i t y t y p i f i e d by i t s s e t t i n g
i n t h e Col oni a l o f f i c e . Thi s segment of t h e ~ s t a b l i s h me n t s e r v e s as a
macrocosm f o r a d i s e ~ s e d mi nd, and as a microcosm f o r a wor l d c o n t r o l l e d
by t hos e whose mot i ves a r e based on pe r s ona l ga i n. The ' s i mp l i f i e d
a s s a u l t s on such t h i n g s a s t h e unscr upul ous p r e s s , t h e t echni que of
s c n s a t i o n , imperialism and t hr e a dba r e publ i c- s peaki ng' a r e i mpor t ant onl y
i n t h a t t hey poi nt t o an's c u r r e n t s o c i a l i d e a l s . such l e a de r s de pr i ve
)Ian of h i s a b i l i t y t o a c t and r educe him t o a n i n e f f e c t i v e shadow.
what have t ; ~e y e v e r done, I a s k you? what a r e t hey
e ve r i i k e l y t o do
TO make l i f e e a s i e r , make l i f e ha ppi e r ?
c r i t i c s commonly r e ga r d t h e ' h e a l e r s ' i n t h e c o l o n i a l o f f i c e as
Ca 2 i t a l i s t puppet s and t h e A ' S as vi c t i ms of a n economic cons pi r acy.
John Lehmann s a ys t h a t :
An i mpor t ant i d e a i n t h e pl a y i s t h e cyni ci sm
wi t h which a modern i mp e r i a l i s t s t a t e can
c l oa k i t s ai ms of wa r l i ke a ggr e s s e i on f o r
p r o f i t and power, and mi suse t h e f e a r s and
dreams and nobl e i mpul ses of t hos e who
would abhor i t s mot i ves i f t hey were nakedl y
r eveal ed. 56
But , wi t h t h e c r y ' ~ i v e u s somet hi ng t o l i v e f o r , ' Auden i s si mpl y s t a t i n g
t h e f a c t of t h e i r i n t e r n a l decay. he c o l o n i a l o f f i c i a l s a r e p a r t of
Auden' s t r a d i t i o n of decadent ps ychi c phys i c i a ns whose a t t e mpt s a t a
' c u r e ' he ha s c o n s i s t e n t l y par odi ed. The pr ot ot ype i s t h e Doct or i n
Pai d on ~ o t h s i d e s and t h e l i n e ext ends t hr ough t h e s c hool ma s t e r ' s
s t a t e me nt of symptom and c ur e i n he Or a t or s t o a l l t hos e who s e e k onl y
t h e phys i c a l c ur e t o i l l n e s s and i gnor e i t s psychol ogy.
Mi chael ~ a n s o m' s d e s i r e t o a c c e pt t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r Man' s
ps yc hol ogi c a l r e h a b i l i t a t i o n i s s har ed n e i t h e r by h i s companions nor by
t h e ~ s t a b l i s h me n t of h i s br ot he r . Thr ee of t h e f o u r men who accompany
Ransom on h i s pe r s ona l ' ~ e s t ' t o , c l i mb ~6 a r e a l s o i n d i v i d u a l s on a ' Que s t . '
g u t t h e i r mot i vat i on i s undeni abl y c or r upt . shawcr oss keeps a d i a r y l i k e
t h e f l awed Airman of The Or a t or s and i ndul ge s i n e xc e s s i ve her o- wor shi p of
h i s l e a de r . Gunn i s a kl ept oi ri ani ac whose r e s t l e s s ener gy r e p r e s e n t s t he
wast age of human p o t e n t i a l i n r e f us i ng t o a c c e pt d i s c i p l i n e as an i n t e g r a l
p a r t of ariy ' ~ u e s t . ' For t h e s e a r c hi ng i ndi vi dua l must remai n de di c a t e d
LO t he ends of t h e ' ~ u e s l ; ' . For Gunn, t he a s c e n t of F6 i s a n es cape from
~ o s h , I'm bor ed. ~f I had a t housand pounds,
- ! , I .
; L m y an a e r opl a ne and t r y t o f l y a c r o s s t h e
~ t l a n t i c : i f I had f i v e handr ed pounds, ~ ' d
go t o ~ f r i c a and s hoot l i o n s . AS i t i s , ~ ' v e
got seven and el evenpence, s o I suppose ~ ' d
b e t t e r g e t dr unk.
I n Lamb, a pr i mar y Enemy occupat i on i s mani f es t ed - c o l l e c t i n g . Her e, t h e
r ange of ener gy i s so c onc e nt r a t e d t h a t i t f a d e s i n t o i n s i g n i f i c a n c e . on
t he mount ai n, h i s f a s c i n a t i o n f o r f l owe r s pr oduces a di s e a s e d c ondi t i on
s ugges t ed by t h e ver y names of t h e f l owe r s he c o l l e c t s . ~ l l have
p e c u l i a r l y ps ychol ogi cal c a us a t i on: pol us ~ a u f r a n g i a , St agni um Menengi t i s ,
F r u s t r a x ~borninum and ~ o s s u s Monst rens. The Doct or i s n o t s e r i o u s l y
concer ned wi t h t h e ' ~ u e s t . ' p r i ma r i l y , h i s pr es ence i s not e s s e n t i a l on
a ' ~ u e s t ' f o r pur el y ps ychi c h e a l t h , and h i s c l o s e a s s o c i a t i o n wi t h t h e
deat h- wi s hi ng s o c i e t y he i s l o a t h t o l e a ve behi nd, i s ge nt l y s a t i r i z e d by
h i s f a c ne s s and h i s i n a c t i v i t y . H i s own comment i l l u s t r a t e s t h e s t a g e of
decay he h a s r eached: ' i ' v e g o t t o a s t a g e where I can b e l i e v e al mos t any-
t hi ng. ' ~ h u s , a l l members of ~ u d e n ' s gr oup are t r u l y weak men whose
dormant c or r upt i on br e a ks t o t h e s u r f a c e on t h e f i n a l a t t a c k on t h e summit
o f ~ 6 .
I n Mi chael Ransom, Auden s ke t c he s t h e q u a l i t i e s of t h e T ~ U ~ Y St r ong
Man - what s t a gma nt l e c a l l s a ' s c h o l a r and man of a c t i o n : a n unusual
mi xt ur e. ' H i s e ne r gi e s a r e d i s t r i b u t e d ove r a wide a r e a of d i s c i p l i n e s ,
e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e br e a dt h and a c t i v i t y of h i s mind. H i s f a v o u r i t e past i me
i s ches s - a game i n which Auden can demons t r at e t h a t i magi nat i on and
i n t e l l e c t u a l a n a l y s i s v i t a l t o t h e Tr ul y St ong Man. I n ~ 6 , Ransom,
obs es s ed wi t h t h e i de a of c ont i nua l l y ' t e s t i n g ' hi ms e l f , s e e s t he symbol
of h i s u l t i ma t e ' ~ u e s t . '
s i n c e boyhood, i n dreams, 1 have seen t h e
hi gc north f a c e . On n i g h t s when 1 coul d
n o t s l e e p I wo r k ~ d up t hos e c o u l o i r s , cr awl ed
a l ong t he d a s t e r n a r r e t e , pl anni ng ever y
movement, f o r e s e e i n g ever y hol d. Through
hod many t housand ye a r s have t hos e v i r g i n
b u t t r e s s e s been a wa i t i ng me. ~6 i s my f a t e . . . .
3 u t , i n assumi ng t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r h i s F a t e , Ransom s e e s t h e need f o r
unt a i nt e d mot i vat i on. He r e f u s e s h i s b r o t h e r ' s r e que s t , under s t andi ng t h e
c or r upt i on of ' c a s h , and l o t s of i t . ' ~t a not he r l e v e l , Ransom i s
pa r a l ys e d 5y >.is br ot he r - ha t r e d f o s t e r e d dur i ng h i s Not he r ' s c ons t a nt
a t t e n t i o n LO j smes and c ons t a nt d e n i a l of hi ms e l f . I n t o t h i s s i t u a t i o n
s ~ e p s Mrs. Ransom, t h e Oedi pal mot her , 'who i n e f f e c t draws t h e manhood
f r om )1i chael , makes him a c h i l d a ga i n, s oot he s him wi t h c hi l dhood' s dreams,
and seduces him i n t o making t h e a s c e nt . 157 ~ h u s , t h e mi ssi on o r ' Que s t '
which was co have been under t aken f o r t h e achi evement of ' l o v e of r nanki r d' ,
i s now under t aken f o r a n unheal t hy l ove , s e l f i s h and impure. m he t r agedy
o f t h e Tr ul y s t r o n g Man i s dr a ma t i c a l l y i n e v i t a b l e . his a c c e nt ua t e s , a l l
t h e more, t h e de s pe r a t e c ondi t i on of t h e common peopl e who s e i z e hope i n
t h e e xpe di t i on:
~ o l l o w t h e pr ogr e s s of t h i s mount ai n mi s s i on,
Day by Day l e t i t i n s p i r e our l owl y condi t i on.
The conques t of ~6 i s t h e i r s u b s t i t u t e f o r a ' Qu e s t ' and even i n t h e
s u b s t i t u t i o n t hey a r e di s a ppoi nt e d. I n t h e a t t a c k on t h e summit:
The i n v a l i d , sheep- count i ng a l l t h e n i g h t ,
he small, t h e t a l l , t h e bl a c k- ha i r e d and t h e whi t e
See somet hi ng each can e s t i ma t e ,
hey can r ead of t h e s e a c t i o n s and know chem gr e a t .
- .
~ i l t , CI isso lii~ion oi ~,-ie (;roup r t , pr c s c nt s t h e gr a dua l d i s i n t e g r a t i o n of any
h o ; ~ f o r psysil i c sa:v;;;lion. It i s a d i s s o l u t i o n which be gi ns wi t h t h e
t h e ' Q L ~ C ~ C . ' ~ t s ' i i , ~ ~ t l ~ o - j i : ; : ; ~ ! i ~ l ~ g i ~ n l hocus- pocus' 58 c e n t r e s ar ound
.i!:<. c r y s t a l : ] , I : ; ti6e rv;; ecz~on o i which each mount ai neer penet l r at es t o
z a s i c i i l l y , i t 2r obcs the i nci i vi cl u; ~l weakness, s ymbol i c a l l y r e p r e s e n t i n g
i ; l evi t abl e La i l u r c of tlic ' ~ u c s t ' . hii is, t h e ~ o c t o r ' s f a t n e s s znd
conscqucnc ;,;cr;ic, i s s ugges t i . ~: by h i s s i t t i i l g i n a n ar mchai r i n t h e ~ c f o r m
eLL,j. ~ 2 x 2 seL_s t h e liowers whi ch imirlc h i s i n t e r n a l decay whi l e ~ u n n ' s
. .
c ~ ~ s s I ~ x . ~ ~ ~ wdy of i i f e and basic deat h- wi s hi ng c h a r a c t e r i s r e p r e s e n t e d by
n ,,,,ure, ,, 1- now i n con5 l i c t - L11e ; {car t and t h e ~ n t e l l e c t . when t he y harmoni ze
c, ozi ent ari i y , ifhey expound tile mcans t o pe r s ona l s a l v a t i o n :
I n t:?, ~ b a l l , :,ansox s e e s h i n s c l f once more a s a Worl d-Heal er. is q u e s t ~ i l n
Was i t t o mc t he y t ur ne d t h e i r
r o d c n t f a c e s , t h o s e r agged de ni z e ns of t h e wa t e r f r o n t s ,
and s queal ed s o p i t e o u s l y : ' Re s t o r e us . Res t or e u s t o o u r
uni quenes s and o u r human c ondi t i on. '
T ~ W monks' a s c e t i c i s m, i nvol vi ng t he ' compl et e abnegat i on of t h e w i l l , '
p o i n t s t o one means of s a l v a t i o n . zy t h i s , he coul d evade t h e t empt at i on
t o subj ugci t c t h c Will of others t o h i s own and r u l e men ' by a p p e a l i n g t o
t h e i r f e a r and t h e i r l u s t . ' I n r e f u s i n g t o s t a y i n t h e monast er y a s a
r e l i g i o u s a s c e t i c , Ransom r e j e c t s one of t h e ways of d e a t h a l r e a d y o u t l i n e d
i n The ~ o g Beneat h t h e s k i n - ' some. . . have es caped t o t h e a s c e t i c mount ai ns. '
~t t h i s p o i n t , h e can e i t h e r r e t u r n home and a l l o w t h e o t h e r s t o c ont i nue
wi t hout hi m, o r he can l e a d t h e cl i mb which t h e o t h e r s i n t h e p a r t y a r e
i ncompet ent t o do. He r e j e c t s t h e f i r s t and a c c e p t s t h e second because
' one must work o u t h i s s a l v a t i o n i n an i mpe r f e c t worl d r a t h e r t han s t a n d
a l o o f and w a i t f o r t h e p e r f e c t o p p o r t u n i t y f o r a c t i o n t o arise. TO do
n o t h i n g i s wrong, y e t e v e r y a c t i s t a i n t e d wi t h i mpe r f e c t i on. ' And y e t ,
once more, Ransom' s mot i va t i on i n c ont i nui ng t h e e x p e d i t i o n i s s u s p e c t , f o r ,
t hr ough f e a r o f h i s own w i l l , he ha s pl aced t h a t r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f i r ml y on
t h e s h o u l d e r s of h i s gr oup.
he s c e ne s on t h e mount ai n r e v e a l t h e s ma l l amount of pr ogr e s s t h e
i n d i v i d u a l s have made on t h e i r ' Qu e s t . ' The Doct or ha s l o s t ' ~ t l e a s t
two s t one . T h a t ' s one c omf or t , ' b u t i n s o doi ng i s onl y removi ng from
t h e s u r f a c e a symptom of what i s e s s e n t i a l l y a deep- r oot ed d i s e a s e .
Lamp' s i n t e n s e obs e s s i on wi t h f l owe r s l e a d s d i r e c t l y t o h i s deat h: - 'He
was j u s t s t oopi ng t o pi c k t h e f l o we r , when/ t he f i r s t s t o n e g o t hi m. ' he
mount ai n t o ps ychi c h e a l t h , however, h a s cl ai med many vi c t i ms . One i s
s hawcr os s , ' a f e v e r i s h i n v a l i d , ' whose her o- wor shi p o f Ransom ha s
decomposed i n t o envy and d e s p e r ~ t e j e a l ous y. AS he hi ms el f s a ys :
Even my admi r at i on of yoil w a s onl y a not he r
ki nd of c onc e i t . you were j u s t an i d e a l
of mysel f .
~ i k ? t h c Airman of The Or a t o r s , shawcr oss i s l e d i n e v i t a b l y t o s e l f -
d e s t r u c t i o n . Gunn' s de a t h r e s u l t s from h i s l ack of st ami na and h i s
i n a b i l i t y t o de di c a t e hi msel f e n t i r e l y t o t h e s t r e nuous ' ~ u e s t . ' Hi s
de a t h i s s een ~s ' good l uc k' Ly Ransom, chus consummating t h e l a t t e r ' s
deat h- wi sh shown i n t h e openi ng scene of t h e pl ay:
O , happy t h e f o e t u s t h a t mi s c a r r i e s and t h e
f r oz e n i d i o t t h a t cannot c r y ' ~a ma ' . Happy
t hos e r un ove r i n t h e s t r e e t t oday o r drowned
a t s e a , o r s u r e of de a t h tomorrow from
i nc ur a bl e di s e a s e s .
The l a s t scene I n t h e pl ay p a r a l l e l s t h e d i s l o c a t i o n of Ransom' s
mind. ~t i s ' a s t r a nge mi xt ur e of a l l e g o r y and bur l e s que , a t t h e same
t i me t h a t t h e di a l ogue c ont i nue s t o pur sue a s e r i o u s and somewhat
mys t i f yi ng ~ s y c h o l o g i c a l theme. ' The f r agment ed images which
compose t h i s l ast scene t a ke pl a c e i n Ransom' s mind, i n t h e f i n a l s t a g e s
of de l i r i um be f or e ~ e a t h . hey s ugge s t , s ymbol i c a l l y, Ransom' s d e s t r u c t i o n
o f h i s b r o t h e r and h i s f i n a l d i s s o l u t i o n . They probe beneat h h i s s ur f a c e
s t r e n g t h and l o c a t e t h e mal i gnant growth.
AS i n he Dog ~ e n e a t h t h e s k i n , t h e c hor us , wi t h i t s moral commentary
on t h e a c t i o n , s e r ve s t o r a i s e t h e i ndi vi dua l dilemma t o a wi der ,
a l l e g o r i c a l l e v e l . Th e i r remarks a r e concer ned wi t h more:
' s e r i o u s and r e a l i s t i c ma t t e r s - j u s t i c e .
v i o l a t e d , memory b e s e t by f e a r , a ' wor l d
t ur ni ng i n t h e d a r k ' , t h e g r e a t n e s s of Love
i n t h e end, and t h e e t e r n a l freedom of
choi ce. his a l l s e r ve s t o poi nt up t h e
c o n t r a s t bet ween t he showy f a l s i t i e s of s e l f -
r egar di ng s ent i ment and t h e s t e r n i n s p i r i n g
r e a l i t i e s of an e t h i c based on t r u e and
' d i s c i p l i n e d ' Love. ' 59
hey a l s o evoke t h e background from which t h e ' ~ u e s t ' must be made:
~ c t t he eye of t h e t r a v e l l e r c o n s i d e r t h i s count r y and weep,
For t o a d s cr oak i n t h e c i s t e r n s ; t h e aqueduct s choke wi t h
1 caves :
~ h c highways a r e o u t of r e p a i r and i n f e s t e d wi t h t h i e v e s :
he r aggcd popul a t i on a r e cr azy f o r l a c k of s l e e p :
o u r chimneys a r e smokel ess; t h e i mpl ement s r u s t i n t h e
field
ijn3 o d r t a l l c o n s t r u c t i o n s a r e f e l l e d .
~ 1 1 e Dragon of ~ c a t h , of i n h i b i t e d o r p e r v e r t e d Love, of i n e r t i a , i s
r 2 s p o n s i b l s f o r t h e ps ychi c c ondi t i on. p o l i t i c a l l y , t h e Dragon i s
r e p r e s e n t e d by James Ransom, t h e man r e s p o n s i b l e f o r f a l s e powers of he a l i ng.
I n h i s d e l i r i u m, ~ i c h a e l c o n f r o n t s h i s enemy wi t h a campaign t o o s u b t l y
concei ved a s a Chess game t o f o r c e any c onc l us i ve r e s u l t . he s t a g n a n t
mi nd, r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e ~ s t a b l i s h me n t of t h e Co l o n i a l o f f i c e , may descend
t o b e s t i a l i t y but i t s pr es ence r emai ns as a f u r t h e r c a us e o f t h e
d i s i l l u s i o n me n t of t h e q u e s t i n g I n d i v i d u a l . The f i n a l s c e r e of f a r c e ,
v i s i o n and ps yc hol ogi c a l a n a l y s i s l e a d s Ransom t o a p a r t i a l unde r s t a ndi ng
of h i s f a i l u r e :
For gi ve me. ~t was a l l my f a u l t .
~6 ha s shown me what I am. 1 ' m a coward
and a p r i g .
s uc h a r e a l i z a t i o n of o n e ' s g u i l t i s an e s s e n t i a l pr e l i mi na r y t o t h e ' Qu e s t ' .
~ u t h e cannot overcome h i s i n t e n s e s e l f - l o v e , r e ve a l e d i n h i s ye a r ni ng f o r
t h e o other-imago and h i s c o n s t a n t i n t r o s p e c t i o n . Complete as a
' Qu e s t i n g ' i n d i v i d u a l i n t h e f i r s t s cene of t h e p l a y , a n o v e r - e l a b o r a t e
a n a l y s i s of h i s mot i va t i on d e p r i v e s him o f t h e oppor t uni t y t o be Tr ul y
St r o n g i n t h e l ast scene. Her e, he ha s r e t r e a t e d f u r t h e r i n t o hi ms el f and
hi s weaknesses. ~e h a s f a i l e d c o n c l u s i v e l y i n h i s ' ~ u e s t . ' A s t h e pl ay
c l o s e s , t h e Hidden Chor us r e s t a t e s t h e main theme of t h e pl ay:
Fr e e now f r om i n d i g n a t i o n ,
Immune f r om a l l f r u s t r a t i o n
He l i e s i n d e a t h a l o n e ;
How he wi t h s e c r e t t e r r o r
L ~ n d ever y minor e r r o r
Has a l s o made plan' s weakness known.
whom h i s t o r y has de s e r t e d,
~ h e s e have t h c i r power e x e r t e d ,
I n one convul s i ve t hr oe ;
\ $i t h sudden drowning s uc t i on
ar ew i ; i x t o h i s d ~ s t r u c t i o n .
~ u c chey cu d i s s o l u t i o n go.
I n he Ascent of ~ 6 , ~ u i e n and ~s h e r wo o d r e j e c t t h e s i mpl e and d i r e c t
s o l u t i o n t o >; ant s ps ychi c i l l n e s s . The pl ay i s a s t a t e me nt of d e s p a i r ,
a c hr oni c l e of pf anl s i n a b i l i t y t o es cape t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r h i s own
ps ychi c c ur e . what i s s i g n i f i c a n t i s t h a t onl y a smal l per cent age of
t h e popul at i on i s e l i g i b i e f o r t h e ' ~ u e s t . ' It cor r es ponds not
s u r p r i s i n g l y wi t h ~ u d e n ' s own s o c i a l p o s i t i o n and h i s awar eness of t h e
r o d e n t - l i v e s s oc i e t y ha s manuf act ur ed f o r M r . and Mrs. A. Born t o be
l e d , t hey a r e t o t a l l y dependent on t h e i r s p i r i t u a l h e a l e r s . But a l l men,
a s t h e gr oup on ~ 6 , a r e i n e v i t a b l y f l awed and unworthy of t h a t Leader shi p.
he problem i s p a r t i a l l y r e s ol ve d by t h e ~ b b o t but even he , c l o s e s t t o
~ u d e n ' s ps ychi c i d e a l , i s e s s e n t i a l l y unwort hy:
Sometimes, when I a m t i r e d o r i l l , I a m
s u b j e c t t o ver y s t r a nge a t t a c k s . hey
come wi t hout war ni ng, i n t h e mi ddl e of
t h e n i g h t ... suddenl y i n t o my mind s t r a nge
words, s na t c he s of song and even whole
poems ...A nd when I come t o mysel f a ga i n
and s e e t h e s e monast ery wa l l s ar ound me,
I a m f i l l e d wi t h h o r r o r and d e s p a i r .
For I Know t h a t i t i s a v i s i t a t i o n of t h e
Demon. I know t h a t , f o r me, not hi n
ma t t e r s andy more: i t i s t oo l a t e . I
am a l r e a dy among t h e l o s t .
Audenl s r e j e c t i o n of a l l e a r t h l y a u t h o r i t y f o r t h e l e a de r s hi p of t h e
i n d i v i d u a l ' ~ u e s t ' l e a ds t o t h e assumpt i on of a s upe r na t ur a l a u t h o r i t y .
AS Spender s a y s , d e s p i t e t h e p o l i t i c a l background and t h e i nc onc l us i ve
endi ng, t h e s t r u g g l e i n t h e pl ay i s ' r e a l l y r e l i g i o u s . I 6 O he a u t h o r i t y
that Auden callcd upon in poem XXX of poems, the athe her' of the fifth
ode of The Orators, is now asserted as the final authority for the 'Quest.'
~eplogle is correct when he says that:
Certainly t he play seeins Co emphasize a
a. '
~nec; e that i ~ ~ E ~ i ~ la:er stressed: man is
a sin::clr w.i-iosc (:Ticry action is doomed to
faiiurc; h i s first conccrn is his
reiationship (kowevcs imperfect) to ~ o d .
T?? I LLc , plzy may be :he first important
indication of his shift to a religious
frame of reference .
6 1
~t the end of the play, this vision of an end to the 'Quest' overshadows
the actual spiritual condition of Nan so seriously presented by ~ u d e n and
~sherwood in its many stages of disarray. Although the individual '~uests'
are unsuccessful, the authority on which future successful 'Quests' will be
based are securely established.
The drums t a p o u t s e ns a t i ona l b u l l e t i n s ;
F r a n t i c t h e e f f o r t s of t h e v i o l i n s
To drown t h e song behi nd t h e guar ded h i l l :
he da nc e r s do not l i s t e n ; but t hey wi11.62
On t h e F r o n t i e r , f i r s t produced on November 14t h, 1938 by Ruper t
Doone a t t h e Arts The a t r e , ~ a m b r i d ~ e , ~ ~ was wr i t t e n ' s p e c i f i c a l l y f o r a
l e f t - wi ng audi ence. ' 64 of t h e pl a ys wr i t t e n i n c o l l a b o r a t i o n wi t h
~ h r i s t o p h e r I sher wood, i t i s t h e ' l east conf used and b e s t c ons t r uc t e d
d r a ma t i c a l l y t 6 5 a l t hough t h e concer n wi t h a t i d y s t r u c t u r e h a s depr i ved
t h e pl a y of ~ u d e n ' s r e s t l e s s ener gy. hat 'many of t h e i r most
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c t a l e n t s are l a r g e l y subdued' 66 may account f o r t h e
d o c t r i n a l q u a l i t y of t h e p l a y ' s Mar xi s t bor r owi ngs. AS Beach s ays :
h i s propaganda i s e n t i r e l y conduct ed on
t h e l e v e l of t h e o v e r t f a c t s of human
s o c i e t y wi t hout t h e r emot es t r e f e r e nc e
t o t h e c ompl i c a t i ons of psychol o
t h e t r a ns c e nde nt a l s of r e l i g i o n . %$ and
on one l e v e l , of c our s e , t h i s i s a n a de qua t e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of a pl ay
t o a l l e x t e n t s ' as bol d as a p o s t e r , s t a r t l i n g i n i t s c o n t r a s t s , obvi ous
i n i t s propaganda and unambiguous i n i t s a s s a u l t s . ' 68 And i n i t s promi se
o f t h e 'Good Li f e ' t h e ' ~ u e s t ' i s concei ved a l ong or t hodox p a r t y l i n e s i n
whi ch evolution r e pl a c e s t h e change of Heart de s c r i be d i n poems. I n a not he r
s e ns e , however, t h e p l a y ' s a t t e mpt t o d e f i n e Aut hor i t y r e l a t e s l ogi -
c a l l y back t o he Ascent of ~ 6 . s i mpl y, Auden and ~s h e r wo o d have
t r a n s f e r r e d a l l t h e i r a t t e n t i o n away from Man' s s p i r i t u a l Leader s t o t h e i r
pe r ve r t e d t r a v e s t y i n p o l i t i c a l and s o c i a l f i g u r e s . v a l e r i a n , l i k e James
Ransom, i s a ' s h e l l of a man' whose l e a de r s hi p i s mot i vat ed s o l e l y by
pe r s ona l ga i n.
It i s a l e a de r s hi p a i de d and a b e t t e d by t h e Mass Media i n a pl ay
where t h e newspaper and t h e r a d i o are r e s pons i bl e f o r t h e i d e o l o g i c a l
h o s t i l i t y between two or di na r y f a mi l i e s . Dur i ng t h e 19301s , t h i s wa s a
f a v o u r i t e s o c i a l i s t poi nt :
The power of t h e c a p i t a l i s t c l a s s now rests
pr edomi nant l y upon t h e i r c o n t r o l ove r what we
have c a l l e d t h e means of pr oduct i on of opi ni on:
upon t h e i r c o n t r o l ove r men' s minds. ~f t h e i r
power t o keep men i n i gnor ance and unconsci ousness
of s o c i a l pr oc e s s e s coul d be removed, t hen t h e
pr oces s of s o c i a l t r a ns f or ma t i on coul d be s wi f t ,
e a s y and bl oodl ess. . . we must t a k e it as a c ons t a nt
f a c t o r i n t h e s o c i a l e qua t i on t h a t t h e c a p i t a l i s t s
w i l l succeed i n obs c ur i ng, bot h from t h e wor ker s
and from t hems el ves , t h a t v i t a l knowledge ( of
Marxism) wi t hout which t h e pr oc e s s of s o c i a l change
i s bound t o be ar duous , b l i n d and t h e r e f o r e t o
some e x t e n t v i o l e n t . 69
I n On t h e F r o n t i e r , t h e two f a mi l i e s show t h e e x t e n t of human
de gr a da t i on i n a s o c i e t y wi t hout d i r e c t i o n . Thi s he l ps e xpl a i n j u l i a n
~y mo n s ' remark t h a t t h e pl ay was marked ' by t h a t d i s t a s t e f o r t h e
' o r d i n a r y peopl e' I n f a c t , Auden i s u s i n g t h e or di na r y peopl e t o p r o j e c t
h i s own a n x i e t y wi t h s o c i a l l e a de r s . I n t h e s cene be f or e t h e c u r t a i n ,
t h e i n d i v i d u a l i s seen s t r u g g l i n g a g a i n s t a syst em which de ni e s him any
form of s e l f - e xpr e s s i on and r educes h i s l i f e t o a p o i n t l e s s r o u t i n e
r e s u l t i n g i n t h e deat h- wi sh:
he as s embl y- bel t i s l i k e a n army on t h e move;
~ t ' s s t r o n g e r t han h a t e , br ot he r : i t ' s s t r onge r t han l ove.
g u t wi t h i n Man i s t h e d e s i r e f o r change, now more t h e Mar xi s t change i n
envi r onment t h a t t h e i n t e n s e l y per s onal change o f h e a r t announced i n poem
XXIX of poems: ' The day i s coming, b r o t h e r , when we s h a l l a l l be f r e e . '
Th i s change i n envi r onment can onl y be e f f e c t e d by t h e over t hr ow of
t h e c o r r u p t power behi nd t h e t hr one - v a l e r i a n . I n t h i s gr ot e s que
c a r i c a t u r e of ~ u d e n ' s ps ychi c i d e a l , l ove of money and de di c a t i on t o t h e
Machine have r educed Love t o a minimum. ~ n s t e a d , a c or r upt l ove of
power r u l e s h i s a c t i v i t y wi t h i t s a i m - ' a b s o l u t e c o n t r o l of mankind. '
Th i s i s v a l e r i a n ' s ' ~ u e s t ' and i t i s doomed more c l e a r l y t o f a i l u r e t han
Auden' s e a r l i e r wander er s. H i s di s r e ga r d f o r t h e ' p a t i e n t s he e p' , t he
wor ker s , i s a compl et e c o n t r a s t t o ~ a n s o m' s concer n ove r h i s di s e a s e d
i n d i v i d u a l s , a l t hough he t o o i s f a t a l l y s t r i c k e n . Scor n and cyni ci sm
compl et e Auden' s p o r t r a i t of t h e t r u l y c o r r u p t Man:
Make your l i t t l e p r o t e s t . Get a new mas t er
i f you can. you wi l l soon be made t o r e a l i z e
t h a t he i s as e xa c t i ng as t h e o l d , and
pr obabl y l e s s i n t e l l i g e n t .
I t i s a l e a de r s hi p which e f f e c t i v e l y smot her s t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s d e s i r e
t o ' ~ u e s t ' f o r t h e freedom each ha s l o s t under t h e c a p i t a l i s t syst em.
E r i c and Anna a t once symbol i ze t h e e x t e n t t o which per s onal r e l a t i o n s h i p s
have been de s t r oye d wi t hi n s o c i e t y and Man' s a c t i v i t y i n r e v i t a l i z i n g them.
heir l ove e a s i l y c r o s s e s t h e a r t i f i c i a l man-made f r o n t i e r s whose gr ot e s que
a r b i t r a r y n a t u r e Auden r e p r e s e n t s on s t a ge . I t i s a l ove whi ch, as 1
s h a l l p o i n t o u t , moves o u t from a n i n t e n s e l y per s onal l ove bet ween two
young peopl e t o a Love c a pa bl e of r e s ol vi ng t h e wor l d' s probl ems i n a
c h r i s t i a n ' Q U ~ S ~ . '
On t h e F r o n t i e r p r e s e n t s two f a mi l i e s , s ubj e c t e d t o d i s s i mi l a r
p r e s s u r e s , who demonst r at e Man' s compl et e i n a b i l i t y t o overcome t h e
i n s i d i o u s t e mpt a t i ons of a s o c i a l or ga ni z a t i on. The a r t i f i c i a l f r o n t i e r
which s e p a r a t e s we s t l a nd' s ~ h o r v a l d s from t h e Os t ni a n v r o d n y - ~u s s e k s , which
d i v i d e s F a s c i s t s from comf or t abl e r e a c t i o n a r i e s and Monar chi s t s ,
i r o n i c a l l y emphasi zes t h e b a s i c s i mi l a r i t y between n a t i o n s and i ndi vi dua l s .
Th e i r d i f f e r e n c e s are t h e r e s u l t of t h e pr e s s ur e s e xe r t e d upon them by t h e
Mass Media and c o n t r o l l e d by ma l i c i ous l y f a l s e ' l e a d e r s . ' The pl ay
r e c or ds Auden' s pr eoccupat i on wi t h t h e theme of l e a de r s hi p - t h e n a t u r a l
c o r o l l a r y t o t h e mot i f of t h e ' ~ u e s t ' i n which t h e s eeki ng i ndi vi dua l models
hi ms el f on a ps ychi c o r s o c i a l i d e a l . I n v a l e r i a n , Auden gr ot e s que l y
pa r odi e s Man' s cont emporary ' h e a l e r s ' and, a t t h e same t i me , pl a c e s t h e
bur den f o r Man' s f u t u r e on t h e young. That t h e young a r e unabl e t o
a c hi e ve a nyt hi ng i n s o c o r r u p t a syst em and d i e as t h e pl ay c l o s e s ,
s ugge s t s ~ u d e n ' s deep and b i t t e r di s i l l us i onme nt wi t h a s o c i e t y i n which
change i s s o d i f f i c u l t . The pl ay i s a n unenl i ght ened s o c i a l t r a c t i n
whi ch, pos s i bl y u n i n t e n t i o n a l l y , t h e d e l i c a t e and ephemeral l ove of Er i c
and Anna s e r ve s t o t hr ow s o c i a l e v i l i n t o g r e a t e r r e l i e f . he young
peopl e i n t h e pl a y, t hos e on whom t h e mass media have had l i t t l e o r no
t i m e t o work, are b a s i c a l l y na i ve and i d e a l i s t i c b u t , by c o n t r a s t t o t h e
p o l i t i c a l machi nat i ons ar ound them, s i n c e r e and p r a c t i c a l :
we l l , 1 t hi nk t h a t i f peopl e- t he or di na r y de c e nt
peopl e i n bot h count r i es - woul d onl y g e t t o g e t h e r ,
- we coul d. . .
The pl ay t h u s c ont i nue s t h e i de a of t h e power of l ove i n t h e wor l d.
Between E r i c and Anna, t h e r e i s a bond which c r o s s e s a l l cr ude man-made
bounda r i e s - a n a r e na of peace beyond a l l p o l i t i c a l s quabbl i ngs :
o u r l ove
1s t h e f a r and unsuspect ed i s l a n d
The i r p r e s t i g e does n o t hol d.
his l ove - a q u i e t l y c o n s t r u c t i v e f o r c e wi t hi n human r e l a t i o n s h i p s - i s
s t i f l e d i n a s t a t e syst em where a l l s i d e s p r e f e r t h e c l i c h e t o humani t y;
' Tr a d i t i o n and br eedi ng count . / you c a n ' t wi pe o u t t h e h i s t o r y of a t housand
y e a r s . ' t y p i f y t h e publ i c r e a c t i o n t o t h e a ppe a l of Love. ~t t h i s poi nt
~ u d e n a c c e p t s t h e Mar xi s t change of envi r onment as ne c e s s a r y be f or e Man can
a t t a i n a he a l t hy Love. Ne ve r t he l e s s , t h e means i s t o t a l l y s ubor di na t e t o
t h e end where t h e goa l i s t o be accompl i shed a t a pur el y i n d i v i d u a l l e ve l .
~ h u s , it i s r e l a t i v e l y e a s y t o make t h e t r a n s i t i o n from t h e ' change of
h e a r t ' demanded i n poems t o t h e c a l l f o r s o c i a l r e vol ut i on demonst r at ed i n
On t h e Fr o n t i e r .
A s i n The Ascent of ~ 6 , where Mi chael ~ a n s o m' s ' ~ u e s t ' f a i l s t hr ough
a c or r upt i ng mot i va t i ng f o r c e wi t hi n him, s o , i n On t h e F r o n t i e r , t h e
l e a d e r ' s w i l l and t h e g l o r i f i c a t i o n of t he power of t h a t w i l l - ' The
i mmut abl e, unconquer abl e w i l l of t h e west l and na t i on' - l e a ds t o a
pe r s ona l degr adat i on. w his i nhe r e nt c or r upt i on r e s u l t s i n a s e n s e l e s s
war whi ch r e v e r b e r a t e s back ont o t h e peopl e. ~ l l e g o r i c a l l y , t he y d i e of
a n i n t e n s e pl ague which s pr e a ds qui c kl y from t h e s o l d i e r s t hemsel ves.
x t shows no p a r t i c u l a r malice b u t i n s t i g a t e s a ge ne r a l d e s t r u c t i o n as
Mar t ha, oswal d and t h e Gr a ndf a t he r a l l d i e a meani ngl ess deat h. I n t h e
c l o s i n g speech of Er i c and Anna, we s e e t h i s f a i l u r e of t h e human w i l l as
t h e d i r e c t w i l l of l ove. I n f a c t , i t i s t h e dream of yout h:
TO b u i l d t h e c i t y where
The w i l l of l ove i s done
And br ought t o i t s f u l l f l owe r
The d i g n i t y o f man.
One i d e a i s he a vi l y unde r l i ne d, however. For Er i c and Ann a t h e mea
t o change must st em d i r e c t l y from t h e i r engagement i n pr e s e nt s oc i e t y.
Mass r e t r e a t , o r an i s o l a t i n g wi t hdr awal are n o t hhe means t o accompl i sh
t h e ' ~ u e s t . ' Er i c , t h e p a c i f i s t , bol dl y s ays :
We cannot choose o u r wor l d,
o u r t i me, o u r c l a s s . None are i nnoc e nt , none.
Causes of vi ol e nc e l i e s o deep i n a l l o u r l i ves
~t t ouches e ve r y a c t .
And once a g a i n , Love i s t h e panacea t o a l l s o c i a l i l l s as i t was f o r a l l
ps yc hi c a i l me nt s i n t h e e a r l i e r poet r y. I t i s Auden' s pur pose t o
' t e a c h man t o unl e a r n h a t r e d and l e a r n l ove ' which l e a ds t o E r i c ' s
a n a l y s i s of h a t r e d i n t h e s e t er ms:
he h a t r e d of our enemi es
Is t h e d e s t r u c t i v e s e l f - l o v e of t h e dyi ng,
Our h a t r e d i s t h e p r i c e of t h e wor l d' s freedom.
AS t h e pl ay c l o s e s on a b i t t e r and d i s i l l u s i o n e d not e , Auden s e e s hope
onl y a t t h e ver y per s onal l e v e l . ~t i s t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
t o under t ake h i s own ' ~ u e s t ' wi t hout t h e c or r upt i ng i nf l ue nc e of h i s
p o l i t i c a l l e a d e r s , by t hey Di c t a t o r s o r Monarchs. It i s s i g n i f i c a n t ,
however, t h a t Er i c and Anna' s l ast speeches are i n t h e form of a pr a ye r ,
i mpl yi ng t h e t ype of l e a d e r s h i p which i s c e r t a i n t o save them:
par don them t h e i r mi s t a ke s ,
The i mpa t i e nt and waver i ng wi l l .
hey s u f f e r f o r our s a ke s ,
Honour, honour them a l l ,
~ r y t h e i r i mpe r f e c t d u s t ,
The wind blows it back and f o r t h .
They d i e t o make man j u s t
And wor t hy of t h e e a r t h .
On t h e F r o n t i e r t h u s c ont i nue s t h e devel opment r ecor ded i n The Ascent
o f ~6 where &den i s no l onger concer ned wi t h t h e que s t i ng i n d i v i d u a l , but
t h e i d e a l f o r which he i s s ear chi ng. pr e vi ous l y, it wa s enough t o l e a ve
behi nd t h e s t a gna nt a r e a s of t h e psyche i n e xpe c t a t i on t h a t any s l i g h t
change must be advant ageous t o t h e i ndi vi dua l concerned. I n t h i s l a t e r
work, Auden' s concer n i s f o r t h e d i r e c t i o n t h a t t h i s ener gy must t ake.
E a r l i e r t h e Love was Fr eudi an Er os , i nvol vi ng d i r e c t i o n l e s s b u t e s s e n t i a l
e ne r gi e s . ~t t h i s poi nt Love becomes t h e means t o God - Man' s s p i r i t u a l
l e a de r . Thi s knowl edge, i n a s u p e r f i c i a l l y l ef t - wi ng pl a y, c ondi t i ons
t h e r e a d e r t o a n under s t andi ng of Auden' s l a t e r accept ance o f c h r i s t i a n i t y
and h i s emi gr at i on t o America. ~t a l s o gi ve s a bal anci ng opt i mi sm t o
Anna' s remark t h a t ' Ther e i s no pl ace i n t h e wor l d/ por t hose who l ove . '
NOTES TO CHAPTER TWO
1
Spe a r s , The Di senchant ed I s l a n d , p. 3 9
~s h e r wo o d , Li ons and shadows, p. 174
' s p e a r s , p. 1 2
loomf field, pp. 13-14
The composi t i on and i d e a l s of t h e Group The a t r e a r e soundl y examined by
F o r r e s t Ea r l Hazard i n an unpubl i shed d i s s e r t a t i o n : he ~ u d e n Group and
t h e Group The a t r e : The Dr amat i c The or i e s and p r a c t i c e s of Ruper t Doon,
W. H. Auden, Chr i s t ophe r ~s h e r wo o d , Loui s MacNeice, s t ephen s pender and
Ce c i l Day Lewis. DA XXV. 1913-14 ( v i s . ) .
' Symons, The ' T h i r t i e s , p.79.
Quot ed by ~ o h n w i l l e t t i n Br e c ht on The a t r e , (New yor k, 1964) , p.37.
Symons, p. 79.
'' ~ e a c h , he ~ u d e n Canon, p. 149.
l2 . ~uden: An I nt r oduc t or y Essay, p.72.
l3 Spe a r s , ~ h z 2i s enchant ed I s l a n d , p.91.
'' i b i d . , p.16.
l6 The ' T h i r t i e s , p.80.
l7 Beach, he Auden Canon, pp. 143-4.
l8 ~ e p l o g l e , ~ h e s i s , p. 82.
bid., p.83.
20 Rober t loom, ' ~ u d e n ' s Es s ays a t Man, ' shenandoah, p.36.
21
Spe a r s , The Di senchant ed ~ s l a n d , p. 16.
22 Symons, The ' T h i r t i e s , p.79.
23 quot ed by ~ u l i a n Symons i n he ' T h i r t i e s , p. 79.
24 Lehmann, New Wr i t i ng, p. 66.
25 Ev e r e t t , ~ u d e n , p.49.
36
~ e a c h , The ~ u d e n Canon, p.148.
'' New wr i t i n g i n Eur ope, p.66.
'9 Ev e r e t t , p.50.
30 It i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o compare ~ u d e n ' s ha t r e d of t h e ~ e d i c a l pr of e s s i on
wi t h h i s own educat i on under h i s f a t h e r , a doc t or .
32 For f u r t h e r i nf or mat i on on t h e per f or mance pr ope r , and l s he r woodl s remarks
on t h e i r c o l l a b o r a t i o n , s e e t h e ~ u d e n bi bl i ogr a phy compi l ed by
B.C. Bl oomf i el d, p a r t i c u l a r l y pp. 13-14.
33 his per s onal mythology i s a de qua t e l y examined by J u s t i n Repl ogl e i n h i s
e s s a y, h he Gang ~ y t h i n ~ u d e n ' s ~ a r l y p o e t r y , ' JEW, LXI ( ~ u l y , 1962) ,
-
481-95.
34 s uch p o s i t i o n s a r e r e pr e s e nt e d p o e t i c a l l y by t h e images of t h e ~ a w k and
The Airman.
35 ' psychol ogy and A r t , ' p. 18.
36 Lehmann, p. 69.
37 Bl a i r , The p o e t i c A r t , p.103.
41 Bloom, p.39.
4 2
The d e d i c a t i o n of t h e pl a y t o j ohn ~ i c k n e l l Auden.
47 ~ a z a r d , The ~ u d e n Group and t he Group Th e a t r e , p. 156.
48 Th e poe t i c A r t , p. 101.
" gl oom, ' ~ u d e n ' s Essays a t plan,' p.38.
50
els son, ugh Al an. ~ n d i v i d u a l s of a Group: The ~ i n e t e e n - ~ h i r t i e s
p o e t r y o f W. H. Auden, C. Day Lewis and s t e p h e n s pender . DAY XIX ( 1958) ,
1389 ( g o r t h we s t e r n ) , p.152.
53 The p o e t i c A r t , p. 101.
54 New Wr i t i ng, p.70.
57 g e l s o n , ~ n d i v i d u a l s of a Group, p. 156.
58 F.R. Le a v i s i n a r evi ew i n s c r u t i n y , V ( ~e c e r n b e r , 1936) , p. 326.
59 Beach, p. 183.
~ o c . c i t .
61 ~ e p l o g l e , s he Auden Group, p. 145.
62 The d e d i c a t i o n of t h e pl a y t o Benjamin Br i t t e n .
64 ~ o g g a r t , p. 86.
65 ~ e a c h , p. 185.
66 Eve r e t t , p.59.
67 Beach, p. 185.
68 ~ o g g a r t , p.86.
69 ~ t r a c h e y , he ~ h e o r y and p r a c t i c e of s oci al i s m, p. 177.
70 he ' Th i r t i e s , p.83.
In conclusion
I n 1939, W.H. Auden l e f t England t o t a ke up r e s i de nc e i n America.
Tn h i s i nt r oduc t i on t o The ~ a b e r ~ o o k o f American Ver s e, t h e poet
e x p l a i n s t h e mot i ves which i mpel l ed him t o l e a ve t h e count r y which had
been t h e s u b j e c t of h i s p a r t i c u l a r concer n dur i ng t h e pr eceedi ng decade:
I n Amer i ca. . . t o move on and make a
f r e s h st ar t somewhere e l s e i s s t i l l
t h e normal r e a c t i o n t o d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n
o r f a i l u r e . s uc h s o c i a l f l u i d i t y ha s
i mpor t ant ps ychol ogi cal e f f e c t s .
Si nc e movement i nvol ve s br e a ki ng s o c i a l
and pe r s ona l t i e s , t h e h a b i t c r e a t e s an
a t t i t u d e t owar ds per s onal r e l a t i o n s h i p s
i n which impermanence i s t aken f o r
gr a nt e d ...T o be a b l e at any t i me t o
br eak wi t h zhe p a s t , t o move and keep
on moving l e s s e ns r he s i g n i f i c a n c e
nor onl y of t h e p a s t but a l s o of t h e
f uc ur e which i s r educed t o t h e
i mmedi at e f u t u r e , and mi ni mi zes t h e
i mpor t ance of p o l i t i c a l a c t i o n .
Tha t change, movement and a c t i v i t y formed t h e b a s i s of Auden' s a dvi c e t o
h i s f e l l o w countrymen i n t h e ' t h i r t i e s , seems t o conf i r m t h a t h i s
e mi gr a t i on t o America wa s t h e l o g i c a l concl us i on t o t hos e poems of
e xhor t a t i on. ~ n d e e d , a t t h i s s t a g e i n ~ u d e n ' s c a r e e r , t h e mot i f o f
' The ~ u e s t ' and t h e man hi ms el f a ppe a r t o become i n e x t r i c a b l y mi ngl ed.
Two y e a r s p r i o r t o Emi gr at i on, ~ u d e n v i s i t e d Spai n dur i ng i t s h o r r i f i c
C i v i l War. He went t h e r e t o o f f e r h i s s e r v i c e s as ' a s t r e t c h e r b e a r e r
i n a n ambulance u n i t , ' wr ot e s t e phe n s pender i n h i s aut obi ogr aphy, ' b u t
r e t ur ne d home a f t e r a ve r y s h o r t v i s i t of which he never spoke. ' I
~t
i s c l e a r even from h i s c o l d , di s pa s s i ona t e poem on ' s p a i n ' t h a t t h i s
j our ney he l d some s p e c i a l s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r him. La t e r , i n f a c t , i n a n
u n t i t l e d e s s a y which appear ed i n ~ o d e r n c a nt c r bur y p i l g r i ms , ~ u d e n s e e s
t h e v i s i t as one of t h r e e maj or s t e p s t o h i s e ve nt ua l ' c onve r s i on' t o
~ h r i s t i a n i t y . ~ u t , c e r t a i n l y , wi t hi n t h e c ont e xt of t h e poem, s p a i n
becomes a symbol, c l e a r l y i d e n t i f i a b l e wi t h t h e e a r l i e r symbols i n
~ u d e n ' s work - t h e symbols which i l l umi na t e d t h e ends of t h e ' ~ u e s t '
mot i f i t s e l f . For ~ u d e n and h i s ent our age of Br i t i s h i n t e l l e c t u a l s ,
Spai n gave a s i n g l e , dr a ma t i c ma ni f e s t a t i on t o t h e hopes, i d e a l s and
t h e o r i e s of an e n t i r e decade. s he emot i onal exci t ement ge ne r a t e d by
t h e c i v i l War i s b e s t c a pt ur e d by s t e phe n s pender i n h i s i nt r oduc t i on t o
poems f o r Spai n which he e d i t e d wi t h ~ o h n ~e hma nn:
The s t r u g g l e of t h e Republ i cans i s a
s t r u g g l e f o r t he c ondi t i ons wi t hout
which t h e r e a di ng and wr i t i n g of
poe t r y are al mos t i mpos s i bl e i n modern
s oc i e t y. 2
The e d i t o r s s e e , i n t h e symbol of s p a i n , t h e c hoi c e between Ri ght and
Wrong, bet ween Deat h and a f u t u r e of ~ u s t . A similar v i s i o n of t h e
c o n f l i c t s t i mul a t e d Auden t o s e e Spai n as a p o s s i b l e end of h i s per s onal
' ~ u e s t . ' ~t i s wor t hwhi l e r emar ki ng, a t t h i s s t a g e , t h a t t h e poem ends
on a vi ew of t h e f u t u r e which i s deepl y t i nge d wi t h d e s p a i r and
di s i l l us i onme nt .
AS i n t h e d e l i n e a t i o n of t h e ' ~ u e s t ' i n t h e e a r l i e r poe t r y, ' s p a i n '
e s t a b l i s h e s t h r e e d i s t i n c t a r e a s of human a c t i v i t y . I n t h e p a s t , Man
ha s r e f us e d t o a c c e pt t h e c onf i ni ng convent i ons and knowledge of h i s t i me
and demanded i nnova t i on and change. gy c o n t r a s t , i n t h e second s t a g e
which encompasses t h e p r e s e n t , Man i s a n ani mal who t e p i d l y w a i t s f o r
some d i v i n e i nt e r ve nt i on i n h i s a f f a i r s . Thi s u n f a l t e r i n g b e l i e f i n
a n omni s ci ent d e i t y ha s pr event ed Man from r e a l i z i n g h i s f u l l p o t e n t i a l
as a human bei ng. Spai n r e p r e s e n t s a n oppor t uni t y t o i mpel l Man i n t o
a r a d i c a l change of h e a r t , t r ans f or mi ng i t s c u r r e n t i d e a l c ons t i t ue nc y
i n t o a v i t a l r e a l i t y . DespiLe convent i onal l o y a l t i e s t o a s uc kl i ng
c ount r y, sfan f i n a l l y a c t s on h i s b e l i e f s . I n t h i s a c t i v i t y , t h e f u t u r e ,
t h e t h i r d a r e a of a c t i o n , pr omi ses an expansi on t o Man' s p o t e n t i a l :
Tomorrow, per haps , t h e f u t u r e : t h e r e s e a r c h of f a t i g u e
And t h e movements of packer s ; t h e gr a dua l e xpl or i ng
and a l l
Oct aves of r a d i a t i o n ;
Tomorrow t h e e n l a r g i n g of cons ci ous nes s by d i e t
and br e a t hi ng.
However, wi t hout an's de t e r mi na t i on t o i nvol ve hi msel f i n t h e i s s u e s
c onf r ont i ng h i s s o c i e t y , Auden warns of a r e t u r n t o t h e deat h- wi shi ng
da ys of t h e e a r l i e r ' t h i r t i e s . I ndeed, t h e l ast s t a nz a p r o j e c t s t h i s
p e s s i mi s t i c v i s i o n of l i f e :
The st ar s ar c dead; t he animals w i l l n o t l ook;
We a r e l e f t a l one wi t h our day, and t h e t i me i s s h o r t and
Hi s t or y t o t h e de f e a t e d
Hay say Alas b u t cannot h e l p o r pardon.
I n ' s p a i n ' Auden r e i t e r a t e s t h e b a s i c pr emi ss of h i s e a r l y poet r y
t h a t t h e i ndi vi dual must s eek o u t o r d e r and pe r s ona l s a l v a t i o n from h i s
decadent and c h a o t i c envi r onment . Ce r t a i n t e x t u a l emendat i ons i n t h e
poem, n e v e r t h e l e s s , s ugge s t ~ u d e n ' s d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n wi t h t h e means he ha s
advocat ed i n r e- def i ni ng t h e ends of Man' s ' ~ u e s t . '
Hugh ~ o r d ,
commenting on t h i s p o i n t , ha s s t a t e d t h a t ' s p a i n ' ' i s Auden' s most
a mbi t i ous Mar xi s t poem, be i ng a ki nd of p r o j e c t i o n of what a s uc c e s s f ul
s o c i a l i s t r e vol ut i on mi ght accompl i sh ... i n a d d i t i o n it c ont a i ns a n
i mp l i c i t condemnat i on of Marxism.'
~ o r d c ont i nue s :
when ~ u d e n wr ot e of ' t h e cons ci ous
accept ance of g u i l t i n t h e neces s ar y
u u r u e r , ' he was mi ndf ul of somet hi ng
b e s i i e s bei ng i n t he unhappy p o s i t i o n
of havi ng t o k i l l your enemy be f or e
he k i l l e d you. IIe w a s c ogni s a nt , as
we l l , of t h e consequences of t h e
~ a r x i s t hypot l l csi s which condoned
t h e most r e pr e he ns i bl e conduct s o
l ong as it advanced t h e s o c i a l i s t
cause. whether f o r some r eason
~ u d e n had never be f or e cons i der ed
t h e t h e o r e t i c a l o r p r a c t i c a l
a p p l i c a t i o n s of t h e hypot he s i s cannot
be c onc l us i ve l y det er mi ned. g u t t h a t
i t began t o bot he r him f ol l owi ng h i s
r e t u r n from Spai n seems c e r t a i n . To
s pe nde r , ' h e s t a t e d e mpha t i c a l l y t h a t
p o l i t i c a l exi gence wa s ne ve r a
j u s t i f i c a t i o n of l i e s . '
Th i s s t a t e me nt of d i s i l l u s i o n me n t $ of maj or p o e t i c and pe r s ona l
i mpor t ance, i s Auden' s l a s t s e r i o u s s t a t e me nt be f or e h i s e mi gr a t i on t o
America. I n h i s next works he d i s c a r d s t h e uni f yi ng image of t h e
' ~ u e s t ' compl et el y a l t hough t h e framework i s r e t a i n e d i n L e t t e r s from
~ c e l a n d , e s s e n t i s i l y a t r avei - book i n i n t e n t . The j our ney, ne ve r t he l e s s ,
i s s een by ~ a r b a r a Ev e r e t t , as ' a que s t f o r some p r i v a t e image of t h e
~ o r t h , which i s t e s t e d a g a i n s t r e a l i t y . ' wi t hi n t h i s volume, t h e
supreme c a s ua l ne s s of p o e t i c t one i mpl i e s ~ u d e n ' s t o t a l l a c k of
i nvol vement wi t h h i s image. c e r t a i n l y , i n Journey t o a War and mo t h e r
Time, he i s ver y much bet ween b e l i e f s , r e f l e c t e d i n t h e oc c a s i ona l na t ur e
-
o f many of t h e poems, l i g h t l y humorous.
noth her Time, however, i s i mpor t ant i n e va l ua t i ng ~ u d e n ' s supposed
' c onve r s i on' i n t h e ' f o r t i e s . Fol l owi ng h i s di s c us s i on of l e a d e r s h i p i n
he Ascent of ~6 and On t h e F r o n t i e r , t h e poet acknowl edges h i s
a dmi r a t i on f o r t h e l e a d e r s h i p q u a l i t i e s mani f es t ed i n t h e work of f e l l ow
ar t i s t s . The e a r l y s e a r c h f o r t h e ' ~ r u l y St r ong Man' which s o domi nat es
t he work of t h e ' t h i r t i e s f i n d s consummation i n such poems as 'Musee de s
Beaux ~ r t s , ' ' ~ n Memory of sigmund ~ r e u d , ' and ' l n Memory of W,B. y e a t s , '
each of which r e f l e c t s ~ u d c n ' s pr e s e nt ' gos pe l of e c l e c t i c humanism.
Thi s i s put most p l a i n l y a t t h e end of pit ha lam ion:'
vowing t o redeem t h e S t a t e ,
ow l e t ever y g i r l and boy
To t h e heaven of t h e Gr e a t
~ l l t h e i r pr a ye r s and p r a i s e s l i f t :
s i g n i f i c a n t l y , such ' s e c u l a r s a i n t s o r s u b s t i t u t e gods1' have r e pl a c e d
~ u d e n ' s a r t i s t i c f r i e n d s as t h e ' h e a l e r s of mankind. ' c h r i s t o p h e r
f sher wood, s t e phe n s pe nde r , Edward upward and Rex Warner no l onge r make
sudden and mys t er i ous appear ances t o c r e a t e an o p t i mi s t i c v i s i o n of an
England wher ei n Man i s s u c c e s s f u l l y a t t e mpt i ng t h e ' ~ u e s t ' under s a f e
t u t e l a g e . wi t h t h e omi ssi on of h i s f r i e n d s , Auden wi t hdr aws f u r t h e r
from t h e mot i f wi t h which he was s o i nvol ved dur i ng t h e ' t h i r t i e s . That
d e s i r e t o l o c a t e hi ms el f i n t h e iinmediate t i me and space of Engl and' s
pr edi cament , t h e per s onal i s m of ~ o o l c , s t r a n g e r ! , i s overwhelmed by t h e
d i s t a n c e ~ u d e n a c hi e ve s bet ween hi msel f and h i s s u b j e c t i n t h e oc c a s i ona l
poem. pr e vi ous l y, t h e poet had spoken f r e q u e n t l y i n h i s own voi c e :
' o u t on t h e lawn I l i e i n b e d ' ; ' NOW from my wi ndow- si l l I wat ch t h e
n i g h t ' ; but now, i n t h e e a r l y ' f o r ~ i e s , t h e s e ns e of pe r s ona l a n t i c i p a t i o n
h a s dr a i ne d away. We f i n d Auden i n Ameri ca, havi ng l e f t behi nd t h e s oc i e t y
which pr ovi ded him wi t h h i s ener gy and h i s i n t e l l e c t u a l exci t ement .
~t i s p e r i l o u s f o r t h e c r i t i c t o a t t e mpt t h e t ype of pr oj e c t e d
ps ychoanal ys i s Auden hi ms el f under t ook and e xpl oi t e d i n t h e e a r l y work,
b u t t h e l a c k of z e s t , t h e yout hf ul c onf us i on, t h e absence of a n unyi e l di ng
exci t ement wi t h h i s t hought s s o c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e young poet and s o
e v i d e n t l y l a c ki ng i n t h e l a t e r volumes i s a t t r i b u t a b l e t o more t han t h e
pa s s i ng of t i me. For t h e s e l a t e r works e x h i b i t a s t a b i l i t y and a cal ml y
o b j e c t i v e eye r e f l e c t i n g an i nne r peace of mind. c e r t a i n l y , i n The
-
Double ;\Ian, ~ u d e n a ppe a r s t o have di s cover ed t h e t ype of ps ychi c i d e a l
f o r which he had been s eeki ng s o s t r e nuous l y i n h i s poet r y f o r more t han
a decade. I n an u n t i t l e d e s s a y, which appear ed i n plodern Cant er bur y
p i l g r i ms , he r ecount s h i s gr a dua l conver si on t o c h r i s t i a n i t y . I n
p a r t i c u l a r he r e l a t e s hi s e xpe r i e nc e s i n Spai n which had t h a t c a t h a r t i c
e f f e c t 1 have a l r e a dy poi nt e d out :
wi t h t h i s and s i mi l a r que s t i ons whi sper i ng
a t t he back of my mind, I v i s i t e d Spai n
dur i ng t h e c i v i l War. on a r r i v i n g i n
Bar cel ona, I found as I walked t hr ough t h e
c i t y t h a t a l l t h e chur ches were c l os e d and
t h e r e was n o t a p r i e s t t o be seen. TO my
as t oni s hment , t h i s di s cover y l e f t me
pr of oundl y shocked and di s t ur be d. The
f e e l i n g wa s f a r t oo i n t e n s e t o be t h e
r e s u l t of a mere l i b e r a l d i s l i k e of
i n t o l e r a n c e , t h e not i on t h a t i t i s wrong
t o s t o p ?eopl e doi ng what hey l i k e , even
i f i t i s somet hi ng s i l l y l i k e goi ng t o
chur ch. I coul d not es cape acknowl edgi ng
t h a t , however I had cons ci ous l y i gnor ed and
r e j e c t e d t h e chur ch f o r s i x t e e n year s, t he
e xi s t e nc e of chur ches and what went on i n
them had a l l t h e t i ~ n e been ver y i mpor t ant
8
to me.
I n f a c t , t he ' c onve r s i on' , as we have seen i n t h e poet r y and pl a ys , w a s
f a r from sudden. wi t h t h e e xc e pt i on of he Ascent of ~6 and ~ o o k , St r a nge r ! ,
~ u d e n ' s d e l i n e a t i o n of t h e ' ~ u e s t ' mot i f ends i n pr ayer . De s pi t e t h e
.-
u s u a l l y i r o n i c ove r t one s t o t h i s pr a ye r , t h e b a s i c pl e a f o r a n omni s ci ent
and g e n t l e a u t h o r i t y t o l e a d Man t hr ough a s a t i s f y i n g l i f e of s e a r c h i s
s e r i o u s enough. Even t h e supposedl y Mar xi s t t r a c t on t h e F r o n t i e r ends
i n pr ayer :
par don them t h e i r mi s t a ke s ,
The i mpa t i e nt and waver i ng w i l l .
They s u f f e r f o r our s a ke s ,
Honour, honour them al l .
Dry t h e i r i mper f ect d u s t ,
T- ' , , ~ .I wind blows i t back and f o r t h .
hey d i e t o make man j u s t
And wort hy of t h e e a r t h .
~ u d e n ' s concer n wi t h moral and s p i r i t u a l l e a de r s hi p, c ont i nua l l y pr obi ng
and s a t i r i z i n g slan' s t empor al ' h e a l e r s ' a s he does , demons t r at es t h a t
p e c u l i a r i n t e r t wi n i n g of per s onal and p o e t i c seeki ng. I n p a r t i c u l a r ,
~ u d e n i s obs es s ed wi t h t h e concept of Love, bot h a s a means t o t h e end
of h i s ' q u e s t ' and u l t i ma t e l y a s t h e end of t h e ' ~ u e s t ' i t s e l f . H i s
p o e t i c r ecor d r e f l e c t s h i s growi ng devel opment of t h i s concepc of l ove ,
e x a c t l y what he meant by i t and what i t coul d mean t o Man. Tha t t h e
Fr eudi ai Er os i s di s pl a c e d by a s e l f l e s s and uni f yi ng l ove , t h a t Man i s
c o n t i n u a l l y r e f e r r e d t o a n i d e a l of Love t h e poet i s una bl e o r unwi l l i ng
t o d e s c r i b e , pr epar e t h e c a r e f u l r e a de r f o r ~ u d e n ' s conver si on. I n t h e
' f o r t i e s , h i s a da pt i on of t h e phi l osophy of ~ i e r k e g a a r d and t o a l e s s e r
e x t e n t ~ i e b u h r , i s i n keepi ng wi t h t h e temperament of t h e young poet who,
i n 1930, embraced so f e ve r i s hl y t he probi ngs and di s cover i es of the
ps ychoanal ys t s . For t h e poet i t wa s si mpl y a new t r i b u n a l of names he
c a l l e d i n t o evi dence i n he Double Man:
Bl ake shout ed i n s u l t s , Rousseau wept ,
I r o n i c ~ i e r k e g a a r d s t a r e d long
And mut t er ed ' A L L a r e i n t h e wr ong, '
u h i l e Ba ude l a i r e went mad p r o t e s t i n g
That pr ogr e s s i s n o t i n t e r e s t i n g
And t hought he was an a l b a t r o s s ...
he worl d i gnor ed them; t he y were few.
he c a r e l e s s v i c t o r never knew
heir gr a pe vi ne rumour would grow t r u e .
A s wi t h ~ r e u d , Homer Lane, Georg ~r odde c l c and D. H. Lawrence, W.H.~uden
embraces h i s new i n t e l l e c t u a l i n t e r e s t s g r e e d i l y and moulds t h e i r
t e a c hi ngs wi t hi n t h e s t r u c t u r e of h i s wel l - us ed ' ~ u e s t ' mot i f . And j u s t
as t h e t e a c hi ngs endow t h e ' ~ u e s t ' wi t h s u b s t a n t i a l mot i va t i on, s o t h e
' ques t t - f r amewor k pr ovi des > ~ & n ' s ' h e a l e r s ' wi t h a conveni ent v e h i c l e f o r
t h e i r e f f o r t s a t h i s s p i r i t u a l a ml i o r a t i o n .
~ h u s , t h e ' Qu e s t ' mot i f ha s va r i e d a c c or di ng t o t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l
f o r c e s c u r r e n t l y a t work on t he poet . I n t h e poe t r y of t h e e a r l y
' t h i r t i e s , ~ u d c n , i nf l ue nc e d by Lane, Fr eud and Lawrence, us ed t h e mo'cif
t o p r e s s h i s r e a l i z a t i o n f o r an's psychi c whol eness, demanding t h e
r e s t i t u t i o n of plan t o h i s f or mer gr e a t ne s s as a n i n t e l l e c t u a l bei ng.
AS he comes gr a dua l l y under t h e c o n t r o l of t h e gr oup of r a d i c a l
i n t e l l i g e n t s i a he ha s sur r ounded hi msel f wi t h, Auden' s ' Qu e s t ' ha s c e r t a i n
\ . , i r xi s t bor r owi ngs, bei ng a que s t f o r a s o c i e t y composed of harnlonious
r e l a t i o n s h i p s between men. It i s , n e v e r t h e l e s s , d i f f i c u l t t o de c i de
whet her t h e i d e a l of s o c i e t y t h u s concei ved by Auden owes more t o Marx o r
t o t h e D.H. Lawrence of t h e Fa nt a s i a of t h e ~ n c o n s c i o u s . ~ l t h o u g h out -
s i d e t h e demands of t h e t h e s i s , Auden' s s onnet sequence e n t i t l e d ' The
Qu e s t ' , and i nc or por a t e d i n t o The Double Man of 1941, r e t a i n s t h e e a r l y
image but us e s it t o poi nt t o t h e e x p l i c i t l y c h r i s t i a n que s t he i s now
unde r t a ki ng. The d i f f e r e n c e i n t one between ~ u d e n ' s t r e a t me nt of t h e
d i f f e r e n r ' ~ u e s t s ' depends t o t a l l y on ~ u d e n ' s a b i l i t y t o under t ake t h e
' Qu e s t ' hi ms e l f . wi t h t h e c a l l f o r a psychi c and a s o c i a l s e a r c h, t h e
p o e t ' s work of a decade i s s t e e pe d i n t h a t r e s t l e s s vi gour which onl y
comes wi t h t h e f r u s t r a r i n g i mp o s s i b i l i t y of t h e t a s k he had as ked Man t o
perform. wi t h t h e c h r i s t i a n ' Qu e s t ' , however, h i s t one i s calm and under
c o n t r o l . He i s a b l e t o p r o j e c t t h e mot i f wi t h a g r e a t e r c l a r i t y because
of h i s own pe r s ona l b e l i e f i n i t s s ucces s .
Af t e r 1941, t h e mot i f of t h e ' ~ u e s t ' a ppe a r s f r e que nt l y i n Auden' s
maj or wr i t i n g s and ha s a t t r a c t e d ample c r i t i c a l a n a l y s i s . The works of
most obvi ous i n t e r e s t , bei ng u n i f i e d by t h i s c e n t r a l image, a r e , i n
c hr onol ogi c a l or de r :
I TI i ~ ~ ~ > ~ h r i s t i a n Tr a g i c Hero. ~ c w yor k Ti mes, 16 December
1945, s e c t i o n 7 , pp. 1, 21.
' ~ ' s q u e s t . ' publ i s he d i n The ~ a f k a p r o b l e m, ed. A. ~ l o r e s .
N e w Di r e c t i o n s . New york. 1946.
''The Gu i l t y Vicarage: Not es on t h e De t e c t i ve s t o r y by an
~ & ! i c t . ' ~ i a r p e r ' s )::~gzzine, c xc vi , 1176 (May 1948) , U.X-412.
yhe I n t r o d u c t i o n t o ~ h c r o r t a b l e Greek Reader. he v i k i n g
p r c s s . ~ ~ ' w y o r k . 1948.
' Th e I r o n i c i i er o: Some Re f l e c t i o n s on Don ~ u i x o t e . ' - ~ h i r d
IIC)UL-, I V, ( 1 9 4 0 ) , 43-50.
The ~ n c h f e d ~ l o o d . an do in House. New yor k. 1950.
~ n t r o d u c t i o n t o Ta l e s of G r i m m & Anderson. he ~ o d e r n
Li b r a r y . New yor k. 1952.
' he ~ e r o i s a ~ o b b i t . ' New yor k Times, 31 Oct ober , 1954,
Se c t i o n 7 , p.37. A r evi ew of The ello ow ship of t h e ~ i n g by
J . R. R.
Tol ki en
he Que s t ~ e r o '
The Dye r ' s Hand, wi t h p a r t i c u l a r r e f e r e n c e t o ' Geni us a nd
Ap o s t l e . '
NOTES TO THE CONCLUSION
World Within Worlds, p.49.
Poems f o r ~paiz, p ~ v .
2%ompare. t h i s vier of S p i n with the orthodox c r i t i c a l stance. For
example, C.Ke Stead i n a recent peri odi cal a r t i c l e s t at es t ha t the poem
i s ' t he l ogi cal and imegina%iw climax of t hat decade.* (p.42). Monroe
K. Spears, i n The Dieenchanted Isl and, sees the poem a8 we r t l y t p ~ l i t i ~ a l '
(p.89). Both, presumably, equate t he ' defeated' of t he l a s t etanza with
the Fasci ct forces oi! Franco, I n terms of Auden'r poet i c and i nt el l ect ual
development during the ' Thi r t i es, however, I see it as a reference t o the
i nevi t abl e f af l ur e of Mankind to change and advance. 1 take the poem as
a eEatement af dfeilluaianment, i t s conventional images of a j us t f ut ur e
tempered by the pets inability t o guard hi e a~dolaacent energy against
hi s mature cynicism. H. L. Rosenthal, i n The Modern Poets, af f ect s a
compromise. I n acknowledging its ' propagendistic' i nt ent , he says:
it mi nt s f nu th% seriousness of rettalutionary pof i t i ca and
the passion of i t s oratory while at the same time leaping
clear of the obviouo cliches that could so eaeily dreg down
such poetry, (p.192)
More important f o hi s coneideratfon of the final atanam, i n which he
recognieeo t he ' defeated' view of the poet himself:
The clocinp stanza,. . . , leaves the poem more f ai l ur e than
heroic, as though t he poet already foresaw the f ai l ur e of
t he Republic and with it the loss of the fut ure, (p.193)
A Poets= War, p.207.
Audsn, p.61.
Spear., i n The Dieanchanted Isl and, quotas a latter he received fmm Auden
i n 1363:
I was not excusing totalitarfan crimes but only t r yi ng
t o eay what, sur el y, every decent person thinks i f he
f i nds hfmself unable to adopt t he abeolute paclfist
posi t i on* (1) To k i l l another human being is always
murder and should never be cal l ed anything elee. ( 2) In
8 war, the member6 of t he two r i val groups try t o murder
their opponents, (3) I F there i s such a thing as a j ust
war, then murder can be necessary f or t he sake of j ust i ce. (p.157)
S p a r s , p. 133.
' Loc. C i t .
The book i s now out of pr i nt . It was or i gi nal l y edi t ed by James A* Pike
and publiehad i n New York I n 1956.
APPENDIX
Th e p ~ r p o s e o f t h i s appendix i s t o c l a r i f y c r r t n i n I c ~ y t c. r r nr , whi ch I ha ve
u s ~ c l i n t h e mai n body o f t i l e t h e s i s . I ha vc reLerrc.cl , u n s p a r i n g l y , t o t h e
' Qu e s t ' as Mo t i f , Symbol ,Imajic , ' I ' l i en~ ant1 Flytll anti I havra n n t a l wa y s be e n
s u c c e s s f u l i n t h c i r e x a c t d r f i n i t j o n . I hope t o e l u c i d a t e t h e s u b t l e
d i s t i n c t i o n s whi r11 e x i s t i n t h c i r u s a g e .
Mo t i f : The ' Ql l c s t ' i s t h r o r g a n i z a t i o n a l i m p ~ ~ l s c t l cep w i t l ~ i n Auden' s
--
wor k whi c h u n i f i e s 11i s c u r r e n t i n t c l i e c t u n l c o n c e r n s . Mo t i f
dc >not c s t ha t l t h e ' Qu r s t ' i s t h e p r e v a i l i n g i d c n i n Auden' s wor k.
Symbol : Aut l en' s o b s e s s i o n wi t h t h e concc. pt o r a ' Qu e s t ' d i r ~ c t l y r e p r e s e n t s
h i s o v e r wh ~ l mi n g concent > f o r t h e s o c i a l a n d p s y c h i c c o n d i t i o n o f
h i s f e l l o w- ma n . I n t h i s way the. ' Qu r >s t 1 i s n symbol i n t h a t i t
p o i n t s t o Man' s f u t u r e by suggesting p a t h s o u t o f h i s p r e s e n t .
The c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e ' Qu c s t ' a s a j o u r n c y g i v e s p i c t o r i a l
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n t o Aurien' s s p i r i t ~ ~ a l a b s t r a c t i o n s .
*I ( '
Image:
-
Theme :
--
Myth :
The ' Q u r s t ' a s a n i mage s u g g e s t s t h e a t Li t 1 1 d e Auclcn a d o p t s t o wa r d s
h i s c onc e nns . Thus Auclen u s e s t h e i mage o f t h e ' Qu e s t ' t o s u g g e s t
h i s o p t i mi s t i c v i s i o n o f t l ~ e f u t u r e wo r l d p o p u l a t e d by s u c c e s s f u l
q u ~ s t i n g i n d i v i d u a l s . A s a n i ma g e , t h e ' Qu e s t ' wor ks wi t h i n t h e
i n d i v i d u a l poem.
The t heme o f t h e l n d i v i t i u a l vol ume s o f A u d ~ n ' s 1 9 3 0 ' s wor k i s
h i s t r eat mr 7nt o f h i s c o n c e p t l ~ o n o f thr. ' Q u P s ~ . ' Wh i l s t t h e mo t i f
r e ma i n s a r e c u r r i n g c o n c e r n i n c h i s e a r l y p o e t r y , t h e t heme
c h a n g e s f r om vol umc t o vol umc. Po c n i s , f o r e x a mp l e , r e p r e s e n t s t h e
p o e t ' s d e s i r e f o r i%nltind t o b e t t e r i t s e l f whilst 'The Or a t o r s
p r o j e c t s o n e u n f o r t u n a t e i n c i i v i d u a l i n t h e a c t o f a n u n s u c c e s s f u l
' Qu e s t . ' Theme i mp l i e s t h e p a r t i c u l a r e mp h a s i s Auden i mp a r t s
t o o n e o r mor e s t a g e s i n t h e ' Qu e s t . '
I h e r e mean t o s u g g e s t t h a t Auden h a s mo d i c i c d a nd r e j u v e n a t e d
a mo t i f wh i c h r u n s t h r o u g h much p a s t l i t l e r a t u r c . I h a v e a l r e a d y
n o t e d t h e e l e me n t s o f t h e ' Qu e s t ' common t o b o t h Auden a nd h i s
T r a d i t i o n . My e mp h a s i s , i n t h i s t h e s i s , h a s b e e n on t h e e x t e n t
t o whi c h Au d e n ' s c h a n g i n g i n t e l l e c t u a l i n t e r e s t s h a v e e mb e l l i s h e d ,
d i s f i g u r e d a nd r e i n v i g o r a t e d t h i s Myt h.
(i)
(Works marked wi t h As t e r i s k * proved us e f ul but were not d i r e c t l y r e l e va nt
t o t h e s i s , and, consequent l y, were not c i t e d )
~echlitner, R, , ' The odyssey oz /,,udcc, ' yoc:ry (July, 1945) , pp. 204-215.
Roberts, ~ichae?, lLkspects of ~ ~ ~ g l i s h poccry; 1932-1937,' Foecry (j ar, . ,
s out hwor t h, 3.G. , Sowing t !l e sprir?.;;, oxf or d, Ea s i 1 ~:aciiwe::, 1940. *
I ,. - 7
, ~ u d e n : i9QG and ~ f t e r , ' :\;ore p.merican poetry,
oxf or d, 1954, pp. 120- 136.
, 'Late ~ u i c n : ~ k e satLi-is; cs Lunatic Cl e r gyna n, '
Sew&nee Review, LIx ( 1951) , 50-74.
, ~ h c . poccr y of ,i:~cicn: \:kc ~i s cnch, - . ct cd ~ s l a n d ,
London, G. u . P . , i968.
, and j o h n ~ e i ma n r , e d s . , poenis For s p a i n , on don,
he ~ o g a r t h p r e s s , 1939.
Synons , j u l i s n , ' xa de n and t h e p o e t i c Dra:ii;;,' ~ i f e ar; d L e t t e r s r r odav,
~ e b . , 1939, pp. 70-79.
, '02 Cr i s i s and ai si r, ay: A s t u d y of ~ r i t i n g i n t he L L i r t i e s , '
~ o c u s , vol. 1, 1945.
--
, ~ h e ~ h i r t i e s , on don, ~ h c Cr e s s e t p r e s s , i960.
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