This piece will start with a confession: when I look at TV critically I cant help

thinking about matters of a textual nature. What interests me the most about tele-
vision studies are questions of aesthetics, ideology, discourse, narrative, genre,
representation, camera work, music, casting, editing, the script, authorship and so
on. In short, I cant get enough of the text.
Where did it all begin?
I guess semiotics was originally to blame for my current predilection towards the
text. John Fiske and John Hartleys Reading Television
1
was one of the first academic
books on television I ever read. The way it looked at TV was suggested in its title,
reading television almost like a literary text, but how refreshing it was to find a
book that took television (and the study of it) seriously. The semi scientific
discourse that semiotics initially brought to the study of television (and popular
culture in general) was crucial to its gradual acceptance into the academy, slowly
giving the whole enterprise some greatly needed academic credibility. Just as
importantly, it also allowed television studies to skilfully dodge the inevitable ques-
tion about whether television was actually worthy of critical attention at all. As
Mythologies
2
Roland Barthes 1957 seminal account of popular culture made so
clear, semiotics could be applied to any cultural form (from wrestling matches to
washing powder), so that the question of whether TV merited critical attention
suddenly seemed unimportant and even irrelevant. The decoding of every
cultural form was suddenly allowed; you were not necessarily saying it was Great
Art, you were simply exposing the mechanics by which your chosen text operated.
(At least that was our story and we were sticking to it).
Important textbooks like Robert C. Allens edited Channels of Discourse
3
in 1987
followed, expanding the study of television further by introducing primarily
textual methodologies such as semiotics, ideology, genre, narrative theory, post-
modernism and psychoanalysis more forcefully into the field. However, the book
The Joy of Text?:
Television and Textual Analysis
Glen Creeber
chap10 24/4/06 6:48 am Page 81
that most famously brought these varied approaches to the television text together
was probably Fiskes Television Culture.
4
This book became the bible of television
studies for more than a decade, introducing students to the textuality of television
through a combination of critical approaches.
However, Fiskes textbook was also significant because it addressed the notion of
the active audience. Following on from work like Stuart Halls groundbreaking
1973 article, Encoding/Decoding in Television Discourse,
5
Fiske demonstrated
how various audiences could interpret television programmes in a number of
different ways. Even a programme like Charlies Angels (Spelling-Goldberg Produc-
tions/ABC, 19761981), which was deeply inscribed in patriarchy, could almost
become a feminist text in the minds of certain viewers; particularly those who
chose to ignore how scantily dressed its female detectives were and preferred to
focus on their success and aggressiveness.
6
Although Fiske is careful to keep the heart of his discussion around actual tele-
vision programmes, the audience revolution had a huge impact on the perception
of textual analysis in television studies. Charlotte Brunsdon and David Morleys
1978 semiotic analysis of a television programme in Everyday Television Nation-
wide
7
was quickly followed in 1980 by Morleys Nationwide Audience,
8
a book
that implicitly aimed to reveal what was lacking in his and Brunsdons original
(textually orientated) account.
The main criticism that audience researchers made about textual analysis is well
known, but it might be worth briefly restating it here, as it is important to keep in
mind how textual analysts reacted to these arguments. If audiences can read a text
in a number of ways, then what is the validity and relevance of one textual inter-
pretation? A textual analyst may give their reading intellectual credibility through
the application of a dense theoretical discourse (like semiotics or psychoanalysis),
but it is still only one interpretation among many. If they offer this interpretation
as conclusive and definitive, they are also in danger of falling into the trap of
prescribing a universal reader: i.e. implying that readers, regardless of age, gender,
social class and race, will read a text in exactly the same way. Even when they might
not suggest that a reading is universal, they could unknowingly imply that a certain
section of the audience (an implied or ideal reader) would read it in this way.
However, without any audience research or empirical evidence to back up these
assumptions, textual analysis is simply a matter of guesswork offering unfounded
and possibly misleading interpretations on behalf of an audience who is not
allowed to speak for itself.
Despite Halls crucial insight that there are various ways in which a TV
programme can be interpreted, his concept of a preferred meaning (read: that of
the dominant ideology) still betrays a dangerous assumption about readership:
i.e. the belief that we can ever be sure of what meaning is preferred or how a TV
programme was originally encoded (echoing aspects of the Intentional Fallacy).
Reception studies also called into question the limits of traditional textual analysis.
Knowing where a text starts and ends seems increasingly difficult to ascertain, a
problem clearly heightened in the multi-media age. Extra-textual material, such as
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product merchandising, DVD extras, fanzines, and Internet sites, made textual
analysis frustratingly unsure of its object of study.
Such criticisms inevitably took their toll on a method of research that was clearly
finding it difficult to keep pace with the changes that characterised cultural
criticism in the late-twentieth century. As a consequence of these arguments, tele-
vision studies gradually started to shun its textual origins. Books like Justin Lewis
The Ideological Octopus criticised the tyranny of the text and particularly the
textual determinism that it identified with an approach like semiotics.
9
As Lewis
put it:
A friend of mind [sic] asked if he had any idea what semiology meant, replied
ingeniously that it might mean half an ology. This is precisely what this kind of
textual analysis amounts to: it interrogates the sign from the point of view of the signi-
fier and ignores the realities of the signified.
10
To be fair, Lewis had a point. Perhaps the readings offered by some textual analysts
were a little too rigid and deterministic at times. While splitting the signifier from
the signified was a crucial step in interpreting the production of meaning in a text,
the connection between the two was in danger of becoming a little too confidently
prescribed.
However, what took place over the years that followed was that all forms of
textual analysis were seen as increasingly untenable. For many, textual analysis
became the remnant of an embarrassing (literary and even Leavisite) tradition that
was now despised and ridiculed, and was regarded by some as intellectually
simplistic and pass. I even questioned the validity of my own research, wondering
if I had simply chosen the wrong field or career pathway. Empirical history, audi-
ence and reception studies, institutional policy, politics and society took the central
ground as colleagues around me talked in a language I recognised as coming from
the Social Sciences rather than the Arts and the Humanities. Textual analysis may
not have been completely outlawed by the television academy, but I did increas-
ingly feel I now harboured a love that dare not speak its name.
So where are we now?
My personal feeling is that textual analysis in television studies is currently under-
going a resurgence. Initially wounded by the criticisms against it, textual
researchers now seem to have re-examined its methods and procedures, and are
gradually helping it to regain some of its pride and integrity. By accepting its limi-
tations and becoming less prescriptive, they have introduced a self-reflexivity and
transparency that all healthy methodologies must have if they are to gain critical
respect. So much pride has returned that now even the questions that textual
analysis shied away from in the past (such as issues surrounding quality) have
slowly begun to emerge (see, for example, Geoff Mulgan,
11
Charlotte Brunsdon
12
and Jason Jacobs
13
). The conference from which this very journal was born was
entitled American Quality Television (Trinity College, Dublin, 13 April, 2004), a
The Joy of Text? Television and Textual Analysis 83
chap10 24/4/06 6:48 am Page 83
statement that would have been unthinkable less than a decade before because of
its implicit judgment of the text.
The influence of post-structuralism has clearly helped textual analysis re-
examine its methods and procedures, a cultural movement that explicitly
embraced the plurality of the text, and the many, complex ways in which meaning
is produced. As Ellen Seiter puts it:
Post-structuralism emphasizes the slippage between signifier and signified between
one sign and the next, between one context and the next while emphasizing that
meaning is always situated, specific to a given context. . .. Theories of psychoanalysis
and of ideology, under the influence of post-structuralism, focus on the gaps and
fissures, the structuring absences and the incoherencies, in a text . . .
14
Textbooks like Alan McKees Textual Analysis
15
and Karen Lurys Interpreting Tele-
vision
16
now offer students clear and contemporary introductions to the field of
textual research. Similarly, the recent series of television books from the British
Film Institute (see Creeber,
17
Toby Miller,
18
Michele Hilmes,
19
and John Sinclair and
Graeme Turner
20
) have included a number of different approaches to television,
not least work of a deeply textual nature. In a section unashamedly entitled Textual
Analysis in Millers anthology, Hartley acknowledges both the methods strengths
and weaknesses, but also stresses the disparate disciplinary and discursive strands
that have become characteristic of contemporary television studies.
21
Reflected in John Corners recent article, Television Studies: Plural Contexts,
Singular Ambitions?
22
is this gradual acceptance of the interdisciplinary nature of
television studies that now seems prevalent. Earlier books such as Robert Hodge
and David Tripps Children and Television
23
helped to pave the way for this inter-
disciplinarity, explicitly combining textual analysis with other methodologies (in
this case, audience research), so that they were able to produce a greater insight into
how meaning might be generated by television. There are certainly a growing
number of historical accounts of television that bring together empirical historical
research with textual analysis. Recent studies such as Jacobs The Intimate Screen
24
combine textual analysis with detailed archival research, to produce a compelling
and illuminating account of televisions past.
David Laverys edited collection, This Thing of Ours,
25
is a good example of a new
interdisciplinary approach to television programmes. While many articles are
textually informed (including psychoanalytic, feminist, postmodern, genre and
linguistic analysis), the anthology also includes chapters based on audience and
reception research. What has become increasingly clear from such work is that one
methodology is probably not enough to do justice to the complex array of themes,
issues, debates, contexts and concerns that are involved in a discussion of any single
piece of television. Textual analysis on its own is rarely enough, but when it
combines with the wider contextual or extra-textual nature of the subject, it can
still offer insight and inspiration.
The implicit critical philosophy of Laverys edited collections on single televi-
sion programmes, such as Twin Peaks (Lynch/Frost Productions/ABC,
84 Critical Studies in Television 1/1
chap10 24/4/06 6:48 am Page 84
19901991),
26
The X Files (20
th
Century Fox Television/Ten Thirteen Productions,
19932002)
27
and Buffy the Vampire Slayer (Mutant Enemy Inc./20
th
Century Fox
Television, 19972003),
28
is that any text can be viewed from an almost endless
number of different reading positions. These positions, while clearly contestable,
can still offer interesting explorations of the programmes, and continue to inform
and generate wider debate. Within the pages of one book students can instantly
recognise the contradictory nature of the subject. Kim Akass and Janet McCabes
Reading Sex and the City
29
is another example of this recent trend, revealing the
disparate views by which a rich and complex programme like Sex and the City (Sex
and the City Productions/HBO, 19982004) can be interpreted. We might call it
dialogism and heteroglossia in action, but, whatever term we use to describe it,
these edited books explicitly recognise the textual plurality and post-structuralist
ambiguities of meaning, as well as acknowledging and exploring wider matters of
a contextual and extra-textual nature. Incidentally, I.B. Tauris recently commis-
sioned a new series on contemporary television, with several titles explicitly
focusing on a single-text.
30
And the future?
If textual analysis is to survive into the future, then it (like all methodologies) must
learn from past mistakes. To question the notion of quality television is clearly an
important contribution to the field of cultural analysis. However, we must never
allow the quality debate to take us back to a time when unchallengeable and
unchangeable canons were allowed to be subjectively and arbitrarily constructed.
Nor can we let it allow us to imagine that we can ever be sure where quality actu-
ally lies (other than when referring to it as a specific genre that both audiences and
the industry might recognise). While I welcomed Mark Jancovich and James Lyons
Quality Popular Television
31
for its interesting collection of articles, I was a little
surprised that the introduction paid so little attention to the use of the word quality
in the books title (except for the briefest mention of Pierre Bourdieu on page 3).
Not only might this lack of investigation of the term suggest to media students that
quality is something that they can un-problematically define and categorise, it also
seemed like a missed opportunity to address and explore a significant issue of debate
within television studies as a whole. If textual analysis is to regain its credibility in
academia, then it must continue to self-reflexively examine the procedures and
methods by which its own judgements are made. Whether consciously or not, edited
books such as these do produce canons of sorts and we must be acutely aware of the
choices and judgements by which they are inevitably assembled.
Perhaps part of the problem with some textual analysis has been a reluctance to
examine its methods and practices too closely. While the social science origins of
audience research meant that methodology was already a central component of its
historical development, the literary origins of textual analysis meant that forms of
methodology seemed less pressing or important to its scholars. As a result, textual
analysis has sometimes been shockingly poor at explaining and accounting for
The Joy of Text? Television and Textual Analysis 85
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itself. What it could learn from audience and reception studies is a clearer set of
procedures, a self-reflexive sense of its own methodological development and a
more self-conscious understanding of its limitations and critical assumptions. As
I frequently tell students, simply stating that I will carry out textual analysis is
rarely enough. What type of textual analysis are you intending to carry out? How
will it be done? What problems do you expect to encounter, and how will you
attempt to deal with these? What will be the validity of your conclusions, and what
do you hope to achieve through this approach that other methodologies could not
produce? These are just some of the questions that any section on methodology
should address. For it is now crucial to see textual analysis as a methodology in its
own right, one that needs to be as critically evaluated and routinely assessed like
any other.
However, I do have a great deal of hope for textual work in television studies in
the future. At a recent symposium I attended at Warwick University (From the
National to the Trans-National: European Television and Film in Transition, 7 May
2005), I was struck by the confidence of the younger academics present to look at
television textually. The MA and PhD students I met there seemed to be free of the
sort of anxieties that I once associated with textual research. As they were not at
least concerned with whether television was worthy of study or not (they simply
accepted that it was), so they seemed more than happy to talk about and discuss
television from a number of critical angles. This was strikingly different from my
own PhD experience, when I felt like I had to constantly justify and explain my own
textual approach to television. Similarly, I recently attended the Cultures of British
Television Drama conference (University of Reading, 1315 September 2005)
where Christine Geraghtys inspiring paper (Television Drama Viewing,
Writing, Teaching) spoke about returning to the text, particularly in relation to
issues of quality and canonisation (she even dared to suggest that a TV canon was
desirable!). While once such a talk may have been heavily contested and criticised,
here it was met with a warm sense of approval and critical understanding.
At the time of writing Ive just finished editing a book called Tele-Visions: an
Introduction to the Study of Television to be published by the BFI in 2006 (where
some of these arguments are explored further). The main title of the book was an
attempt to suggest that television can still be a visionary medium, but it was also
a deliberate nod towards televisions interdisciplinary nature (offering various
visions of television). Although such an introductory textbook can never expect
to be comprehensive, I hope that each chapter offers students a different way of
approaching and assessing that thing we call television. Of course, audience
analysis is represented, as is history, industry, institutions, technology, globalisa-
tion and so on. But textual analysis is strongly fore-grounded. This is because I
believe it still has an important and crucial contribution to make to the field as a
whole. Not only is it where contemporary television studies began (so to under-
stand it is to partly understand the subjects complex historical development), but
it is also the place where many students begin their work. So let us encourage a new
generation of students to explore and examine the joy of the television text if that
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is what they choose to do. But let us also make sure that they do not repeat the
problems and mistakes of the past.
Notes
1 John Fiske and John Hartley, Reading Television, Methuen, 1978.
2 Roland Barthes, Mythologies, Hill & Wang, 1987.
3 Robert C. Allen, ed., Channels of Discourse: Television and Contemporary Criticism,
University of North Carolina Press, 1987.
4 John Fiske, Television Culture, Routledge, 1987.
5 Stuart Hall, Encoding/Decoding, in Stuart Hall, Dorothy Hobson, Andrew Lowe and
Paul Willis, eds, Culture, Media, Language, Hutchinson, 1980, pp. 128138.
6 Fiske, Television Culture, p. 189.
7 Charlotte Brunsdon and David Morley, Everyday Television Nationwide, bfi Publishing,
1978.
8 David Morley, Nationwide Audience, bfi Publishing, 1980.
9 Justin Lewis, The Ideological Octopus: Exploration of Television and Its Audience, Rout-
ledge, 1992.
10 Lewis, The Ideological Octopus, p. 34.
11 Geoff Mulgan, ed., The Question of Quality, bfi Publishing, 1990.
12 Charlotte Brunsdon, Problems of Quality, in Brunsdon, Screen Tastes: Soap Opera to
Satellite Dishes, Routledge, 1997, pp. 124147.
13 Jason Jacobs, Issues of Judgement and Value in Television Studies, International Journal
of Cultural Studies, vol. 4, no. 4, December 2001, pp. 427447.
14 Ellen Seiter, Semiotics, Structuralism and Television, in Robert C. Allen, ed., Channels
of Discourse, Reassembled: Television and Contemporary Criticism, Routledge, 1992, p. 61
15 Alan McKee, Textual Analysis: A Beginners Guide, Sage Publications Ltd, 2003.
16 Karen Lury, Interpreting Television, Hodder Arnold, 2005.
17 Glen Creeber, ed., The Television Genre Book, bfi Publishing, 2001.
18 Toby Miller, ed., Television Studies, bfi Publishing, 2002.
19 Michele Hilmes, ed., The Television History Book, bfi Publishing, 2003.
20 John Sinclair and Graeme Turner, eds, Contemporary World Television, bfi Publishing,
2004.
21 John Hartley, Textual Analysis in Miller, ed., Television Studies, bfi Publishing, 2002, p.
33.
22 John Corner, Television Studies: Plural Contexts, Singular Ambitions? Journal of
British Cinema and Television, 1:1, 2004, 613.
23 Robert Hodge and David Tripp, Children and Television: A Semiotic Approach, Stanford
University Press, 1986.
24 Jason Jacobs, The Intimate Screen: Early British Television Drama, Clarendon Press,
2000.
25 David Lavery, ed., This Thing of Ours: Investigating The Sopranos, Wallflower Press, 2002;
Lavery has extended his textual investigations of The Sopranos with another edited
anthology, Reading The Sopranos: Hit TV From HBO, I.B. Tauris, 2006.
26 David Lavery, ed., Full of Secrets: Critical Approaches to Twin Peaks, Wayne State Univer-
sity Press, 1995.
27 David Lavery, Angela Hague and Maria Cartwright, eds, Deny All Knowledge: Reading
The X-Files, Syracuse University Press, 1996.
The Joy of Text? Television and Textual Analysis 87
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28 Rhonda V. Wilcox and David Lavery, eds, Fighting The Forces: Whats At Stake in Buffy
The Vampire Slayer, Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2002.
29 Kim Akass and Janet McCabe, eds, Reading Sex and the City: Critical Approaches, I.B.
Tauris, 2004.
30 I.B. Tauris new television series, Reading Contemporary Television includes Kim
Akass and Janet McCabe, eds, Reading The L Word: Outing Contemporary Television,
David Lavery, ed., Reading The Sopranos: Hit TV From HBO (2006), Janet McCabe and
Kim Akass, eds, Reading Desperate Housewives: Beyond the White Picket Fence, David
Lavery, ed., Reading Deadwood: A Western to Swear By (forthcoming), Steven Peacock,
ed., Reading 24: TV Against The Clock (forthcoming) and Michael Allen, ed., Reading
C.S.I.: Crime Television Under the Microscope (forthcoming).
31 Mark Jancovich and James Lyons, eds, Quality Popular Television: Cult TV, the Industry
and Fans, bfi Publishing, 2003.
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