Human Health Risk Rel Lfill Leachate Qual

British Geological Survey
TECHNICAL REPORT WC/99/17

Overseas Geology Series

DFID Project No. R6532

Human health risk in relation to landfill
leachate quality

B A Klinck and M E Stuart

BGS International
Keyworth
Nottingham NG12 5GG
United Kingdom


TECHNICAL REPORT WC/99/17
Overseas Geology Series

DFID Project No. R6532

Human health risk in relation to landfill leachate
quality

B A Klinck & M E Stuart
This report is produced under a project funded by the UK Department for International
Development (DFID) as part of the UK provision of technical assistance to developing
countries. The views expressed are not necessarily those of DFID.
DFID classification:
Subsector: Water and sanitation
Theme: Increase protection of water resources, water quality and aquatic systems
Project title: Human risk in relation to landfill leachate quality
Project reference: R6532
Bibliographic reference:
Klinck B A & Stuart M E (1999).
Human risk in relation to landfill leachate quality
BGS Technical Report WC/99/17
Keywords: landfill, leachate, groundwater contamination, risk assessment, Thailand, Mexico
Front cover illustration: Groundwater sampling from a shallow, hand dug well: Mrida, Mexico
NERC 1999 Keyworth, Nottingham, British Geological Survey, 1999

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WC/99/17 Version 1, Revision 1 i
CONTENTS

LIST OF FIGURES ii
LIST OF TABLES ii
LIST OF BOXES iii
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY iv
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Scope of Report 1
1.2 Project Background 2
1.3 Objectives 5
1.4 Collaborating Institutions 5
2 LEACHATE CHEMISTRY AND GROUNDWATER IMPACT 7
2.1 Study Sites 7
2.2 Landfill Leachate Chemistry 8
2.3 Impact on Groundwater 11
3 LANDFILL IMPACT ASSESSMENT 15
3.1 Simple Analytical Models 15
3.2 LandSim 19
3.3 The HELP Model 23
4 HEALTH RISK ASSESSMENT 29
4.1 Risk Assessment Model 29
4.2 Toxic and Carcinogenic Risks 30
4.3 Microbiological Contamination 33
5 RELEVANCE OF PROJECT FINDINGS TO OTHER LANDFILL
SETTINGS 35
5.1 Summary of Findings and Discussion 35
5.2 A Generic Approach to Landfill Leachate Impact Assessment 37
5.3 Risk Management Options 38
6 REFERENCES 42

WC/99/17 Version 1, Revision 1 ii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1 Stiff plots showing seasonal variation in leachate composition from
Mrida 10
Figure 2.2 Oxidation of ammonium to nitrate during recharge flushing, Mae Hia,
Chiang Mai, Thailand 12
Figure 3.1 Sketch map of the Tha Muang landfill site 17
Figure 3.2 Concentration with distance away from the landfill 19
Figure 3.3 The Mae Hia landfill site 22
Figure 3.4 Modelled output for LandSim for chloride at Well 12 at the Mae Hia
site 23
Figure 3.5 Location map Mrida municipal waste site showing the shallow
sampling points 25
Figure 3.6 TOC plume from the Mrida landfill 27
Figure 3.7 Relationship between leachate flow (flujo de lix.) and precipitation
during the period of simulation 27
Figure 4.1 A Source-Pathway-Receptor conceptual model for environmental
exposure adjacent to a landfill 30
Figure 4.2 Growth of thermotolerant coliforms in a leachate-clean groundwater
mixture 34
Figure 5.1 Flow diagram of stages in completing a health risk assessment 39

LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1 Summary of study sites 7
Table 2.2 Summary of selected incidents of groundwater pollution from waste
disposal in newly industrialised countries 11
Table 4.1 Sensitivity analysis for groundwater consumption risk assessment at
the Mae Hia site 33
Table 5.1 Data requirements checklist for risk assessment 38

WC/99/17 Version 1, Revision 1 iii
LIST OF BOXES
Impact of waste burning 4
Waste composition 9
Mobilisation by rainfall 13
Formation of trihalomethanes in contaminated groundwater 14
Advection dispersion equation 15
Toxic and carcinogenic risks 32

WC/99/17 Version 1, Revision 1 iv
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
This report summarises the findings and conclusions of the research project R6523 Human
Risk in Relation to Landfill Leachate Quality aimed at assessing the risks to human health
associated with the impact of landfill leachate on vulnerable groundwater systems. The study
was funded by the Department for International Development (DFID) under its Knowledge
and Research programme (KAR) which is focused on increasing protection of groundwater
resources, water quality and aquatic ecosystems. The overall purpose of the project was to
encourage healthy and improved practices in waste disposal. Within this aim were the
following specific objectives:
To design and implement a sampling and analysis programme for leachate and
contaminated groundwater at contrasting case study sites;
To produce a catalogue of leachate quality documented in terms of waste type, climate
and presence of hazardous compounds to enable hydrogeologists to carry out productive
modelling of contaminant migration in groundwater;
To identify commonly occurring components of leachate which pose a human health risk
and carry out risk assessments for selected case study sites.
Three contrasting landfills have been studied and are described in this report. The study has
demonstrated that site geology is one of the main factors controlling the impact of landfill
leachate on aquifers.
Aquifer properties and groundwater flow regimes also play a critical role. It is evident from
the detailed sampling carried out around the Mrida landfill in Mexico that the impact on the
aquifer is not evident beyond a few hundred metres from the site and leachate-linked
contaminants are reduced to background levels by dilution in the highly transmissive
limestone aquifer.
At the Mai Hia landfill, Thailand, a colluvial aquifer situation where aquifer transmissivity is
reasonably high, a similar situation would be expected. However, considering the results of
the detailed sampling carried out, it can be seen that the contamination is more persistent, the
leachate groundwater plume extending for over 1000 metres from the site. Not only that, but
due to redox processes within the aquifer, toxic levels of manganese and unacceptable nitrate
concentrations occur which are well in excess of those found in the original leachate.
WC/99/17 Version 1, Revision 1 v
The alluvial site studied at Tha Muang, Thailand, seems to fall somewhere in between in
terms of aquifer impact. This is thought to be due to the practice of waste burning. The
result is an overall reduction in organic loading on the aquifer combined with attenuation of
contamination due to the physical nature of the silty aquifer.
In evaluating the human health impact of leachate contamination of groundwater, the
pathway considered has been direct ingestion of contaminated water. At all three case study
sites, faecal coliform contamination of the aquifer was detected as a primary impact, and
coliforms were also incubated from some of the leachate samples. In terms of risk
management bacterial contamination is generally easy to deal with, either by boiling or
disinfecting the groundwater.
The current study has demonstrated that inefficient chlorination of groundwater with a high
organic loading, possibly leachate derived, can give rise to the production of trihalomethane
compounds (THMs), some of which are recognised as being both toxic and carcinogenic.
Although this finding may be of only minor or no concern in a well-managed end-of-pipe
treatment system, it may constitute a hazard in other situations.
Dissolved organic carbon (DOC) is the main component of all of the leachates studied and is
directly attributable to the organic content of the waste. However, it has proved to be very
difficult to identify specific organic compounds responsible for the high DOC. Therefore, in
order to carry out a risk assessment bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP), a plasticiser, was
chosen as an environmental contaminant which is directly linked to leaching plastics in
landfill waste. In calculating carcinogenic risk, a high DEHP value was used from the Mae
Hia site that produced an increased risk of cancer of 5 in 1,000,000. The United States
Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) considers an increased risk of 1 in 1,000,000 as
significant and therefore there is an unacceptable risk of cancer on that basis. Possibly more
insidious is our lack of knowledge concerning the other possibly toxic components of the
DOC and the effect that they might have at very low concentrations on health risk estimates.
This is an area that needs further study.
Toxic heavy metals remain in the waste or at the waste-rock interface as a result of redox-
controlled precipitation reactions. This fixing of heavy metals dramatically reduces the risk
of direct toxic effects due to ingestion of leachate-contaminated groundwater. However, once
the leachate leaves the site the situation changes. The leachate is generally a strongly
reducing liquid formed under methanogenic conditions and on coming into contact with
WC/99/17 Version 1, Revision 1 vi
aquifer materials has the ability to reduce sorbed heavy metals in the aquifer matrix. The
most important reactions are the reduction of iron and manganese to more soluble species and
hence one sees an increase in the concentration of these components under favourable
conditions close to a landfill. The impact of this process has been demonstrated to lead to a
serious toxic risk.
There have been difficulties in applying the methodologies tested during this study and the
overriding contributing factor to this has been lack of knowledge to constrain problem
definition. The contaminant transport models used are sensitive to parameter selection, for
instance the values of hydraulic conductivity and hydraulic gradient. To adequately define
these variables requires a well-constructed monitoring network in order to perform hydrailic
tests and measure water levels. This level of monitoring sophistication was not encountered
at any of the case study sites. The risk assessment calculations are sensitive to choice of
exposure factors and one of the most difficult values to obtain for case study sites was an
estimate of daily water consumption. This lack of knowledge present throughout the
assessment process, and the requirement to estimate parameters from limited knowledge
means that the final outcome can be over-conservative and might flag up the need for
inappropriate and expensive risk management measures. An attempt has to be made to
produce a balanced risk assessment while at the same time adopting the precautionary
approach in implementing risk management.
Several options are explored to manage the risk to human health from landfill leachate and
include: removal of the source term, leachate plume management, and the waste reduction.
These options can be applied either singly or combined to optimise benefit.
WC/99/17 Version 1, Revision 1 1
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Scope of Report
This report summarises the findings and conclusions of the research project R6523 Human
Risk in Relation to Landfill Leachate Quality. This was aimed at assessing the risks to
human health associated with the impact of landfill leachate on vulnerable groundwater
systems. The study was funded by the Department for International Development (DFID)
under its Knowledge and Research programme (KaR) which is focused on increasing
protection of groundwater resources, water quality and aquatic ecosystems.
New data were collected from sites in Jordan, Mxico and Thailand and were supplemented
with data from project R5565 A Groundwater Hazard Assessment Scheme for Solid Waste
Disposal and unpublished BGS data holdings. Professor Somjai Karnchanawong of the
Department of Environmental Engineering, Chiang Mai University, Thailand, provided
additional archived data. Additional monitoring data for the site in Mrida, Mxico, was
provided by Ing. Roger Gonzalez of the Universidad Autnoma de Yucatn, Mxico.
The principal objectives of the project are given in Section 1.3 below. The potential impact
of landfill leachate on groundwater is discussed in Section 2 and illustrated using case studies
from the project. Section 3 describes the principles of risk assessment and Section 4 contains
the application of commercial models. The report presents a series of guidelines to be used in
assessing the impact of waste disposal sites in Section 5.
Associated project report and papers
Stuart, M.E. and Klinck, B.A. 1998 A catalogue of leachate quality from selected landfills
from newly industrialised countries. British Geological Survey Technical Report WC/98/49.
Karnchanawong, S., Klinck, B.A., and Stuart, M.E. 1999 The Mae Hia Landfill, Chiang Mai,
Thailand; the post-closure groundwater contamination legacy. In: Asnachinda, P.,
Lerdthusnee, S. Eds. Water Resources Management in Intermontane Basins, Chiang Mai,
Thailand.
Stuart, M.E., Klinck, B.A., and Gooddy, D.C. 1999 Trihalomethane formation potential: a
tool for detecting non-specific organic contamination from landfills, and the health risks
associated with chlorination. In: Christensen, T.H., Cossu, R., Stegman, R. Eds. Proceedings
of Sardinia 99: 7th International Landfill Symposium. Cagliari, Italy
Klinck, Ben 1999 Sustainable landfill: A developing world perspective. Earthwise, Issue 13,
p15.
Klinck, B.A., Stuart, M.E., Ramnarong, V., Buapeng, S. and Sinpool-Anant, S. 1999. Human
risk in relation to landfill leachate quality: Case studies from Thailand. British Geological
Survey Technical Report WC/99/15
Klinck, B.A., Stuart, M.E. and Gonzlez H.,R. 1999. Human risk in relation to landfill
leachate quality: The Mrida municipal landfill, Mexico. British Geological Survey Technical
Report WC/97/34.
Stuart, M.E., Klinck, B.A, Tufaha, R. and Lafi, M. 1999. The Amman municipal landfill,
Jordan: Implications for groundwater quality. British Geological Survey Technical Report
WC/99/16.
1.2 Project Background
In many newly industrialised countries urbanisation is proceeding at an unprecedented rate.
Such development is often unbalanced with much of the disposable municipal expenditure
devoted to high profile, visible, infrastructure with waste disposal and waste management
coming well down the list of priorities in terms of allocation of funding. In the developing
world the prevailing method for the disposal of municipal and domestic refuse is usually open
dumping, often coupled with waste burning and with minimal effort directed towards sanitary
land filling practice, e.g. the use of daily cover. Site selection is generally based on
geographical rather than geological and hydrogeological considerations, i.e. the closer the site
to the source of the waste the better in terms of logistics. It is not uncommon therefore to find
waste disposal sites within municipal boundaries and surrounded by residential areas. Clearly
such sites pose a serious health risk not just in terms of degradation of groundwater quality
but also due to the related problems associated with proximity to litter, feral animals,
scavenging birds, vermin and airborne contamination arising from mobilisation of fine
particulate matter.
Cointreau (1982) lists four main health hazards associated with wastes typical of newly
industrialised countries:
1) Human faecal matter: mainly attributable to the use of disposable nappies, but also to the
widespread practice of discharging untreated household septage to landfill;
2) Industrial waste: poor control at the waste reception area, lack of knowledge of what
constitutes a dangerous waste, and a lack of understanding of the environmental impact of
the disposal of such wastes means that hazardous wastes frequently enter sites;
3) Decomposition products from the waste: susceptible to dissolution by infiltrating water
percolating through the waste, giving rise to leachate which can contaminate
groundwater. Christensen et al. (1994) have identified the following principal groups
contained in leachate:
inorganic macro components: calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, ammonium,
iron, manganese, chloride, sulphate and bicarbonate.
heavy metals: cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, nickel and zinc in trace amounts.
dissolved organic matter expressed as chemical oxygen demand or total organic
carbon and including methane and volatile fatty acids.
anthropogenic organic compounds derived from household and industrial wastes,
including aromatic hydrocarbons and phthalate esters.
4) Smoke from continuous burning of waste: creates extensive pollution in many cities, and
burning landfills are not an uncommon sight in newly industrialised countries. There is
some concern that toxic/carcinogenic compounds may be produced during open waste
burning. The low temperatures lead to much greater concentrations of such compounds
than from solid waste incineration (Bergstrm and Bjrner, 1992). The following classes
of compound have been studied:
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH). The principal PAH isomers produced are
phenanthrene, fluoranthene and pyrene (Ruokojrvi et al., 1995). In practice, all of
these compounds have very limited water solubility and are likely to be immobilised in
the burnt residue.
dioxins. Polychlorinated dioxins (PCDD) and furans (PCDF) were analysed in soil
samples from a closed site at Marka, Amman, Jordan, where waste had been burnt over
a long period (Alawi et al, 1996). Total concentrations of PCDD and PCDF of
between 0.685 and 112 g/kg dry weight in overlying soil were found, considerably
exceeding limits for re-use of the site for activities such as housing.
Impact of waste burning
Waste burning fundamentally changes the waste composition and has the effect of inhibiting the
acetogenic stage by removing some of the putrescible feedstock and reducing the moisture content
of the waste and hence the overall leachate loading and heavy metal mobility. A reduction in the
amount of carbon dioxide produced due to biodegradation, coupled with lower concentrations of
bicarbonate in the leachate, is to be expected. This is illustrated by comparison of the leachate
quality from two sites in Thailand ,Tha Muang and Kanchanaburi. The original waste composition
is assumed to be broadly similar based on a similar population density and level of development, but
waste is burnt at Tha Muang.
Leachate quality at Thailand study sites
Average concentration Component
Tha Muang Kanchanaburi
Chloride (mg/l) 2050 1500
Alkalinity (mg/l) 750 4000
Dissolved organic carbon (mg/l) 60 550
Redox potential (mV) 210 70
Nitrate (mg/l) 7 0
Manganese (mg/l) 0.4 7.9
Volatile fatty acids (g/l) 0 90

The chloride concentrations at both sites are reasonably similar but at Tha Muang alkalinity and
dissolved organic carbon are considerably lower. The relatively high redox potential and positive
nitrate concentration together with low manganese concentration and absence of VFAs indicate
aerobic conditions. In contrast, the leachate at Kanchanaburi has high alkalinity, moderate
concentrations of VFAs and manganese, and low redox potential and no nitrate. It is considered to
be transitional between the acetogenic and methanogenic phases.
Concentrations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) and polychlorinated hydrocarbons are
known to increase as a result of waste burning. In practice many of these compounds have very
limited water solubility and are likely to be immobilised to a large extent due to sorption onto the
waste and superficial soils. Only very low concentrations of fluoranthene, the most soluble PAH,
were detected in leachates during the present study.
In terms of a waste minimisation strategy waste burning is an attractive option, with reduction of
waste volume and a reduced carbon loading in the leachate. It may also have benefits in terms of
reduction of vermin and pathogens in the waste. However, the low temperatures associated with
open waste burning in themselves pose a hazard, since toxic compounds such as PAH and dioxins
may be formed in the smoke to the detriment of nearby inhabitants.
1.3 Objectives
The overall purpose of the project was to encourage healthy and improved practices in waste
disposal. Within this aim were the following specific objectives.
To design and implement a sampling and analysis programme for leachate and
contaminated groundwater at contrasting case study sites;
To produce a catalogue of leachate quality documented in terms of waste type, climate
and presence of hazardous compounds to enable hydrogeologists to carry out productive
modelling of contaminant migration in groundwater;
To identify commonly occurring components of leachate, which pose a human health risk
and carry out risk assessments for selected case study sites;
To evaluate options of landfill management to mitigate human health risk;
To disseminate project findings to key workers in the collaborating countries through
interactive workshops. To this end three workshops were held, one in each of the
collaborating countries. Forty participants, representing 12 organisations including
academic institutions, government departments and agencies and one municipality
attended the workshop held at the Department of Mineral Resources in Thailand. Fifteen
participants from the water Authority of Jordan attended the two-day workshop in
Amman, Jordan A workshop held in Mrida, Mexico was held in conjunction with the
University and attracted 11 post-graduate students studying for a higher degree in
Environmental Engineering
1.4 Collaborating Institutions
The project was carried out jointly by staff from the following institutions:
Dr Ben Klinck, Project leader
Mrs Marianne Stuart

Water Authority of Jordan, Laboratories and Water Monitoring Department
Dr Raja Gedeon, Director
Eng Mohamed Lafi, Project leader
Eng Randa Tufaha
Mr Zeyad Quasmeh
Mr Loai Allan
Department of Mineral Resources, Thailand
Dr Vachi Ramnarong, Project leader
Ms Somkid Buapeng
Mr Suchai Sinpool-Anant
Chiang Mai University, Department of Environmental Engineering, Thailand
Somjai Karnchanawong
Autonomous University of Yucatn Faculty of Engineering, Mxico
Ing Roger Gonzles Herrera, Project leader
Javier Frias Tuyin
Victor Coronado Pereza.

2 LEACHATE CHEMISTRY AND GROUNDWATER IMPACT
2.1 Study Sites
Leachate quality and waste composition data was collected from a number of sites
representative of landfills in newly industrialised countries. These are summarised in Table
2.1. At sites marked with an asterisk, groundwater samples were also collected from wells
close to the landfill.

Table 2.1 Summary of study sites
Country Climate type Major cities Sites Rural area Sites
Semi-arid Mxico City El Bordo
Mrida Mrida*

Mxico
Tropical-
humid
Len Len
Amman Ruseifa* Jordan Semi-arid
Irbid and
Jerash
Al Akaider*

Tropical-
humid
Bangkok On-Nooch
Nong Khaem
Lat Krabang
Kamphang Sein
Kanchanaburi
province
Kanchanaburi
Tha Muang*
Thailand
Semi-
tropical-
humid
Chiang Mai Mae Hia*
San Sai
Lamphun

Indonesia Tropical-
humid
Bandung Leuwigadja
Sukamiskin

Malaysia Tropical-
humid
Kuala
Lumpur
Penang
* Denotes collection of groundwater samples

2.2 Landfill Leachate Chemistry
Leachate quality varies throughout the operational life of the landfill and long after its
closure. During the early stages of waste degradation and leachate generation the composition
is acidic and high in volatile fatty acids (the acetogenic phase). This acid leachate may
dissolve other components of the wastes, such as heavy metals. The leachate also contains
high concentrations of ammoniacal nitrogen and has both a high organic carbon concentration
and a biochemical oxygen demand (BOD).
As degradation of the waste progresses conditions in the landfill become more anaerobic and
the strongly reducing methanogenic phase is initiated. The majority of the remaining organic
compounds are high molecular weight humic acids and the leachates are characterised by
relatively low BOD values. Ammoniacal nitrogen generally remains at high concentrations
in the leachate, but falling redox potential immobilises many metals as sulphides in the waste
(Pohland et al., 1993; Belevi and Baccini, 1992).
There are strong seasonal variations in both the quantity and quality of leachate generated.
Differences in leachate chloride concentration from the same site indicate the variation in the
volume of leachate being generated, since chloride is a conservative anion not affected by
biodegradation or decay. Changes in other major ion concentrations may result from pH or
redox changes in the leachate and interactions with the waste matrix. This is illustrated by a
Stiff diagram (Tonjes et al., 1995) of leachate quality from Mrida, Mxico (Figure 2.1).
Leachate collected at the end of the dry season (April) has a very high chloride concentration.
This diminishes as the rainy season progresses and the leachate is diluted (August
September-November). Decomposition of the organic content of the waste is also
accelerated due to the high moisture content resulting in a greater proportion of bicarbonate
formed as a by product of bacterial respiration.

Waste composition
Ultimately it is the waste composition which influences the chemistry of the leachate
generated. In the developing world municipal solid wastes tend to have a very high
content of putrescible materials compared to a typical developed city in the western
world (Klinck et al., 1995). This is clearly shown by comparison of waste composition
for Amman and typical values for the United Kingdom. At all sites investigated during
the current project the waste composition was overwhelmingly dominated by the organic
component The widespread practice of informal recycling in developing countries may
explain to some extent this very high organic matter content. The resulting waste density
is between two and five times higher than industrialised countries and, with typical
moisture contents well in excess of 30%, the waste is generally at field capacity and any
infiltration produces leachate.
61.9%
23.9%
3.6%
2.3%
3.5%
3.7%1.1%
Organic
Paper/Card
Plastic
Leather
Metal
Glass
Wood

Waste composition for Amman, Jordan
24%
8%
8%
5%
11%
9%
4%
31%
Organic
Paper and card
Plastics
Metals
Textiles
Glass
Ash
Unclassified

Typical waste composition for United Kingdom

2.2.1 Hazardous Components of Leachate
Phthalate esters and other plasticisers, such as adipates, are leached from plastic products,
mainly PVC, under landfill conditions (Mersiowsky and Stegmann, 1997). These are now
ubiquitous in the environment and are commonly reported in fresh waters and industrial
discharges. These compounds are microbially degraded, either aerobically or under
methanogenic conditions, to carbon dioxide. However, in the acetogenic phase degradation
has been shown to be slow (Ejlertsson and Svensson, 1997). Of concern in landfill leachate
is the presence of bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate which has been shown to be carcinogenic in
laboratory animal experiments and has been detected in most of the leachates examined
during this study.
In leachates with a high volatile fatty acid (VFA) content the pH is generally less than 7 and
heavy metal concentrations can be high. To some extent, metal content is a function of the
Figure 2.1 Stiff plots showing seasonal variation in leachate composition from Mrida
waste stream composition. For example, wastes produced during the manufacture of leather
have high concentrations of chromium which is found in leachates from Bandung, Indonesia;
Bangkok, Thailand; and Len, Mxico. Manganese and zinc are also generally high in
acetogenic leachates.
Sewage sludge is a commonly present hazardous component of waste. The presence of
faecal coliforms, faecal Streptococcus, Clostridium and Salmonella has been demonstrated in
sludges from Mrida, Mxico (Peniche A. et al., 1993). Indeed, high concentrations of faecal
coliforms were detected in all leachate samples analysed during the present project.
2.3 Impact on Groundwater
Contamination of groundwater by landfill leachate associated with the landfilling of wastes is
considered to be of major environmental concern. Table 2.2 shows that the most commonly
documented evidence of groundwater pollution in newly industrialised countries is increased
concentrations of the major ions sodium, chloride and bicarbonate together with ammonium
and iron. However, it is not known to what extent inadequate analytical facilities may limit
this list.
2.3.1 Implications of Redox Changes
The presence or absence of a number of species can be used as indicators of redox conditions.
The presence of nitrate usually indicates oxidising conditions. Once dissolved oxygen is
consumed by degradation of organic matter, nitrate is lost by denitrification to nitrogen gas
and disappears. This is followed progressively by reduction of insoluble Mn(IV) species to
soluble Mn(II), reduction of insoluble Fe (III) to soluble Fe(II), reduction of sulphate to
sulphide and finally by reduction of carbon dioxide to methane.
These redox changes can have important implications for groundwater quality. In Mae Hia,
Thailand, conditions in the groundwater plume during the dry season appear to be mainly
anaerobic with ammonia present and manganese being widely detected at unacceptable
concentrations. In the rainy season, the chemistry becomes more complex and nitrate
replaces ammonia as a consequence of oxidising groundwater recharge, but manganese still
persists. Figure 2.2 illustrates this pattern of redox changes.
Table 2.2 Summary of selected incidents of groundwater pollution from waste
disposal in newly industrialised countries
Country Disposal
method
Waste type Groundwater
contamination
indicators
Reference
Argentina Unlined fill with
burial
Municipal Cl, HCO
3
, Cl/HCO
3
, Zn (Martinez et al.
1993)
Brazil Sanitary landfill Industrial
Municipal
Na, Cl, NH
4
, (Vendrame and
Pinho 1997)
Greece Sanitary landfill Municipal SEC, hardness, Cl, P,
metals, NH
4
, NO
3

(Loizidou and
Kapetanios 1993)
India Open dumping
in low-lying
areas
Municipal TDS, Cl, SO
4
, Fe, NH
4
,
COD
(Olaniya and
Saxena 1977)
Romania Old quarry Municipal
Industrial
Medical
Na, Cl, Cr, Ni, Cu, CN,
NH
4
,
(Mocanu et al.
1997)
Ukraine Solid wastes Municipal
Industrial
Bioindicators
suppression of
microbiological activity
(Magmedov and
Yakovleva 1997)

0
2
4
6
8
10
89 90 91
Date
C
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n

(
m
g
/
l
)

-
-
-
-
Nitrate-N
Ammonium-N
Recharge
flush

Figure 2.2 Oxidation of ammonium to nitrate due to recharge flushing, Mae Hia,
Chiang Mai, Thailand

2.3.2 Organic Loading
There have been relatively few studies of the impact of organic compounds leached from
municipal waste sites to groundwater. Reinhard et al. (1984) found that the majority of the
compounds originated from decomposing plant material, including aliphatic and aromatic
acids, phenols and terpenes. Minor constituents were both chlorinated and non-chlorinated
hydrocarbons, nitrogen-containing compounds, alkyl phenol polyethoxalates and alkyl
phosphates. Albaiges et al. (1986) used a series of C
4
to C
7
carboxylic acids with
predominance of even carbon numbered compounds found in the leachate as indicators of
organic pollution from leachate.
Very few specific organic components were detected at any of the present study sites,
probably reflecting the original leachate chemistry. Compounds detected were:
plasticisers, commonly the phthalate esters, with a single instance of dioctyl adipate
Mobilisation by rainfall
At the disposal site in Mae Hia, Thailand increased concentrations of contaminants can be
detected in groundwater after periods of high rainfall. This pulse of recharge has a high
concentration of contaminants but remains oxidising. It can be sequentially detected in shallow
dug wells moving away from the landfill as the rainy season progresses. The velocity of this
pulse shows that groundwater moves slowly in the alluvial sediments beneath the adjacent village
at about 1-2m/day.
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Jan-89 Apr-89 Jul-89 Oct-89 Jan-90
Date
C
o
n
d
u
c
t
i
v
i
t
y

(
S
/
c
m
)
0
100
200
300
400
500
R
a
i
n
f
a
l
l

(
m
m
)
Rainfall
Conductivity

Conductivity peak in a dug well close to the landfill at Mae Hia, Thailand
diesel or lubricating oil probably from well pump installations and disposed engine oil
an isolated instance of chloroaniline, an industrial chemical
The non-specific organic loading from leachate, as indicated by measurements of dissolved
organic carbon, may pose a greater hazard due to the formation of trihalomethanes during
water disinfection with chlorine (Stuart et al. 1999).

Formation of trihalomethanes in contaminated groundwater
Dissolved organic material can react with halogens (fluorine, chlorine and bromine)
during water chlorination for potable supply to form trihalomethanes (THMs). For
effective disinfection an excess of chlorine over the sample consumption is needed and
this free chlorine can react with organic compounds present in the water during storage
or distribution of treated water. There is concern that the use of abstracted water with an
enhanced organic load may lead to increased THM production.
The THM compounds most commonly formed are chloroform, bromodichloromethane,
chlorodibromomethane, and bromoform. Bromide, often present in raw water, from
either natural or anthropogenic sources has an important effect on speciation if present in
significant concentration and results in a high bromine incorporation into the THMs.
The figure shows the rapid rate of formation of THMs in a sample from a dug well in the
leachate plume at Mae Hia, Thailand.
0
500
1000
1500
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Time (Hours)
C
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n

(
g
/
l
)
Chloroform Dichlorobromomethane
Dibromochloromethane Bromoform
Total

Trihalomethane formation in groundwater from Mae Hia, Thailand
3 LANDFILL IMPACT ASSESSMENT
During the present study three approaches have been used to model the impact on
groundwater quality of landfill leachate depending on the prevailing hydrogeological
situation. They are 1) simple analytical models, 2) a probabilistic risk model developed for
the UK Environment Agency called LandSim, (Golder Associates, 1996) and 3) the
Hydrologic Evaluation of Landfill Performance (HELP) Model, (Schroeder et al., 1994a;
Schroeder et al., 1994b).
3.1 Simple Analytical Models
When a conservative contaminant travels through a porous aquifer medium its movement is
governed by the advection dispersion equation (ADE).

Advection Dispersion Equation

The ADE can be expressed as follows:
t
C
x
C
v
x
C
D
x L
2
2

where: D
L
is longitudinal hydrodynamic dispersion coefficient
v
x
is the average linear velocity in the x-direction
C is the mass per unit volume of solute

The longitudinal hydrodynamic dispersion can be thought of as a parameter
that accounts for the mixing of solute due to mechanical effects in the direction
of flow and diffusion around the grains in the aquifer matrix. The
hydrodynamic dispersion is defined mathematically as:

D
L
= v
x
+ D
*

where: is the dispersivity
D
*
is the diffusion coefficient
The ADE is also used to estimate the transport and attenuation of bacteria and contaminants
that are reversibly adsorbed and result in retardation in contaminant transport rate. The ADE
assumes that the porous medium is homogeneous, isotropic and saturated with fluid. An
analytical solution, suitable for the situation of a landfill releasing leachate into an aquifer,
with the following initial and boundary conditions

C(x, 0) = 0 x 0
C(0, t) = C
0
t 0
C(4,t) = 0 t 0

is given by (Fetter 1993) as:

=
t D
t v L
erfc
D
L v
t D
t v L
erfc
C
C
L
x
L
x
L
x
2
exp
2
2
0

where: C
0
is the initial concentration,
L is the distance from the point of injection to the point of measurement.
This equation is readily manipulated in a spreadsheet and can be used as a first pass at
estimating landfill leachate impact.
3.1.1 A Case Study from Thailand: the Tha Muang Site.
3.1.1.1 Site Setting and History of Development
The disposal site serves the town of Tha Muang, which has a population generating about 3.5
tonnes of waste per day. The waste is deposited in a walled compound about 100 metres
square to the southeast of the town. Within the waste site are two lagoons that are collectors
for leachate during the wet season. The site has been in use for about 30 years and the
practice has been to incinerate the waste by open burning and periodically remove the ash to
another site.

A sketch map of the site is shown in Figure 3.1. To the north and south of the dump are
irrigated agricultural fields. To the west is an area of housing, each house surrounded by a
large garden, the property adjacent to well H is the nearest. To the south are various farms
and residential buildings served by hand dug wells and abstraction is by belt driven
centrifugal pumps powered by diesel engines.
Figure 3.1 Sketch Map of the Tha Muang Landfill Site.
3.1.1.2 Geology and Hydrogeology
Tha Muang is situated on the north bank of the Mae Klong River that drains an extensive
aquifer basin formed in unconsolidated Pleistocene boulder gravels, sandy gravels, sands and
silts. Away from the river the aquifer is concealed beneath more recent silts and clays.
Based on unpublished well test data from the Department of Mineral Resources, Thailand,
the hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer ranges from 10
-4
to 10
-5
m/s, values typical of a
mixed gravel, silty sand aquifer. Water level is three to four metres below ground level.
3.1.1.3 Leachate Impact Assessment
For the purposes of the modelling we are trying to predict the impact of the landfill on well C
which is about 25 metres from the landfill (Fig. 3.1). The immediate problem is the absence
of aquifer data to parameterise the model. The following estimates are reasonable based on
our local knowledge:
Hydraulic conductivity = 1e
-5
m/s (based on well test data from the surrounding area)
Porosity = 0.25 (based on the presence of a silty sand lithology, Freeze and Cherry (1979)
Hydraulic gradient = 0.02 (estimated from topographic map).
Figure 3.2 is a graphical representation of the model output illustrating the change in
concentration away from the landfill. The model indicates that at a distance of 25 metres
from the landfill the concentration of a non-attenuating solute will be about 0.49 times the
initial concentration. The initial leachate chloride concentration was determined to be about
1000 mg/l, indicating that the concentration at 25 metres should be about 490 mg/l. The
measured concentration was between 460 and 480 mg/l. The concentration rapidly drops
away, and at a distance of about 100 metres, in well A, it is negligible. The background
chloride is between 78 and 160 mg/l, the concentration in well A varies from 78 to 115 mg/l,
i.e. background values. The rapid decline in leachate impact away from the landfill is
attributed to dilution of the leachate plume within the aquifer. This at first glance is a very
good result; however, the model is very sensitive to the value of hydraulic conductivity used
in the calculation and such simple analytical models need to be used with extreme caution.


3.2 LandSim
LandSim synthesises geological, hydrogeological and climate data to arrive at estimates of
the volume of leachate produced by a particular site, and the impact upon surface and
groundwater receptors in terms of predicted groundwater quality. It has been developed to
take into account the uncertainties associated with the geological and hydrogeological
characterisation of a site and also uncertainties in leachate composition, i.e. in the source
term. LandSim is modular in format and follows the classical source, pathway, receptor
scenario analysis to arrive at a quantified risk. The model is probabilistic and uses Monte
Carlo simulation to select randomly from a pre-defined range of input values to create
parameter values for use in calculation. The results are presented as probability plots and
performance can be quoted at a given confidence level.

0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
0 20 40 60 80 100
Distance from source(m)
C
/
C
o
Figure 3.2 Concentration with distance away from the landfill
Well C
Well A
3.2.1 A Case Study from Thailand: the Mae Hia Site
Chiang Mai is the second largest city in Thailand with a population in excess of 160,000.
The city relied on open dumping for waste disposal at the Mae Hia site for over 30 years until
it was closed in May 1989 due to the unacceptable environmental impact on shallow
groundwater wells in the vicinity of the site. Mae Hia landfill site lies about 10 kilometres
southwest of the city of Chiang Mai and covers an area of approximately 21 ha, of which 12
ha have been used for waste dumping. Figure 3.3 is a detailed sketch map of the site and
shows the location of the sampling wells used in the study. Approximately 100 houses exist
in the vicinity of the site while the area to the south is used for various agricultural activities
including rice growing and pig farming.
During the initial operational phase of the site daily cover was used but, as the waste arising
from Chiang Mai increased from 15 t/d in 1958 to 150 t/d in 1989, open dumping became the
preferred option in order to increase the useful life of the site. The waste thickness varies
from two to five metres and at the southeast end of the site a bunded leachate lagoon has been
formed which overflows during the rainy season.
According to data presented by Margane et al. (1998) the Mae Hia Landfill Site is sited on a
sequence of Quaternary colluvial deposits which are derived from the high ground on the
western side of the Chiang Mai Basin. These deposits consist of impersistent sand and gravel
layers interbedded with clayey units. Locally they rest on preserved remnants of the High
Terrace Deposits which consist of thick sand and gravel beds. Based on a compilation of
hydraulic data from tested wells in the colluvial deposits, (Margane et al. 1998), the hydraulic
conductivity is log normally distributed with a mean value of 1.4x10
-5
m/s and a maximum
value of 2x10
-4
m/s, consistent with a sandy gravel aquifer.
The ten-year mean annual rainfall of the Chiang Mai Basin (1987-1997) is 1115mm and the
mean annual evapotranspiration is 1855mm. Recharge, calculated from monthly rainfall and
evaporation data, is 212112 mm/a. In the absence of daily data, this is likely to be an
underestimate.
In the vicinity of the landfill site, water supply was originally from shallow wells dug into the
colluvial aquifer. Water depth ranges between 0.5 and 9.55 metres depending on the well
location and the season. In general, water level response to rainfall is fast in most wells
indicating that infiltration is quite rapid (Karnchanawong et al. 1999). Stable isotope studies
by Buapeng et al. (n.d.) indicate that recharge of the younger terrace deposits is relatively fast
and derives from rainfall on the higher ground at an altitude of 600 to 800 metres. The
groundwater flow direction has been estimated from the water level monitoring data and in
general flows from west to east. The average hydraulic gradient has been estimated to vary
between 0.008 and 0.009 although it is steeper in the vicinity of the landfill and is probably
topographically controlled.
The input data into the LandSim model takes the form of probabilistic distributions rather
than single variable values. The underlying mathematical model for contaminant transport is
similar to the one presented earlier, but allows for two-dimensional transport and also takes
into account attenuation. Figure 3.4 is the modelled LandSim output for a point three
hundred metres down gradient of the leachate pond at Mae Hia and represents modelled
impact on well 12. The data are presented as a reverse cumulative probability plot and
indicates that at 95% probability the chloride concentration will be 644 mg/l or less. This
figure compares quite well with the value of 773 mg/l determined by chemical analysis of
water from well 12. However, the model predicted a concentration of 191 mg/l ammonium at
the point of impact whereas the field value was about 0.06 mg/l. The problem is that the
model cannot cope with reactive transport and Karnchanawong et al. (1999) have
demonstrated that there is a redox change along the plume which causes ammonia to be
consumed, nitrate to be generated and increased manganese to be taken into solution. In
terms of human health it is this secondarily liberated manganese which constitutes the toxic
health risk.

W
A
S
T
E

L
A
N
D
F
I
L
L
S
I
T
E
A
B
A
N
D
O
N
E
D
C
O
M
P
O
S
T
I
N
G

P
L
A
N
T
L
E
A
C
H
A
T
E
P
O
N
D
c
e
m
e
t
e
r
y
2
9
7
2
9
6
3
0
3
3
0
2
3
0
1
3
0
0
.
0
3
0
2
3
0
0
2
9
8
2
9
8
2
9
0
3
0
0
3
0
1
3
0
0
2
9
9
2
9
8
3
0
2
3
0
3
3 0 3
3
0
4
3
0
8
3
0
9
3
0
5
3
0
6 3
0
7
3
0
8
3
0
8
3
0
7
3
0
6
3 0 8
3 0 9
3 1 0
3
0
5
3
0
4
3 0 3
3 0 1
3
0
1
3
0
3
3
0
2
2
9
9
2
9
8
2
9
7
3
0
8
2
3
2
4
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1
0
1
11
2
1
3
1
4
1
5
1
6
1
7
1
8
1
9
2
0
2
1
2
2
2
5
2
6
2
7
2
8
2
9
3
0
3
1
3
2
3
3
3
4
3
5
3
6
3
7
3
8
3
9
4
0
E
K
4
1
2
8
K
R
o
a
d
C
h
a
n
n
e
l
S
m
a
l
l

s
t
r
e
a
m
P
o
n
d
C
o
n
t
o
u
r

(
a
t

1

m
e
t
r
e
i
n
t
e
r
v
a
l
s
)
C
M
U

w
e
l
l

w
i
t
h

s
a
m
p
l
e
n
u
m
b
e
r
B
G
S

w
e
l
l
F
a
r
m
T
e
m
p
l
e
P
a
d
d
y

f
i
e
l
d
F
o
r
e
s
t
N
0
1
0
0
2
0
0
m
e
t
r
e
s
B
A
N

B
O
H
B
A
N
P
A
C
H
E
E
F
i
g
u
r
e

3
.
3

T
h
e

M
a
e

H
i
a

L
a
n
d
f
i
l
l

S
i
t
e

WC/99/17 22 Version 1, Revision 1


Figure 3.4 Modelled output from LandSim for chloride in Well 12 at the Mae
Hia Site.

3.3 The HELP Model
This is a quasi 2-D model used to predict the movement of water across, into, through and out
of landfills. Sites consisting of various combinations of vegetation, cover soils, engineering
and capping can be modelled for different climatic settings. The model facilitates rapid
estimation of the amount of leachate generated and is applicable to open or closed sites. Data
input consists of weather, soil and design data and uses solution techniques that account for
the effects of storage, runoff, infiltration, evapotranspiration, vertical drainage and leakage
from the landfill. Although the model was primarily envisaged as a design tool to predict
water balances in landfills and cover systems it also provides useful information to
hydrogeologists on source term volumes of leachate leakage which can be used in dilution
calculations. This is a very basic level of impact assessment, but in some cases proves to be
of particular use. A case study is presented for a karstic terrain in southern Mxico.
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Concentration (mg/l)
P
r
o
b
a
b
i
l
i
t
y

3.3.1 A Case Study from Mxico: The Mrida Municipal Landfill, Yucatn
The state of Yucatn, Mxico has a population of over 1.5 million and generates about 970
tonnes of solid waste per day. The waste is produced mainly in the principal tourist centres
on the Caribbean coast, and the state capital Mrida. When compared to the national daily
total of over eighty one thousand tonnes this quantity seems an insignificant amount (~1.2%).
However, in the Yucatn, where 100% of the water supply is groundwater derived from
karstic limestone, the uncontrolled dumping of mixed industrial and domestic waste, possibly
hazardous to the aquifer, is of serious concern.
The Mrida Municipal Waste Site is situated adjacent to the Anillo Periferico (outer ring
road) on the northwestern side of the city, and approximately 1.5 kilometres west of the
Universitys Engineering Faculty, Figure 3.5. It occupies an area of about 38 hectares and
has been in operation for 18 years presently serving a population of 556,819 people. It
accepts a mixture of commercial, industrial (including hazardous) and domestic wastes.
On the northeast side of the site there is an oxidation lagoon which consists of four
interconnected cells accepting septic tank effluents. The bases of these lagoons are unlined
and in direct contact with the limestone bedrock. Originally the lagoons discharged onto reed
beds, but these have died off due to negligence and the impact of the highly mineralised
overflow from the silted up lagoons.
Gonzles Herrera (1996) provides a detailed account of the operational practices at the site
and the disposition of the waste types. The waste is dumped in the open air in a zone known
as El Cerro (the hill) a platform of waste up to six metres high where heaps of mixed waste
may be observed. As well as the main dump, selected areas are reserved for specific waste
categories. For example near the entrance to the site is an area dedicated to the disposal of
used tyres, one for slaughter house wastes and another for rotten eggs and egg shells. The
daily operation is usually carried out on an area of about one hectare where the garbage
trucks discharge their waste more or less systematically. The garbage is then sorted by the
community of informally organised scavengers who recover glass, metal, plastic and card,
which are then sold on for re-cycling. Throughout the day the sifted waste is bulldozed to the
main dump area and compacted. Daily cover is not used and the site was the haunt of
vultures and feral dogs.

C
1
D
D
2
I
5
M
1
N
1
P
1
P
2
P
4
P
6
P
3
U
W
1
U
W
2
U
W
3
U
W
4
U
W
5
U
W
6
F
i
g
u
r
e

3
.
5

L
o
c
a
t
i
o
n

m
a
p

M
e
r
i
d
a

M
u
n
i
c
i
p
a
l

W
a
s
t
e

S
i
t
e

s
h
o
w
i
n
g

t
h
e

s
h
a
l
l
o
w

s
a
m
p
l
i
n
g

p
o
i
n
t
s
R
i
n
g
R
o
a
d
U
n
i
v
e
r
s
i
t
y

C
a
m
p
u
s

The site geology is characterised by a sub-horizontal sequence of Pliocene and Miocene
karstic calcarenties and bioclastic limestones forming a regional platform, six to seven metres
above sea level. Northwest-southeast trending fractures promote the development of
dissolution features. The limestones are covered with a thin rendzina type soil up to 20
centimetres thick in the vicinity of the site.
The phreatic surface is at around 5.45 metres below ground level with an annual fluctuation
of 50-70 mm and regional groundwater flow direction to the northwest. The hydraulic
gradient across the site has been estimated as 7.9610
-5
by Sanchez and Pinto (1989) and as
710
-6
by Brewerton (1993).
Tests conducted by Sanchez and Pinto (1989) indicate hydraulic conductivities ranging from
9.310
-5
m/s for calcarenite to 3.410
-8
m/s for partially recrystallised, well cemented
limestone; porosities range from 40 to 50%. Brewerton (1993) working on core samples
demonstrated porosity variations from 35% to 55% and hydraulic conductivities ranging from
3.510
-6
to 1.610
-5

m/s.
The climate is considered to be humid tropical, with a mean annual rainfall of around 1000
mm, most of which falls between May and October. Rapid recharge, estimated to be about
100 mm per year (British Geological Survey, 1995), is assumed to occur in the region and is
responsible for leachate generation in the landfill.
The Mrida site has a relatively good monitoring network in place consisting of purpose-
constructed monitoring wells and shallow hand dug wells used for groundwater abstraction.
Based on the groundwater quality monitoring data it is evident that a contaminant plume is
moving away from the landfill towards the northwest due to the regional groundwater flow,
Figure 3.6. It is interesting to note that the impact of the landfill is not detectable beyond
about one kilometre from the site. The HELP model was implemented for the site and has
been reported in detail by Ku Cardenas (1998). The model was modified from the original to
take into account the temporal changes in construction of the fill and changes in waste
density due to settlement.
Using this approach it was estimated that approximately 35,293 m
3
of leachate was produced
between March 1993 and December 1995. Figure 3.7 is a graphic demonstrating the landfill
response to rainfall events and the consequent leachate production.


Figure 3.7 Relationship between leachate flow (flujo de lix.) and precipitation during
the period of simulation.
BASURERO
MUNICIPAL
Figure 3.6: TOC plume from the
Merida Landfill
GROUNDWATER FLOW DIRECTION
DZITYA

Using these figures the average annual leachate infiltration rate is approximately 145 mm/a at
an average concentration of about 4857 mg/l chloride. To calculate the dilution factor beneath
the landfill the following equation is used:

w I
v
DF
.
.
1
+ =

where: DF is the dilution factor,
is the flowing thickness of the aquifer, taken as 20 metres.
I is the leachate infiltration rate, i.e. 145 mm/a
w is the width of the active landfill site perpendicular to the flow direction, taken as
350 metres
v is the groundwater velocity.
The parameterisation of the velocity is very difficult in this karstic terrain. A simple
calculation of the Darcy velocity is a serious underestimate as it does not take into account
fracture flow. Derived values of the order of 6x10
-4
m/d are inconsistent with well tests that
show almost instantaneous recoveries following prodigious abstraction rates. This suggests
that very high fracture porosity coupled with high matrix porosity are the governing controls.
Ward et al. (1985) describing the hydrogeology of the Xel Ha area on the Caribbean coast
calculated an average discharge rate of 8.6x10
9
l/a/km of coastline that equates to a discharge
velocity of about 24 m/d. Depending on the fracture connectivity, localised flows could be of
the order of hundreds of metres per day. Applying these values to the above equation, one
arrives at a dilution factor of about 1700. Taking the mean chloride concentration of the
leachate as 4857 mg/l, means that the concentration in the aquifer due to dilution will be
about 3 mg/l above background. Figure 3.5 indicates that some hydrodynamic dispersion of
the contaminant takes place but that background concentrations of chloride are reached
within a very short distance from the landfill boundary. Groundwater monitoring has
confirmed that the impact of the landfill is limited in terms of chloride.

4 HEALTH RISK ASSESSMENT
4.1 Risk Assessment Model
According to the US National Academy of Sciences, risk assessment is the process of
characterising the adverse health effects of human exposures to environmental hazards. For
the purpose of health risk assessments in the current study the Risk*Assistant model,
developed on behalf of the US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), has been used.
A risk assessment is subdivided into three stages, essentially following the classical source
pathway receptor model. They are:
1. Hazard identification,
2. Exposure assessment,
3. Dose response assessment.
Hazard and risk are frequently confused: they are not synonymous. At the most basic level
hazard equals danger, and in the risk assessment context a hazard exists if a potential exists to
cause harm. Conversely, risk is the likelihood of an adverse event occurring in response to a
hazardous situation.
The preliminary step in exposure assessment is the construction of a conceptual model that
represents the exposure pathways. The conceptual model shown in Figure 4.1 is an attempt
to identify the principal exposure pathways associated with living close to a landfill.
Pathways are both direct, e.g. the ingestion of contaminated dust, or indirect, e.g. the
ingestion of contaminated groundwater.
The dose assessment is achieved by estimating total environmental exposure to a particular
hazardous compound identified in the source. Compounds deriving from landfill leachate
either constitute a toxic hazard or a carcinogenic hazard.


Figure 4.1 A Source Pathway Receptor Conceptual Model for environmental
exposure adjacent to a landfill.

4.2 Toxic and Carcinogenic Risks
The general practice is to assume that a toxic chemical has a threshold below which toxic
effects do not occur. Toxic hazard estimates are expressed relative to a reference dose
concentration. The reference dose is an exposure that can occur over a prolonged period
without ill effect. Risk estimates are based on a comparison of actual exposure to this
reference dose for the particular chemical involved.
Carcinogenic compounds differ from systemic toxic compounds in that there is no lower limit
for the existence of cancer risk.
4.2.1 Case study from Thailand: Mae Hia Landfill Site
For the purposes of this study it is the groundwater pathway exposure scenario for a typical
Thai population living close to the Mae Hia landfill site that is of interest.

To illustrate the possible health problems associated with the groundwater contamination,
two pollutants are considered (WHO, 1993): manganese, with evidence of neurotoxicity in
miners, and a carcinogen, bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) which has been shown to
produce liver tumours in laboratory animals. To assess the risk, a hazard quotient (H.Q.) has
been calculated for manganese. As defined by the USEPA, it is the ratio of the average daily
dose to the reference dose. HQs greater than one indicate that there is a toxic risk. For well
12 (see Figure 3.3) with manganese at a concentration of 7 mg/l, the H.Q. is 2.75. A DEHP
concentration of 7 g/l per litre in well 5 produces an increased risk of cancer of 5 in
1,000,000.

TOXIC RISKS
Are defined for non-carcinogenic exposures
Think in terms of a Hazard Quotient (H.Q.)
H.Q. = ADD/Rfd
Where Rfd is the reference dose, and the ADD (the Average Daily Dose) is:
Total Potential Dose
Body Weight x Exposure Time

CARCINOGENIC RISKS
Are statements of probability
Individual excess risk is an estimate of the probability that an individual will get
cancer from an exposure, not the probability of dying from it
It is calculated from Risk = Slope Factor (SF) x Lifetime average daily dose
(LADD). The LADD is the average daily dose averaged over a lifetime.

The SF and Rfd are compound specific and may be obtained from the USEPA database
IRIS (see http://www.epa.gov/ngispgm3/iris).


Although risk assessment involves the application of seemingly trivial mathematical
equations, problems arise in their parameterisation, and detailed knowledge of exposure
factors is required in order to make the calculations useful. The above risk assessment was
based on the following exposure factors:
Exposure duration. The exposure duration can be estimated by taking the difference in
time from the inception of the landfill site to the present time, assuming that the
population has remained static, in this case 40 years.
Body weight. Body-weight data were obtained from the Provincial Public Health Office
in Chiang Mai. For men the average body weight is 58 kg and for women it is 50 kg.
Life expectancy. According to the Provincial Health Office life expectancy was 60 years
for both men and women during the last decade. However, deaths from AIDS has
reduced the average life expectancy of males to 50.20 years while females still experience
an expectancy of 60.48 years.
Water ingestion rate. This factor is a little more difficult to quantify but a low estimate,
based on bottled water consumption, is 3 litres per day. The Exposure Factors Handbook,
(USEPA 1996), reviews water intake in detail and suggests a mean intake rate of 6 litres
per day for active adults in temperate climates increasing to 11 litres per day in a hot
climate.
It is evident that both uncertainty and variability in factor parameterisation exist. Uncertainty
refers to a lack of knowledge about specific factors whereas variability refers to factor
heterogeneity attributable to natural random processes (USEPA, 1997). A way of dealing
with the parameterisation uncertainty problem is to perform a sensitivity analysis, i.e. an
interactive process of changing an exposure factor within a range that encompasses the
known variability to observe the effect on the dose and hence risk. The results of the process
are illustrated in Table 4.1 for groundwater consumption, the least constrained parameter in
the above analysis. The body weight and life expectancy values used were average values for
a woman, and the exposure duration was taken as the time elapsed since inception of the

landfill. The analysis is therefore a worse case scenario; however the results demonstrate the
sensitivity to the groundwater consumption parameter.

Table 4.1 Sensitivity analysis for groundwater consumption risk assessment at the Mae
Hia site.
Water Consumption (l) Hazard Quotient (Mn) Carcinogenic Risk (DEHP)
3 2.897 4:1,000,000
6 5.794 7:1,000,000
11 10.622 1:100,000

The results also demonstrate that there is the potential for unacceptable toxic and
carcinogenic risk from groundwater consumption at this site. The assessment can be used to
highlight this fact to the responsible regulators and operators. A further important
observation is that although the Mae Hia site was closed down in 1986 it continues to pose a
health risk. In actual fact much of the local population is now on a water main, but the well
water is still used in some of the poorer households for drinking and cooking.
4.3 Microbiological Contamination
Cameron and McDonald (1977) found high levels of microbiological activity in landfill
leachate even in the absence of detectable coliform bacteria. Other studies of the microbial
ecology of landfill leachate contaminated groundwater have tended to focus on
biotransformation reactions (e.g. Beeman and Suflita (1987) and Ludvigsen et al. (1997))
rather than the pathogenic risk to groundwater consumers. Due to the difficulty of detecting
low concentrations of pathogenic bacteria and viruses, coliform bacteria are used to
determine faecal contamination of water supplies. Thermotolerant coliforms (faecal) were
detected in the groundwater plume at all the sites studied in this project and were found at
very high concentrations in many wells. It is thought that their presence is, at least partly,
derived from the disposal of septic tank effluents at landfill sites.
The theory that coliform bacteria can multiply rapidly where leachate enters an oxygenated
groundwater system was tested in Mxico on leachates from the Mrida site. It was found

that when leachate was diluted with bacteria-free groundwater there was an increase in the
number of thermotolerant coliforms and the bacteria were able to survive for up to two weeks
under laboratory conditions, Figure 4.2. The limiting parameter was probably lack of
nutrients. This result means that the karstic groundwater system beneath the Mrida landfill
is particularly vulnerable to bacterial contamination given the zero filter efficiency of the
limestone, fast travel times and high dilutions.

1.00E+04
1.00E+05
1.00E+06
1.00E+07
1.00E+08
25-Jan-
98
30-Jan-
98
4-Feb-
98
9-Feb-
98
14-Feb-
98
19-Feb-
98
24-Feb-
98
Date
N
o
/
1
0
0
m
l
Figure 4.2 Growth of thermotolerant coliforms in a leachate-clean groundwater
mixture.

5 RELEVANCE OF PROJECT FINDINGS TO OTHER LANDFILL SETTINGS
5.1 Summary of Findings and Discussion
Three contrasting landfills have been studied and are described in this report. They were
selected on the basis of size, geology, hydrogeology, climatic setting and waste type. The
study has demonstrated that site geology is one of the main controlling factors on the impact
of landfill leachate on aquifers. The aquifer types represented by the study were:
1) Alluvium: Tha Muang, Thailand
2) Colluvium: Mae Hia, Chiang Mai, Thailand
3) Fractured Limestone: Mrida, Mxico
Aquifer properties and groundwater flow regimes also play a critical role. In an earlier study
Klinck (1996), using a variety of aquifer vulnerability assessment schemes, showed that the
Mrida aquifer was extremely vulnerable to pollution from the landfill operation. However,
it is evident from the detailed sampling carried out around the landfill that the impact on the
aquifer is not evident beyond a few hundred metres from the site and leachate-linked
contaminants are reduced to background levels by dilution.
In the case of the colluvial aquifer situation at Mai Hia landfill, where aquifer transmissivity
is reasonably high, a similar situation would be expected. Indeed, the evidence suggests that
the aquifer is rapidly flushed by the annual recharge event. But again, looking to the results
of the detailed sampling carried out, we see that the contamination is more persistent, the
leachate groundwater plume extending for over 1000 metres. Moreover, due to redox
processes within the aquifer, toxic levels of manganese and unacceptable nitrate
concentrations can occur which are well in excess of those found in the original leachate.
The alluvial site seems to fall somewhere in between in terms of aquifer impact. This is
thought to be due to the practice of waste burning. The result is an overall reduction in
organic loading on the aquifer combined with attenuation of contamination due to the
presence of a higher silt content, capable of sorbing metals and ammonia.

In evaluating the human health impact of leachate contamination of groundwater, the
pathway considered has been direct ingestion of contaminated water. At all three case study
sites faecal coliform contamination of the aquifer was detected as a primary impact and
coliforms were also incubated from some of the leachate samples. There is compelling
evidence from the dilution/incubation studies conducted in Mxico that leachate can be a
source of pathogenic contamination down-gradient from the site. Generally, however, it is
difficult to differentiate between pathogenic contamination arising from leachate and that
arising from poorly constructed household septic tank systems.
In terms of risk management, bacterial contamination is generally easy to deal with, either by
boiling or disinfecting the groundwater. The current study has demonstrated that inefficient
chlorination of groundwater with a high organic loading, possibly leachate derived, can give
rise to the production of trihalomethane compounds (THMs), some of which are recognised
as being both toxic and carcinogenic. Although this finding may be of only minor or no
concern in a well-managed end-of-pipe treatment system, it may constitute a hazard in other
situations. For example, in the village of Dzitya, close to the Mrida landfill, chlorine tablets
in perforated bottles were left hanging in wells as a means of chlorination. This situation
provided the right conditions for prolonged chlorination and possibly the formation of THMs
in the stagnant well storage.
Dissolved organic carbon (DOC) is the main component of all of the leachates studied and is
directly attributable to the organic content of the waste. However, it has proved to be very
difficult to identify specific organic compounds responsible for the high DOC. Therefore, in
order to carry out a risk assessment, DEHP, a plasticiser, was chosen as an environmental
contaminant which is directly linked to leaching plastics in landfill waste. In calculating
carcinogenic risk a high DEHP value was used from the Mae Hia site that produced an
increased risk of cancer of 5 in 1,000,000. The USEPA consider an increased risk of 1 in
1,000,000 as significant and therefore there is an unacceptable risk of cancer on that basis.
However, in terms of risk management it might be decided that 5 in 100,000 is the cut off
limit. The definition of the limit might depend exclusively on the demands placed on medical
facilities for example. Possibly more insidious is our lack of knowledge concerning the other
components of the DOC and the effect that they might have at very low concentrations on
health risk estimates. This is an area that needs further study.

Toxic heavy metals are often cited as being a major concern in landfill leachates: the reality is
more prosaic. Research by Yanful et al. (1988) has shown that, unlike conservative species
such as chloride, heavy metals remain in the waste or at the wasterock interface as a result
of redox controlled precipitation reactions. Pohland et al. (1993) determined that metal
mobility is also controlled by physical sorptive mechanisms and that landfills have an
inherent in situ capacity for minimising the mobility of toxic heavy metals. This fixing of
heavy metals dramatically reduces the risk of direct toxic effects due to ingestion of leachate
contaminated groundwater. However, once the leachate leaves the site the situation changes.
The leachate is generally a strongly reducing liquid formed under methanogenic conditions
and on coming into contact with aquifer materials has the ability to reduce sorbed heavy
metals in the aquifer matrix. The most important reactions are the reduction of iron and
manganese to more soluble species and hence one sees an increase in the concentration of
these components under favourable conditions close to a landfill. This is the case at the Mae
Hia site in Thailand where the toxic effect of the leachate contamination is due to this process
of reduction of manganese present in the aquifer matrix. The impact of this process has been
demonstrated to lead to a serious toxic risk.
5.2 A Generic Approach to Landfill Leachate Impact Assessment
The principal objective of this report has been to provide case study examples of risk
assessment and appropriate techniques of impact assessment. It is evident that there have
been difficulties in applying the methodologies tested during this study and the overriding
contributing factor to this has been lack of knowledge to constrain problem definition. This
lack of knowledge is present throughout the assessment process and the final outcome may be
an over-conservative assessment that will flag up the need for inappropriate and expensive
risk management measures. An attempt has to be made to produce a balanced risk
assessment while at the same time adopting the precautionary approach in implementing risk
management. It is suggested that the following checklist of data requirements (Table 5.1)
might be used in designing a risk assessment.
Figure 5.1 is a flow diagram illustrating a methodology to conduct a landfill impact
assessment and human health risk assessment once the data have been collected. The flow
chart illustrates that there are two ways to arrive at the risk assessment. The easiest one only
requires a chemical analysis at the point of compliance plus a constrained exposure scenario.

The second, more complicated approach first requires an assessment of concentration at the
point of compliance using a suitable mathematical model and then input of that result to the
risk assessment model.

Table 5.1 Data requirements checklist for risk assessment
Geological Data geological map, borehole logs, lithological information
Hydrogeological Data water level data, hydraulic gradient, aquifer parameters, e.g.
porosity and hydraulic conductivity, climate data
Demographic Data life expectancy, body mass
Hydrochemical Data Leachate source term, groundwater quality
Exposure Data Exposure duration, frequency of exposure, exposure pathways, dose
calculations

5.3 Risk Management Options
In dealing with an unacceptable landfill leachate impact there are limited management
options available. They basically come down to the following approaches:
1) Removal of the source term.
Source term removal is possible by:
a) removing the waste to a more suitable site. This could be a very expensive option
depending on the size of the landfill and the volume of waste deposited.
b) Reduce the amount of leachate being generated. This option is technically more feasible
and requires the landfill to be capped with a suitable, low permeability cover in order to
reduce infiltration and hence leachate production. There are knock-on engineering effects
from this approach which include the need for a landfill gas management system, and a
system to manage surface runoff from the cap.


Figure 5.1 Flow diagram of stages in completing a health risk assessment

Collate Geological
Data
Collate
Hydrogeological Data
Collate Demographic
Data
Conceptual Site Model
Groundwater
Chemistry
Dose Assessment
(Risk*Assistant)
Landfill Impact
Assessment
HELP Model Probabilistic Model
Deterministic
Model
Risk Management
Required?
Exposure Pathway
Analysis

2) Leachate plume management.
This could be achieved by defining the limit of unacceptable leachate impact through a
groundwater monitoring network and the definition of a hazard zone around the landfill using
appropriate impact and risk assessment models. This zone would then define where
groundwater abstraction and consumption would be unsafe. This option is relatively cheap as
long as the DOC loading is well characterised. This management approach would also aid in
optimising piped water supply planning.
3) Waste reduction.
Recycling and composting are often encouraged by some municipalities in order to reduce
the amount of waste going to landfill and incineration. These technologies in conjunction
with waste minimisation measures are seen as the sustainable option and have been placed in
the following hierarchy:
waste reduction
re-use
recycling, composting and energy recovery
disposal to landfill and incineration with no energy recovery.
At first glance, activity is at the lower end of the waste hierarchy in the newly industrialised
countries. Waste disposal, usually, is a low priority area for investment, generally lacking in
infrastructure development compared to the high visibility engineering projects which tend to
receive a larger share of the available financial resources. Paradoxically, landfills and wastes
are a rich source of re-usable materials and most developing country landfills support active,
scavenger communities. This culture of re-use usually begins at the waste source. Waste
collectors recover high value items such as intact glass and plastic bottles before the delivery
to the landfill. At the landfill scavengers collect other recyclable materials including glass,
paper, card, plastic and scrap metals. The overall benefits of such activity are not well
quantified, but indications are that between 1% and 5% of the disposed waste is recovered
and incomes from such activity often exceed local minimum wages.

Developing country wastes typically contain between 25 and 70% of putrescible material. An
activity, which could reduce the organic waste content and consequently DOC loading in
leachate, is composting. Taken together recycling and composting are effective methods of
waste minimisation and consequently mitigate landfill impact.

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