Western Civ Notes:

The Ancient Mediterranean Foundation of the Medieval West

o The Human Animal
Homo sapiens sapiens
Earliest: 2 million years ago
Anatomical moderns: 200,000 years
Behavioral moderns: 50,000 years
Narrow genetic diversity due to near extinction: 175,000 years ago
No meaningful race of humans
Use tools/language/cooking
Social animals create culture
o Memes versus genes
Settled Agriculture: 8,000 BCE
o Begins recorded history
Ancient River System Civilizations
o Nile, Tigris, Euphrates, Indus and Yellow
Ancient Empires
o Egyptian, Babylonian, Indian and Chinese
Mediterranean
o Greece -> Roman Republic -> Roman Empire
o Two Ancient Worlds
The Roman World: Populus Romanus
Commerce/Trade Conquest/Slavery
Civic government/Law
State Religion
The Northern World: Barbarians (Germanic People)
Forests
Raiding
Nomadism
Clan based governance/customs
Later Roman Empire
Civil religion vs mystery religion
o Pantheon vs monotheism
o Rites/heroes/conquest of death/moral life/salvation, martyrs
Emperor Constantine (280-306-337)
o Christianity as official religion
Fall of Rome (410-476)
o Germanic Tribes:
Vandals, Goths, Huns, Saxons, Visogoths, Franks
o Rome Sacked (410)
o Last Emperor deposed (476)
Successor States
o Eastern Roman Empire (476-1453)

Multiethnic/Polygot
Constantinople (Istanbul, 1453) (280-306-337)
Byzantine Empire
o Islamic World (632
Muhammad (570-632)
Islam
Ethics/behavior conversion
Quran
Cultural unity/5 pillars of Islam
Political fragmentation
o Western Christendom: New Barbarians 800-936-1806
Synthetic Society
Northern Law: Tribal Law, Trial by Battle, Trail
by Ordeal
o Politics: Warlordism
o Economics: Barter, Raid, Tribute
Southern Religion: Christianity, Monasticism
o Language: Latin
o Government: Roman Empire
Unified under God
Christianity and the Church
o Gregory the Great (590-604)
First monk to rise to the papacy
o Ruled by the abbots under the Rule of St. Benedict
480-547
Discipline and the dignity of labor
o Latin
Binds Germanic tribes
Order in the chaos
o The Franks
Clovis (466-481-511)
Overthrows syagrius (486)
Converts to Christianity (496)
Opposed Arian Christianity heresy
o Carolingians
Frank rulers (751-987)
Descendants of Charles Martel (688-714-741)
Battle of Tours/Poitiers (732)
Pepin the Short (714-741-814)
Donation of Pepin (756)
o Reconfirmed (774)
Charlemagne (742-768/771-814)
Charles the Great
Louis I (778-814-840)

Charles, Lothair, Louis
Conquest of Charlemagne (814)
30 years
Lombards, Saxons, Avars
Church controls
1
/
3
to
1
/
2
of all land in
Christendom
Charles the Bald, Lothair, Louis the German (841)
o Feudalism
First fiefs given out by Charles Martel in 730
By 800 Charlemagne has 300 top order vassals
Oath of Fealty
Oath of Homage
Oath of Vassalage
o Barbarian Invasion (9
th
Century)
Vikings (Norsemen)
Saracens (Muslims)
Magyars (Huns)
o Feudal Revolution
Feudal localism
o Fiefs/Benefices
Land exchanged through ceremony to promote loyalty
o Castellans/Encastlements
Medieval castle
o Devolution of Power
Two Churches
o Secular Clergy
Baptism
Confirmation
Eurcharist
Confession
Marriage/Ordination
Extreme unction
o Regular Clergy
Monks
The Feudalized Church
o 3 Orders
Oratores: Speak to God (Priest/Monk)
Bellatores: Warriors who protect church
Laboratores: Workers/Farmers (95%)
Monastic Reform: Cluny (Benedictine)
o Cluny: Benedictine reform monastery
Founded (909)
Morality: Resist temptations
Rule of Benedict

Abolish Simony: Buying/Selling church offices
The Rise of the Saxons: Holy Roman Empire
o Otto I The Great (912-936-973)
Battle of Lechfeld (955)
Holy Roman Emperor (962)
o Pope John XII (955-963)
Reconfirms donation of Pepin
o Pope Leo VIII (963-964)
Imperial appointee
Rebuilds power on lay investiture
The Church and the Holy Roman Empire: Co-operation
o Pope Benedict IX (1032-1043)
3 time Pope
o Holy Roman Emperor Henry III (1017-1039-1056)
Agnes of Poitou/Cluny
Truce of God/Peace of God
o Pope Leo IX (1049-1054)
Monastic reform becomes papal reform
Synods
o Rome, Pavia, Cologne, Reims, Mainz
Pattern for co-operation
William I (1070-1087)
Philip I (1199-1216)
Louis IX (1243-1254)
Crown and Church: Contest for Leadership
The HRE and Church: Patterns of Church/State Conflict
o HRE Henry IV (1050-1056-1106)
o Pope Gregory VIII (1073-1085)
The Church: Death of Empires
Investiture Controversy
o Pope Gregory VIII
Hildebrand/Cluny
o Henry IV
Civil war in German tribes
Installs antipope Clement III (1084)
Gregory VII flees (1085)
Pattern for Church/State conflict
o King Henry I vs Archbishop Anselm
Compromise of Bec (1107)
o Henry V vs Pope Callistus II
Concordat of Worms (1122)
o King Phillips IV vs Boniface VIII
Babylonian Captivity (1305-1378)
o Check on royal power/challenge divine right

o Fragmentation of Germany & Italy
Centralized imperial powers
Agricultural and Population Growth
o European population
10
th
C: ca. 35 million
14
th
C: ca. 70 million
o Productivity
Communal effort
Serfdom (Serf vs Lord)
Manors: 1000-2000 acres
Technology change
o Three Field System
o Draught animals
Oxen increasingly replaced by horses
Horse technology: Collar and Stirrup
Mould-board plow
o Reclamation of land
Cities and the Cash: Market Economy
o Latin roots of the city
o Civitas (Citizenship)
o Urbis (Walled town or city)
Castellanus (fort/castle)
Primogeniture/Patrilineal family: Eldest son
o Commercial revolution
Merchants
Traders
o Italian cities
o Jews
o The Three Orders
o Urban society
Charter
Security of property
No serf labor
Live for 366 days in city secures freedom
Communes
Guilds
Masters
Apprentices
Journeyman
Burgers/Bourgeoisie
City dwellers
o Medieval monastic education
o Education: Cathedral schools
900 CE: ca. 20

1000 CE: ca. 200
o Scholastics (Schoolmen)
Logic (Dialects)
Aristotles Logic
(St.) Anselm (1034-1109)
Proslogrum (1078)
First scholastic
Move towards logic
Peter Abelard (1079-1153)
Application of reason
Condemnation at Council of Sens (1140)
o Opposed by abbot and monk Bernard or
Clairvaux
o Universities
Bologna (1088)
Paris (1200)
Oxford (1209)
Cambridge (1214)
Vercellio (1228)
Toulouse (1240)
Rome (1244)
o Scholastics
Order/ Structure
Unify logic and faith
Averroes (Ibn Rushd) (1126-1198)
Commentator
o Averroists: Double truth
Separation of religion and state
St. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274)
Unities truths
o Summa Thologiae (1265-1273)
Warrior Culture and The Crusades
o The First Crusade (1096-1099)
Abbasid Dynasty (749-1258)
Baghdad
Golden Age of Islamic civilization
Turkish peoples/Seljuq Turks
Battle of Manzikert/Fall of Jerusalem (1071)
Pope Urban II (1058-1099)
Council of Clermont (1095)
Called to advance the Peace of God
Preach the 1
st
crusade
Calls on minor nobility of Europe
Motives

Faith, Feudal Obedience, Plunder, Land, Trade
Fall of Jerusalem
1
st
(1071)
2
nd
(1099)
o 70,000 massacred
o Subsequent Crusades
The Second Crusade (1147-1149)
Battle of Hattin (1187/Saladin)
The Third Crusade (1182-1192)
French, German and English Kings
o Phillip II, Frederick I, Richard I
o Irony and Traged: The Later Crusades
The Fourth Crusade (1202-1204)
The Childrens Crusade (1212)
The Sixth Crusade (1228-1229)
o Chivalric Culture
Chevalier (Knight/Horesman)
Military prowess
Valor, loyalty, charity, honor (in battle)
o Consequences
Papacy
Enhanced powers
Prevented consolidation of imperial system
Islamic contact
Trading
Eastern trading luxury
o Porcelain, silks, rugs, metal work, spices
Outside World contact
Aggressive
Violent
Cultural insistent
o Own religion/truths
Crucial patterns for later Europe
o Imperialism
o Colonialism
Feudal Monarchy
Norman Invasion
o Anglo-Saxons (5
th
Century)
Edward (1004-1042-1066) The Confessor
Harold II (1022-1066)
o William the Conqueror (1028-1066-1087)
Shires
Feudal monarchy
Fewer, strong vassals

Large territorial core
Central royal control over taxation/law
Independent leadership in religious reform
English Monarchy
o William II (1087-1100) Rufus
o Henry I (1100-1135)
Circuit judges
The Common Law:
Trial by jury, due process, royal writs
The Angevin Empire
o Henry II (1133-154-1189)
Anjou Eleanor of Aquitaine (1122-1204)
King of England, Duke of Normandy, Anjou, Aquitaine
Vassal of the King of England
Relies heavily on urban taxation and conversion of
feudal dues
Rising cash ecnomy
Two sons:
Richard I (1189-1199)
John (1199-1216)
French Monarchy
o Hugh Capet (940-996)
Successor to the Carolingians
Co-Kings
o Philip II Agustus (1180-1223)
English model Feudal monarchy
Royal governance
Royal council
Baillis
Alliance with Papacy
Submits to Pope Innocent III (1200)
The HRE: Weakness to Collapse
o Frederick I Barbarossa (1152-1190)
Burgandy/Riechsfurst
o Pope Alexander III (1159-1181)
Lombard League (1167)
Battle of Legnano (1176)
o Frederick I dies (1190)
3
rd
Crusade
Grandson Frederick ward of Papacy (1198)
Battle for Power: Philip, John, Innocent
o Philip II (1180-1223)
o John (1166-1199-1216)
Lockard/Softsword

Excommunicated (1209)
Kidnaps/Marries Isabelle dAngouleme (1200)
Unpopular
Declared felon by Philip (1205)
Dispute over archbishop of Canterbury
Scutage
o Innocent III (1198-1216)
Battle of Bouvines (1214) and the Power of the Medieval Church
o Philip II France
o Pope Innocent III
o Frederick II HRE
Declared HRE by Innocent (1211)
o John (1166-199-1216) England
Dispute over Archbishopric of Cantebury
Innocent excommunicates (1209)
o Otto IV of Brunswick
o Battle of Bouvines (1214)
Otto defeated
John retreats
Angevin Empire dismantles
The Church Ascendant
o Pope Innocent III
o Curia Papal monarchy
o Fourth Lateran Church (1215)
No new church orders
Mass and Confession once per year
Clerical morality
o Albigensian Crusade (1209-1229)
The French Monarchy: Royal Power Ascendant
o Louis IX St. Louis (1226-1270)
Seventh Crusade Capture by Mamaluks
Parton of arts and learning Sainte Chapelle
France as eldest daughter of church
Massive religious spenind
French coinage: Protection of the crown
University of Paris (1257)
o French golden century
Medieval Representative Institutions
o Common heritage of Feudal society
o Feudal co-operation extended
Nobles/consulation
City charters/liberties
o England: Curia regis/Parliament
o France: Curia regis/ Estates General

o HRE: Imperial diet
o Aragon/Catalonia: Cortes
o Civic assemblies: Councils
The English Monarchy: Roayal Power Limited
o John (1166-1199-1216)
The Magna Carta (1215)
o Henry III
Great Council/Parliament
Provisions of Oxford (1258)
Simon de Montfort/Parliament of 1265
o Edward I (1239-1272-1307)
o Model Parliament
The French Monarchy: Royal Ascendant II
o Philip IV (1268-1285-1314)
War and Cash: Jews, Knights Templar (1306-1307)
o Edward I (King of England)
War (1294)
o Boniface VIII (1294-1303)
o Clement V (1305-1314)
Babylonian Captivity (1305-1378)
Great Papal Schism (1378-1418)
o Council of Constance (1414-1418)
Emerging Critics of the Church
o Conciliarism (Rule by Church Council)
o Marsilius of Paclu
o John Wycliffe (1328-1384)
Lollards
o Jon Huss (1372-1415)
Plague and People: 14
th
Century Crisis
o Malthusian Crisis
Death rate rises as population growth outstrips food
production
o Conquest, War, Famine & Pestilence and Death
Sings of Last Times (Apocalypse)
o Hundred Years War (1337-1453)
o Famines
1272
1277
1283
1292
1311
1332
1345
o Great Famine (1315-1322)

o Little Ice Age (1310-1350(1360))
o The Black Death (1347-1353+)
Bubonic Plague
Psychological Results of the 14
th
Century Crisis
o Cultural morbidity
o Scapegoating
Jews
Doctors
Witches
Anticlericalism
Economic/Social Results of 14
th
Century Crisis
o Faith: Piety and Prayer
Flagellants
Devotio Moderna Thomas a Kempis (1418)
o Riots: Eat, Drink and be Merry
English Peasant Rebellion (1381)
Jacquerie (1358)
Ciompi Revolt (1378)
o Labor: Golden Age of the Working Man
Low prices/rents, higher wages
Rapid decline of Feudalism
Labor mobility
Destruction of records
Youthful society
Cultural fluidity
Labor saving devices
Advanced sailing
Moveable type
o Revolts
English Peasant Revolt (1381)
Statue of Laborers (1351)
Poll Tax (1377,1381)
Watt Tyler, John Ball, Richard II (1367-1400)
Jaquerie: French Peasant Revolt (1358)
Ciompi Revolt: Florentine Worker Rebellion (1378)
Italian Renaissance I: Political Context
Background
o Itallian City-States
Battle of Legnamo (1176)
Peace of Constance (1183)
Babylonian Captivity (1305-1378) Avignon
Great Papal Schism (1378-1414)
o Communes
Padu, Florentine, Siena, Pisa, Lucca

o City Councils: Inner and Outer
Nobles
Merchant Class
Lower classes (workers)
Constant struggle between Guelphs (Papal) and
Ghibbelines (Imperial)
Despots (Podesta) and Capitano (Tend to) ->
Principalities
Verona/Romano & Scala families
Milan/Visconit (1277-1447) & Sforza families
(1447-1535)
Council governments (in some cases) -> Republics
(Venice, Florence)
Florence: Home of the Renaissance
o Free commune (1115)
o Podesta (Luca Grimaldi, Guelph) Party factionalism (1257)
o Constitution of 1293 (Ordinances of Justice) Expels Nobility
3 Principals of Operation
Election from within the guilds (arti) of city
councils
Short term public service, elected by lot (no
debtors, no recent office holders, no relatives)
Division of powers: Signoria
o Council of 9: 6 major guilds, 2 minor, 1
general member
o Council of 12
o Council of 16
o Council of the People: 500 members, 6
month terms
o Balia: Ten of War
Civic Humanism: All have a place in
government/allegiance for liberties
Florin
Leonardo Bruni
Medici Banking Family/ Cosimo de Medici
(1388-1464)
Guelph victory: Flornentines take over papal
banking and tax collection
Civic duty/public service: Civitas/polis
Council of Constance (1415-1418)
o Pope Nicholas V (1447-1455)
First Renaissance Pope
The Renaissance and the Church
o Pope Innocent VIII (1484-1492)

o Pope Alexander VI Rodrigo Borgia
(1492-1503)
o Pope Julius II (1503-1513)
o Pope Leo X (1513-1521) Medici
o Pope Clement VII (1521-1534) Medici
Italian Renaissance II: Themes
Renaissance Themes
o History/Difference
o Rhetoric/Communication
o The Classics/Architecture
Francesco Petrarch
o Cupiditas
o Livy Titus Livius
History of Rome (9 BCE)
History nourishes the present
De viris illustibus (1337+)
Venetian library (1362)
Poetry ther vernacular
Humanism versus scholasticism
Renaissance Views
o View of Humanism
o View of Scholarship
Studia humanitas (liberal arts) Leonardo Bruni
Grammar, rhetoric, poetry
History of politics, moral philosophy
o Florentine Politics (1375-1434)
Milan/Giangaleazzo Visconti (1351-1402)
Duke of Milan (1395)
Wars: 1390-1392, 1397-1398,1400-1402
Verona, Padua, Pisa, Siena, Assisi, Bologna
Coluccio Salutati (1331-1406)
Chancellor of Signore (1375-1406)
Greek studies
De tyranno (1400) The Roman Republic
Leonardo Bruni (1374-1444)
Chancellor of Signore (1410-1411,1427-1444)
Roman history: republic and empire
History of Florentine People (1415-1442): 12
volumes published by Signore: Ancient, Middle
Ages, Modern Modeled on Livys History of
Rome
Civic Humanism: The active life
o Florentine Architecture and Artistry
Fillipo Brunelleschi (1377-1446)

Founding Hospital of the Innocenti
Santa Maria del Fiore (Duomo)
Leon Battista Albeti (1404-1472)
Florence
Perpective
Genius
Renaissance Artistry
o Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519)
Renaissance man
Inspired
Raphael (1483-1520)
Michelangelo (1475-1564)
Employed by
Florence
Papacy
Duke of Milan
King of France Francis I
o Pope Julius II
Machiavelli and the Renaissance Monarchs
The Early Modern Period
o Re-emergent market economy
Local trading
Long-distance trading
Hanseatic League (1356-1669)
o Free Imperial Cities
Lubeck, Hamburg, Bremen,
Riga, Danzing, etc. ca. 40
towns
o Antwerp/London/Lyon, etc
International trading
Spices, Silks, Bullion
o Growing middle class
Merchants
Professionals
o Modern bureaucracies/states
Collapse of Feudal Monarchy
o The Hundred Years War (1337-1453)
Destroys noble families in France and England
War of the Roses
Rise of Renaissance Monarchs
o Louis XI (1423-1461-1483) France
Spider King
Develops cities, fairs, roads while destroying the power
of noble families

o Charles VIII (1470-1483-1498)
o Louis XII (1462-1498-1515)
o Henry VII (1457-1485-1506) Tudor England
Outlaws private castles and militias, develops cities and
builds the royal treasury
Court of the Star Chamber
Justice of the Peace
o Ferdinand II (1452-1479-1516) and Isabella (1451-1474-1506)
Late 15
th
century Reconquista of Spain
o Charles I King of Spain (1500-1516-1556)
o Charles V Holy Roman Emperor (1519-1556)
Second Generation: Renaissance Princes
o Francis I (1515-1547) France
o Henry VIII (1506-1547) England
o Charles V *(1519-1558) Spain/HRE
o Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527)
The Prince (1513)
Discourses on the First Ten Books of Livy (1513-1521)
Renaissance Monarchy: Attributes
o Education
Leaders highly educated in Renaissance subjects
o Opulence
Patronize opulent courts of scholars, musicians, artists
o Centralized/Professionalized governance
o Aggression (Emerging age of gunpowder)
Establish standing mercenary armies/fortified cities
Establish strong, wind-driven ocean-going navies with
naval cannon
The Italian Wars (1494-1556)
o France (1494-1498)
o France/Spain (1499-1504)
o Spain (1521-1526)
o Medici & Pope Julius
Defeat Florentines (using Spanish troops) and are
readmitted to Florence (1512)
The Northern Humanists
o Desiderius Erasmus (1469-1536)
Translated original New Testament (Greek text) to Latin
The Renaissance: South and North
o Italian civic humanism
Program for urban life/civic morality
o Northern humanism
Christian humanism
Program for church life/social morality

Birth of Northern Humanism
o Gerhardt Groote (1340-1384) The Netherlands
o Brethren of the Common Life
Devotion moderna
Schools: piety, literacy, safe classics
o Thomas a Kempis
Imitation of Christ (1418)
Christian Humanism: Maturity
o Desiderius Erasmus (1469-1536)
o Thomas More (1478-1535)
Utopia (1516)
o Incarnation vs Atonement
o Attack on superstition
o Latin exercises
o Protest literature
The German Lands and the HRE
o Church doctrine: Purgatory/indulgences
Marin Luthers World
o Martin Luther (1483-1546)
German monk, scholar, religious reformer, church
founder
Renaissance Princes & the HRE
Charles V
Francis I
Henry VIII
Martin Luther: Lawyer, Monk, Scholar
o University of Erfurt (1501) Law
1
st
Crisis: Thunder Storm (July 1505)
Augustinian monk
2
nd
Crisis: Mass (1507)
Obsession with sin atonement
o University of Wittnberg (1508)
Visits Rome (1510)
Martin Luther: Contoversialist
o Pope Leo X (1513-1521)
o Pope Julius II (1503-1513)
o St. Peters Basilica (1506+)
o Alberech of Brandenburg/Archbishop of Mainz (1515)
Plenary indulgence
o Frederick III The Wise of Saxony (1463-1525)
o Leipzig Disputation (1519)
Johannes Eck
Martin Luther: Heretic
o HRE Charles V (1519-1556)

o Diet of Worms/Edict of Worms (1521)
o Lutheran Church (1522)
German bible (vernacular)/priesthood of all believers
Two sacraments: baptism and communion
Participatory hymnal
Rejects celibacy for the clergyThe authority
question(Eck)
The Lutheran Church and its Context
o Imperial Politics
European cities, kingdoms, politicsfueled by New
World riches
o Charles V HRE (1519-1556)
o Francis I France (1515-1547)
o Charles defeats Francis
Battle of Pavia (1525)
o Rome sacked by renegade German mercenaries (1527)
o Spain assumes role of protector of papacy
o Suleiman I The Magnificent (1520-1566)
Conquest of Belgrade (1521)
Battle of Mohaes (1526)
Siege of Vienna (1529)
o Augsburg Confession (1530)
45% German Princes and cities subscribe
o Sehmakaldic League (1531)
Imperial German War
o Peace of Augsburg (1555)
German Princes choose religion
Lutheran Motivations
o Religious conviction
o Princely/political independence
o German independence/nationalism
o Economic gain
o Philip of Hesse (1504-1567) Philip the Magnanimous
Embraces Lutheranism (1524)
o Swabian (German) Peasants Revolt (1524-1526)
Thomas Muntzer: All things are common
o The Twelve Articles of the Swabian Peasants (1525)
Attacks feudalism/feudal lords
o The Reformation as Urban Movement
Reading and new urban elites
Zwingli and the Swiss Reformation
o Huldrych Zwingli (1484-1531)
Inspired by Luthers Leipzig debate with Eck
Christian humanist focus

Scriptural tests
Theocratic society
Supports the Swabian peasants
Anabaptists
o Conrad Grebel (1498-1526) Zurich
Adult baptism, pacifism, refusal of oaths, divine
inspiration, free will
o Munster (1534-1535)
John of Leiden (1509-1536)
o Menno Simons (1496-1561) / Mennonites Dutch
The Protestant Reformation: German and Swiss
o Political: Provides theological justification for political resistance
to extra-religion domination
o Social: Provides theological path for the rise of wealthy, literate,
urban populations to replace older feudal elites
o Lutheranism: Theology of conscience focus (inward) on
individuals understanding of scripture
Politics of hierarchy (princely rule)
o Swiss variants: Worldly theology focus (outward) on militant
opposition to wrong teachings
Politics of opposition (theocracy of the elect)
From Switzerland to France: Calvinism
o John Calvin (1509-1564) Geneva
o Institutes of the Christian Religion (1536-1559)
Nature of man total depravity
Nature of mans relation to God predestination and
the elect
Nature of mans relationship to his community
Local: the consistory (church/city council of the
elect) / The Academy
Regional: synods (elected church governance
structure)
o for the believer: 2 sacraments,
collective worship with other believers
in the vernacular, no priests, strong
community actively oppose
evilprove ones elect status
Spreads from Geneva to France, England,
Scotland, and the Netherlands
o French Huguenots, English and
American Colonial Puritans, Scots
Presbyterians, Dutch Reformed
The English Reformation :Henry VIII
o Henry VIII (1491-1509-1547)

o Catherine of Aragon
Birth of Mary (1516)
Henry seeks divorce (1527)
o Anne Boleyn
Birth of Elizabeth (1533)
o Jane Seymour
Birth of Edward (1537)
o Anne of Cleves
o Catherine Howard
o Catherine Parr
o Act of Supremacy (1534)
o Dissolution of the Monasteries (1536-1539)
o The Pilgrimage of Grace (1536-1537)
o The 6 Articles (1539)
o Edward VI (1547-1553)
Duke of Somerset
Puritan/Calvinist
o Mary (1553-1558)
Catholic
Philip II (of Spain)
Smithfield Fires
The English Reformation: Elizabeth
o Elizabeth I (1558-1603)
o The 39 Articles (1563) / Anglicans / Episcopalians
An attempted middle ground
Maintains episcopacy with no supreme priestly
leadership (no pope)
Establishes a national church
Outward conformity required as a political act
Tolerationto a point
Political not religious loyalty
o The political queen
Puritans
The Spanish Armada (1588)
Calvinism
o Predestination
Activist religion
o Psychology
Who is saved (Only God knows)
o Local politics
Consistory as Gods governance
o National politics
Church is the anvil that wears out many hammers
o French Huguenots

25% French Population (1550)
o Support
Urban middle class and southern/central French princes
Route and rationale for independence
The Counter Reformation
o Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556)
Society of Jesus Jesuits (1534)
Spiritual Exercises
Missions/education
o Leo X (1475-1513-1523) Giovanni de Medici
o Clement VII (1478-1523-1534) Giulio de Medici
o Paul III (1468-1534-1549)
o The Council of Trent (1534-1563)
Confirms Catholic doctrine
7 sacraments and transubstantiation
Condemning predestination
Reforms church practices
o Requires episcopal residency
o Establishes diocesan seminaries
o Reforms issuance of indulgences
o New decrees on clerical morality
o Allows new church orders
Authority
o Scripture and tradition
Spain: Champion on the Counter-Reformation
o Philip II (1527-1556-1598)
New World wealth
Marriage to Mary (1554-1558)
o Dutch Revolt (1566) / 80 Years War (1568-1648)
Spanish Inquisition
William I of Orange, the Silent (1533-1584)
Dutch Republic (1579)
Spanish Armada
o Portuguese Throne (1580)
Becomes Philip I
French Revolution
o Henri II (1547-1559) / Catherine de Medici
Chambre ardente (Leo X, Clement VII, Francis II, Charles
IX)
Royal instability -> Religious civil war (1562-1598)
St. Bartholomews Day Masacre (1572)
20,000 dead
French Reformation: Civil War
o Henri of Navarre Henri IV (1553-1589-1610)

Conversion to Catholicism (1593)
Edict of Nantes (1598)
o Politiques: Princes who abandon religious purity for civil peace
Niccolo Machiavelle
Changing Conflict / Changing Europe
o Spain: Decline and marginalization
o The Thirty Years War (1618-1648)
Ferdinand of Hapsburg Styria
Educated by Jesuits = HRE Ferdinand II (1578-
1619-1637)
Bohemia/Defenestration at Prague (1618)
Albrech von Wallenstein
Edict of Restitution (1629)
o Gustavus II Adolphus (1594-1611-1632) Sweden
Lutheran
Battle of Breitenfeld (1631
Enter war to support Lutheran churches and to
o Louis XIII (1601-1610-1643) (Catholic) France
Enters war against Spain/Hapsburg (1635)
Supports Lutheran princes to prevent Spanish
domination
o Peace of Westphailia (1648)
30% of population dead
France and Sweeden vs Spain and the HRE
Recognizes sovereignty/independence of each state of
the HRE
Fatally weakens Holy Roman Emperor
Independence of Dutch United Providences recognized
Each German prince to choose religion
Reconfirms Peace of Augsburg
Confirms decline of Spain in European affairs and the
rise of France on the continent, and Sweden in the
Baltic
Ends era or religious wars and sets religious boundaries
of Europe
War is largely conducted for
political/national/secular ends
New World: Europe and Eurasia
European Expansion (1500-1900)
o Race
o Culture
o Luck
The Mongol Invasion, Trade and the Luck of the European
o Mongol Tartar Invasions

o Chingis Ghengis Khan (1162-1206-1227)
Massed Cavalry
6 Archers to 4 Lancers
Compound Bows/Strategic Coordination
o Ogedei Kahn (1186-1227-1241)
Multi-cultural/Religiously tolerant
empire/Intermarriage
Silver based tax economy/Open protected trade routes
Mongol post-road Yam system
o Pax Mongolica (1241)
Invasion of Europe
o Sack of Baghdad (1258)
o Battle of Ain Jalut (1260)
Mamalukes
Pax Mongolica and Early European Trade
o Mongol Tartar Invasions
Kublai Kahn (1215-1260-1294)
Yuan Dynasty
o Marco Polo (1254-1324)
Silk Road
o Trade Expansion in Wake of Black Death
o Mongol Empire (1259)
Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368)
Ethnic Mongol
Ming Dynasty (1368-1644)
Ethnic Hun
o Italian Commercial Naval Powers
Venice
Genoa
Rise of the Ottoman Empire: Trade and European Reaction
o Rise of the Ottoman Turks and the Turkish Threat
Fall of Constantinople (1453)
European Exploration: Iberia, Crusading, Trading, and the Empire:
Portugal
o Reconquista
3 Phases
900-1150
1150-1250
1478-1492
o Henry The Navigator (1394-1460)
Gold, Slaves and Christians
Kingdom of Mali
Exploration
o Vasco de Gama (1460-1524), Bartholomew Diaz (1451-1524)

Indian Ocean Interlopers
Trading monopolies: pepper, cloves, cinnamon,
nutmeg
Early European Contacts: Portugal
o India: Christians and Spices
o Indian Ocean Interlopers
Piracy -> Monopoly
Strong Ports
Goa, Hormuz, Attempt to take Aden
o Portuguese Trading
Spice, Cloth, Bullion
Ports along African Coasts, West India Coast, East South
America
New Worlds
Spain: Spanish Envy
o Christopher Columbus (1451-1506): New World Crusade
Piracy and Predation
Gunpowder Empires
o Francis I (1515-1547): France
o Henry VIII (1506-1547): England
o Charles V (1519-1558): Spain/HRE
Crusades
o Conquistadors
o Funded by Itally
o Kingdom of Castile
o Conquest
The Caribbean, The Aztecs: Hernando Cortez (1485-
1547)
The Inca: Francisco Pizarro (1475-1541)
o Taino People/Hispaniola: Economic Stystem
Batolome de Las Casas (1484-1566)
o Communicable Diseases
The Columbian Exchange
o Old World Diseases and New World Demographics
Smallpox, mumps, measles, influenza, cholera, malaria
30-100 to 2-8 in 150 Years
o Old World Plants and Animals and New World Ecology
Horses, cattle, pigs, sheep, chickens vs llama, duck,
turkey, dogs
Transforms ranch/farming
Sugar, coffee, wheat, barley
Transforms agriculture: Sugar cultivation
o New World Goods and Old World Economy
Gold and Silver

Potatoes, corn, tobacco, chocolate, dyestuff
Spain: Sixteenth Century Super Power
The Spanish Empire
o Empire of Religious Uniformity
o Bureaucratic Domination
o Castilian Domination
o Trade of: Tobacco, Chocolate, Cochineal/Sugar, Slaves
Rapid Growth
o Population
o Industrial Production
o Internal and External Trade
o Economic Growth Fuels Social/Political/Religious Friction
The Seventeenth Century
Thirty Years War (1618-1648)
o Population Stagnation
o Population Redistribution to Northwest Europe
o Reappearance of Plague (South and East)
o Weather Change: 2
nd
Little Ice Age (1610-1650)
o Currency Crisis (1619+)
o Revolts/Revolutions: 1640s and 1650s
England, France, The Netherlands
Catalonia, Portugal, Naples, Ireland
Prussia, Poland, Russia
Competing Explanations for the General Crisis
o Economic/Social Explanations (Christopher Hill)
Transition from feudalism to capitalism
Protestant work ethic, Swiss reformed tradition
Social Revolution
Friction between old feudal and capitalist elites
New Colonialism
British East India/Dutch East India Companies
o Political Explanation (Hugh Trevor Roper)
Transition from localism to centralized absolutism
Taxes, war, central controls
Religious/Political disputes
The Spanish Case: Castile and the Spanish Empire
o Philip II (1598-1621): Duque de Lerma
Inflation
o Moriscos Marranos (1609-1614)
o Philip IV (1621-1665)
The Scientific Revolution
Context
o Heroic Science

o Medieval Farming Europe Shifts to Early Modern Urban Trading
and Manufacturing Europe
o Growth of Individualism and Rationalism in Urban Context
Reformation: Individualism and textual sources
Growth of Capitalism: Rational calculations of cause and
effect
o Conflicts Over Old World Views vs New Astronomy Parallel
Conflict Between Southern/Mediterranean Counter-
Reformation Areas and Northern/Atlantic Reformation Areas
The Old World System
o Aristotles Physics (160 CE)
Four Elements: Fire, Air, Water, Earth
Four Humors: Blood, Phlegm, Choler, Melancholy
o Ptolemys Almagest (160 CE)
Geocentric
Hierarchy
The Great Chain of Beign
o Renaissance Science
Ad Fontes: Return to the Source
Galen (130-200 CE)
Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564)
Structure of the Human Body (1543)
o The Science of the Stars
Claudius Ptolemy (100-170 CE)
Uniform circular motion
Nicolous Copernicus (1473-1543)
Pythagoreans
Tyco Brahe (1546-1601)
Isle of Ven (1576-1597)
o Uraniborg Observations
Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)
Copernican
Laws of Planetary Motion
Galileo Galilei (1565-1642)
How, not why
Laws of Inertia (1604)
Telescope 20x (1610)
o Thinking Science/Doing Science
Francis Bacon (1561-1626)
Empiricism/Test of Experience/Induction
Idols of the Mind
o Of the Tribe

Universal: Accept coincidence
as proof; see order and
causation in coincidence)
o Of the Cave
Language Based:
Confusing/Inadequate
vocabulary
o Of the Theatre
Mistaken Philosophy:
Political/Religious ideologies,
sensory skepticism
Dignity and Growth of Science: Fields of
Knowledge Sketched (1623)
o Fancy/Poesy
o Memory/History
o Reason/Philosophy (Natural)
New Atlantis (1626)
o Science as a collaborative
undertaking/methodical and
impersonal/provides material benefits
Knowledge is Power
o Idols
o Gunpowder
o Philosophy/Reason vs Faith/Revolution
Rene Descartes (1596-1650): Deduction
o Radical Skepticism: I think therefor I
am
o Discourses on Method/Materialism
(1653)
Question all truths: Divide
complex problems into simple
ones
Conduct thoughts in logical
order
Make certain surveys leave
nothing out
Royal Society of London for Improving Natural
Knowledge (1660)
London
Charles II
o Inspired by New Atlantis
Motto: Nobodys word is final
Empire of Learning/Republic of Letters
Academic des Science/Academy of Sciences (1666)

Paris
Louis XIV
o The Wars of Religion: The Aftermath
Henri IV (1589-1610): Le bon Roi Henri
Road/Canal Building
Silk Culture/Colonial Growth
Debt Renegotiations and Bribes to Catholic
Princes
o Secure Peace
Maximilen de Bethone (1560-1641)
Due de Sully
o Building Absolutism
Marie de Medici
Married to Henri IV in 1600
Louis XIII (1602-1610-1643)
Cardinal Richelieu
Foreign Policy
o Oppose Spain and Austrian Hapsburgs
o Allies with Protestant Princes in Thirty
Years War
o Encourages Revolts in Catalonia and
Portugal
Domestic Policy
o Builds Royal Power thus Assaults
Huguenots
o Siege of La Rochelle (1627-1628)
Introduces Intendants
o Justice
o Finance
o Police
Assaults Privileges of Nobles
Raises Taxes on Peasants to Increase Military
o Absolutism Assailed
Anne of Austria
Louis XIV (1638-1643-1715)
Cardinal Mazarin (1643-1648)
The Fronde
Of the Parliament (1648-1649)
Of the Princes (1650-1653)
o Absolutism Triumphant
Versailles
Established (1661)
Seat of Government (1682)
John Baptist Colbert (1661-1683)

Mercantilism
Colonialism
Revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685)
o The Challenge of Absolutism
Richelieu: Reason of State
Warfare and Problems of Finance
Duque de Olivares
Spanish Collapse
o The Dutch Golden Age
United Provinces: Dutch Merchant Republic (1579)
Confirmed (1648)
Dutch East India Co. (1602)
Spices
West East India Co. (1621)
Sugar
Slaves
Bank of Amsterdam (1609)
Resist Spanish Absolutism (to 1648)
French Absolutism after
Europes Richest Prize
o Absolutism?: The English Case
Elizabeth I (1559-1603): Tudor
James I (1603-1625): Stuart
Puritans
Hampton Court Conference (1604)
o No Bishop, No King
Court Expenses
Tonnage and Poundage/Monopolies/Subsidies
Duke of Buckingham: George Villiers
Impeachment
Charles I (1625-1649)
Forced Loan
Three Resolutions (1629)
The Personal Rule (1629-1640)
o Fines
o Ship Money
o The Popish Plot/Archbishop Laud
o Civil War to Parliamentary Rule
Prayer Book (1637): National Covenant
Scottish Invasion (1638)
Long Parliament (1640-1653)
Pym: Presbyterian
The Civil War (1642-1648)
Cavaliers/Roundheads

Oliver Cromwell
o Marston Moor (1644)
o New Model Army
o Battle of Naseby (1645)
o The English Civil War and the British Radical Tradition
Generals Thomas Farfax, Henry Ireton, Oliver Cromwell
Levelers and Diggers (1642-1652)
The Putney Debates (1647)
General Henry Ireton vs Colonel Thomas
Rainborrow
Agreement of the People (1647)
Redistricts Parliament
Elect Every 2 Years
Supreme Over Law, War, Diplomacy
Freedom of Religion
Freedom From Military Conscription
Equality before Law
Rump Parliament (1648+)
Execution of Charles I (Jan 30, 1649)
Common Wealth Declared
Parliament Lords and Commons
Religion, Politics and Society: Puritanism/Quakerism
John Lilburne: An Agreement of the People (1649)
o The British Radical Tradition
Radicals: Levelers and Diggers (True Levelers)
General Winstanley
The True Levelers Standard Advanced (1649)
Acts of the Apostles
o The Protectorate and the Return to Royalism
Irish Campaign (1649-1650)
Scottish Campaign (1650-1651)
Lord Protector, Oliver Cromwell (1653-1659)
Dutch Wars
o 1
st
(1652-1654)
o 2
nd
(1665-1667)
o 3
rd
(1672-1674)
Spanish War (1655-1659)
Navigation Acts (1651-1673)
o Mercantilism
Death of Cromwell (1659)
Charles II (1660-1685)
Secret Catholic
o The English Restoration
Charles II (1660-1685)

Cavalier Parliament (1661-1678)
o Royalist and Anglican
Test Act (1673)
James, Duke of York
Whigs: Parliamentary Supremacy and Religious
Toleration
Tories: Royal Supremacy and Anglican
Uniformity
o Popish Plot (1679-1681)
o The Glorious Revolution
James II (1685-1688)
Catholic Preferments
o Military and Civil
7 Bishops Case (1688)
o Declaration of Indulgence
William of Orange (1650-1702)
William and Mary (1689-1694-1702)
Bill of Rights/Constitutional Monarchy
Toleration Act (1689)
o World War:
France
Absolutism, Constitutional Monarchy,
Mercantilism
Britain
Uniformity, Toleration, Mercantilism
League of Augsburg (1674)
Dutch Republic, Austria, Spain, German
Principalities
French Invasion/William of Orange (1672)
Stadholders for Life
9 Years War/War of the Grand Alliance (1668-1697)
England: Empire, War and Finance
Battle of the Boyne (1690)
Publically Funded National Debt (1693)
Bank of England (1694)
London Stock Exchange (1698)
Supremacy of Parliament Over Revenue/Whig
Ascendency
The War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1713)
Charles Carlos II (1665-1700)
Louis XIV (1643-1715)/William III
Anne (1702-1714)
John Churchill Duke of Marlborough

Battle of Blenheim (1704)
Battle of Malpaquet (1709)
o English Election of 1710: Tory Election
Victory
Treaty of Utrecht (1714)
o Balance of Power
o Outlaws Secret Treaties and Diplomatic
Missions
o Scientific Revolution
Intellectual Curiosity
New Ideas in a Troubled World
General Increase in Literacy
Integrated with Dynamic, Metropolitan Capitalist
Economy
Supported by New Government Subsidized
Organizations
The Newtonian Synthesis
Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727)
o Optics, Calculus, Physics, Astronomy
o Three Laws of Motion
Inertia
Force = M*A
Action=Reaction
o Theory of Universal Gravitation
F=GM
1
M
2
/R
2

o The Early Enlightenment
Applies Skepticism and Scientific Method to Human
Society
Republic of Letters/Philosophies
Impact of Newton
Uniformity of Nature and Natures Laws
Observation and Data
John Locke (1632-1704)
Influenced by Newton/Descartes
Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690)
Reason
Two Treaties on Civil Government (1690)
Natural Rights
Letter Concerning Toleration (1651)
People are Brutish
o The Enlightenment and Religion
Humanism
Deism
Rejects Revealed Religion

Emphasizes Reason, Not Faith in Investigation
of Religion
Rejects Priestcraft and Organized Religion in
Governance
o Voltaire: Bridging the Enlightenment
Francois Marie Arouet Voltaire (1694-1778)
Letters on the English Nation (1734)
English Virtues, Educated Elites
Attack Upon Organized Religion
Candide (1759)
o The Enlightenment: Political Man/Woman
Voltaire: Enlightened Despotism
Frederick II The Great of Prussia
Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755)
The Spirits of the Law (1748)
o Separation of Powers
Jean Jaques Rousseau (1712-1778)
The Social Contract (1762)
o Sovereign People/Democracy
Romanticism
Mary Wollstroncraft (1759-1797)
Vindication on the Rights of Woman (1792)
o The Treaty of Utrect: Power Balanced (1714)
War of the Grand Alliance (1689-1697)
War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1713)
Spanish to Remain Independent of France
Britain to get Hudson Bay and Nova Scotia from France
Britain to get Asiento from Spain
Key to slavery trade
Balance of Power
Political/Diplomatic Calculations
o The 17
th
Century Crisis and the Interdiction of Imperialism
Old Empires: Spain and Portugal
Christopher Columbus (1492)
o New World: Spain
Vasco de Gama (1498)
o Old World: Portugal
New Empires: England, France and The Netherlands
Dutch East India and West India Companies
o Malaysia and Africa
British East India Company
o India
o French Incursion (1620)
Old World Empires: Mongol Empires: India

Ottoman Empire: Near East
Manchu Empire: China
Mercantilism
The Commonwealth (1652-1660)/Jean Colbert
Western Atlantic Trade
Sugar, Slaves, Timber, Tobacco, Chocolate,
Dyestuffs, Manufactured Goods
New World Plantation Economics
Sugarcane, Rice, Tobacco, Open Range Herding
o Cattle, Sheep, Horses: Feed Laboring
Population
New World Foodstuffs (In the Old World)
Potatoes
Eastern Trade
Spices
o Pepper, Cloves, Cinnamon
Drugs
o Opium
Fine Cloth
o Silks, Cottons
Luxury Goods
o China
o Tea
o The Atlantic Community
The Atlantic (Triangular) Trade
Britain:
o Manufactured and Indian Ocean goods
to Africa and Americas
Africa:
o Slaves to Americas
Americas:
o Sugar, Tobacco, Timber, Furs, Dyestuffs,
Silver and Gold to Britain
A New Pattern of European Imperialism
The British Empire: Colonists, Slaves, Goods
Free Labor/ Slave Labor
o Colonial western hemisphere
o African labor pool
Eastern Luxury Goods/ Indian Ocian
The Slave Trade (1550-1850)
10 Million mostly male- African Slaves
Caribbean Plantation Economies Sugar
Britain and the Asiento (1714)

Hardening Theories of Race
o Scientific knowledge as power
o The Emerging British World Empire
Nationalism and the Freeborn Rights of the
Englishmen
Rule Britannia
New Pattern of Imperialism
Colonial knowledge
Enlightenment arrogance
o The British North American Colonies
North and South: Growing Self-Sufficiency
Navigation Acts (1651-1673)
The Seven Years War (1754-1763): Debt
George III (1760-1815)
o Lord Bute
New Colonial Policy
Efficiency
Cost Reductions
Security
Line of Settlement/Permanent Garrison (1763)
Policy
Make colonists pay portion of security costs
Sugar Act (1764)
Raise revenue by taxing foreign molasses for
defense
Stamp Act (1765)
Excise Taxmen
Escalation and Conflict
Quartering Act (1765)
o Bill of Rights (1688)
Townshend Acts (1767)
o Occupation of Boston (1768)
Lord North (1770-1782)
o Boston Massacre (1770)
o Tea Act (1773)
Colonial Legislature (1774)
Continental Congress (1775)
Attacks on Lord Bute in Britain
o Parliamentary opposition
Whigs and Radicals
Theatre of Liberty
Revolutionary Principals (1688)
o No taxation without representation vs
virtual representation

o English freedom and freedom rights
Enlightenment Government
Declaration of Independence
o The Common Law
o Universal Humanism
o Which Law to Follow?
Escalation and Conflict
o Battle of Saratoga (1777)
French Alliance
o British Declare War on Dutch (1780)
o Battle of Yorktown (1781)
o Constitution of the United States (1787)
Social contract of make,
property owning, white citizen
Popular sovereignty
Revolutionary Principals
Whig Party: Parliamentary Reform and Support
of Colonist
o Freeborn rights of the Englishman
Edmund Burke (1729-1797)
o Revolution Principals (1688)
o Repeal unconstitutional taxes/Raise
revenue through trade (1775)
No body of men will be argued
into slavery
Liberty according to English
ideas and on English principals
o Impeachment of Warren Hastings
Governor-General of Bengal
(1786-1795)
o Moral Empire?
Radicals: Parliamentary Reform and Supports
American Colonies
Thomas Paine (1737-1809)
o Common Sense (1776)
o Monarchical and aristocratic tyranny
[King and House of Lords] (1776)
Independence under a
Continental Charter
o Universal Human Rights?
o The French Crisis
Royal Bankruptcy
American Revolution
Fiscal Indiscipline

Louis XV (1715-1774)
Louis XVI (1774-1793)
Marie Antoinette
Assembly of Notables (1788)
Second Estate Called to Fix Financial Situation
o Refused to remove tax exemption
Estates General (1789)
Last Called (1614)
National Assembly/Third Estate
Opening of Estates General (May 5, 1789)
Declaration of a National Assembly (June 17,
1789)
Liberal Revolution (1789)
Royal Troops/Aristocratic Plot
National Assembly/Tennis Court Oath (June 20,
1789)
o 60% of all Clergy
o 45% of all Nobles
Royal Coup d Etat (July 13, 1789)
o Destruction of the Bastille (July 14,
1789)
Death of Feudalism
Great Fear
o Enter the people to who are the
people
Feudal Laws Abolished (August 4, 1789)
Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen
o Legal Equality and Merit
o Equal Political Rights, Economic Rights
o Liberty, Equality, Brotherhood
Bread Prices: Rise 88% by October/Bread Riots
Politics...Enter the PeopleThree
Womens March on Versailles
Hubris
o Rationality vs Tradition
Outrages Burke after Richard Price praises
French Revolution in speech (July 14, 1790)
o Burke write Reflection on Revolution in
France
Battle Against Jacobins
Bastille Day celebration (1790): The Whig Club
Edmond Burke (1790)
Thomas Paine (1791)

Burke breaks with Charles James Fox and
English Jacobins
o Not 1668 but 1649: Anarchy
o The French Royalists: Right and Left
Royalists (migrs/Constitutionalists)
Political Clubs
o Feuillants/Marquis de Lafayette
Slowly become Republicans
o Jacobins/Maximillian Robespierre
o Cordieliers/Georges Danton, Jean Paul
Morat
L Ami du Peuple (1790-1793)
o Jacques Rene Hebert
Pere Duchesne (1790-1794)
Emergence of the Sans Culottes Culture
o The Revolution Radicalizes
Bankruptcy Averted
Confiscation of Church Lands
Civil Constitution of the Clergy (December 1790)
Kings Flight to Varennes/National Convention
(June 20, 1791)
o Single Charter Assembly
Paine Publishes The Rights of Man (1791)
o Paine elected to the Convention (1792)
1 of 2 foreigners
Haitian Revolution (1791)
Declaration of War (April 1792)
o Prussian/Austrian Invasion
Louis XIV Deposed (August 10, 1792)
o Provisional Government
Danton
September Massacre
Coordinated by Jean Paul Marrat
Battle of Valmy
National Convention (January 21, 1793)
Regicide
Execution of Louis XIV (Jan 21, 1793)
Paine votes to convict, votes against execution
The Terror
Feuderalist Revolt/ Foreign Invasions
Levee en Masse (August)
o Mass conscript Army
Committee of the Public Safety: War Cabinet
o Maximilian Robespierre

Terror is the order of the day (September 5,
1793)
The Grand Terror (March-July 1794)
Justifications: Dreadful but necessary
The Crisis of 1793
o Invasion of Austrians, Prussians, English,
Spanish, Sardinians
o Rebellions of the Vendeens, Chouans,
Royalists, Federalists
The Constitution of 1793
o Universal Manhood Suffrage
o Freedom of the Press
o Public Education
o Rights of Property
o Rights of Subsistence
o Accepted (June 24, 1793)
Immediately suspended until
peace (October 10, 1793)
The Grand Terror
A Fever of Executions in Paris (June-July 1794)
o Symbolism of guillotine reversed
Impartial, Rational, Equal justice
now transformed into the
bloody maw
o 2500 guillotined in 2 months
38% nobles
26% clergy
o French vs British Views
Religion, Morality, Loyalty,
Obedience to the Laws,
Independence, Personal
Security, Justice, Inheritance,
Protection of Property,
Industry, National Prosperity,
Happiness (English)
Atheism, Perjury, Rebellion,
Treason, Anarchy, Murder,
Equality, Madness, Cruelty,
Injustice, Treachery,
Ingratitude, Idleness, Famine,
National and Private Ruin,
Misery (French)
Total War and the Grand Terror
Battle of Fleurus (June 26, 1794

o Overwhelming defeat of Austrians
Fall of Montagnard Terrorism
The Execution of Robespierre and 20 of His
Associated, 10 Thermidor (July 28, 1794)
o Thomas Paine escapes execution
through sheer luck
From the Directory to Napoleon
The Directory (1795-1799)
The White Terror
o 200,000 vigilante executions (1795-
1796)
The Consulate (1799-1804)
o Napoleon Bonaparte
A messiah in army boots
The First French Empire (1804-1815)
What Changed with the French Revolution?
The Modern World
o The End of Feudalism: equality of
citizens before the law
o Representation in governance (the
question who is worthy of
representation?)
o The superiority of separate, secular
government (or, the age of voluntary
religion)
o Popular romantic nationalism and the
modern mass military
o Anti-Colonial Revolution and the claim
of Universal Human rights
The Fragmented Revolutionary Legacy
The Phases of the Revolution:
o Liberal Revolution
Restricted, property-owning
political democracy
o Jacobin Revolution
Militant democracy as freedom
struggle (social and economic
as well as political)
o Reactionary Revolution
Unified, militarily successful,
imperial nationalism