IB CHEMISTRY DEFINITIONS (v.

1)
Topic 1 - Stoichiometr
Avogadros constant: The number of particles in 12g of 12C.
Concentration: the amount of solute per unit of volume of solution
Formula, empirical: The formula obtained by eperiment, sho!ing the simplest !hole
number ratio of atoms of each element in a particle of a substance.
Formula, molecular: The formula sho!ing the actual number of atoms of each
element in a particle of a substance.
Formula, structural: "ho!s the arrangement of atoms and bonds !ithin a molecule.
#imiting reagent: The reactant !hich !ill determine the theoretical maimum amount
of product formed.
$olar mass: The mass of a mole of a substance.
$ole: The amount of substance that contains a number of specified species e%ual to
Avogadros constant.
"olute: A substance that is dissolved into another &the solvent'
"olvent: a substance that dissolves another &the solute'
(ield, percentage: The eperimental yield as a percentage of the maimum theoretical
yield &eperimental)theoretical*1++'
Topic ! "tomic theor
Atomic emission spectra: The characteristic line spectrum that occurs as a result of
energy being released by individual elements. Coloured lines on a blac, bac,ground.
Atomic absorption spectra: The characteristic line spectrum that occurs as a result of
energy being absorbed by individual elements. -lac, lines on a continuum &coloured'
bac,ground.
Atomic number: .umber of protons in the nucleus.
$ass number: .umber of nucleons &protons and neutrons' in the nucleus
Aufbau principle: The principle that states that lo!est energy levels are filled first.
/unds rule: 0rbitals !ithin the same sub1shell are filled singly first.
2oni3ation energy, first: 4nergy re%uired to remove one mole of electrons from an
atom in its gaseous state.
2sotopes: Atoms that contain the same number of protons but a different number of
neutrons.
0rbital: A region of space around the nucleus of an atom that is occupied by a
maimum of t!o electrons at any given time.
5aulis eclusion principle: electrons in single orbital must have opposite spin.
6elative abundances: The percentage of natural occurrence of an isotope of an
element.
6elative atomic mass: The !eighted mean of all the naturally occurring isotopes of
the element relative to
12
C. .o units.
7alence electrons: The electrons in the highest main energy level.
Topic # $erio%icit
Al,ali metals: 8roup 1 elements.
Catalyst: A substance that increases the rate of reaction !hile being recoverable
unchanged at the final stage of the reaction. 4amples of catalytic transition metals:
Fe is used in /aber process9
720: in Contact process9
.i in hydrogenation reactions9
$n02 in the decomposition of hydrogen peroide
Catalyst, heterogeneous: 2n different state than reactants
Catalyst, homogeneous: 2n the same state as reactants
Colored comple: A comple is a compound in !hich molecules or ions form dative
bonds to a metal atom or ion. Colors are due to e1 transitions bet!een different d
orbitals.
Co1ordination number: .umber of lone pairs bonded to the metal ion.
Cl
1
often gives ; coordinate bonds, C.
1
gives <, /20 gives < and ./= gives ; or <.
4lectronegativity: 6elative measure of the ability an atom has to attract a shared pair
of electrons.
8roup: 4lements !ith the same number of valence e1.
/alide ions: 2ons of the halogens.
Their presence can be detected by the addition of silver nitrate. AgCl is !hite, Ag-r is cream1
colored, and Ag2 is yello!. "ilver halides react !ith light to form silver metal.
#igand: A molecule or ion that can donate an electron pair.
$etalloid: An element that possesses some of the properties of a metal and some of a
non1metal. >hile metal oides tend to be basic and non1metal oides tend to be
acidic, metalloid oides such as aluminium oide can be amphoteric.
Transition element: An element that possesses an incomplete d sub1level in one or
more of its oidation states.
0ften very efficient catalysts as they can eist in a variety of oidation states &all ecept Ti have
oidation state of ?2'. Form coloured complees.
Topic & Bo'%i'(
"tructure, giant covalent: 7ery hard but brittle. 7ery high m.p. and b.p. @o not
conduct in any state. 2nsoluble.
"tructure, giant ionic: /ard but brittle. /igh m.p. and b.p. Conduct !hen molten or
a%ueous, but not as solids.
"tructure, giant metallic: $alleable, not brittle. $.p. and b.p. dependent on no. of
valence e1. 8ood conductivity.
"tructure, molecular covalent: Asually soft and malleable unless hydrogen bonded.
#o! m.p. and b.p. @o not conduct in any state. 0ften soluble in non1a%ueous solvents,
unless they can hydrogen bond to !ater.
Allotropes: 0ccur !hen an element can eist in different crystalline forms, such as in
carbon, !hich can eist as graphite, fullerene and diamond.
@iamond is eceptionally hard because there is no plane of !ea,ness in the molecule made up of
sp
=
hybridi3ed carbon atoms. 2n graphite, the carbon atoms are sp
2
hybridi3ed. 6emaining electrons
after the three B bonds, are delocali3ed, resulting in the fact that graphite is a good conductor of
electricity.
-ond polarity: A polarity caused by a difference in electronegativity bet!een the
elements. The greater the difference, the greater the polarity.
-ond, C: 5i bond. A bond formed by the side!ays overlap of p orbitals !ith electron
densities concentrated above and belo! a line dra!n through the t!o nuclei. @ouble
bonds have one C bond, !hile triple bonds have t!o !hich are perpendicular to each
other.
-ond, B: "igma bond. A bond formed by the head on overlap of atomic orbitals from
t!o different atoms along the line dra!n through the t!o nuclei, !ith electron
densities concentrated along the line. "ingle, double and triple bonds have one B
bond.
Covalent bond: -onding by the sharing of electrons. The electrons are shared and
attracted by both nuclei resulting in a directional bond bet!een the t!o atoms.
@ative bond: A bond in !hich both electrons come from one of the atoms. Also
,no!n as coordinate bond.
2onic bond: A bond by !hich electrons are transferred from one atom to another to
form ions !ith complete outer shells.
2n an ionic compound the ? and D ions are attracted to each other by the electrostatic force bet!een
them, and build up into a strong lattice. /ave relatively high m.p. 2onic bonds occur bet!een
elements !ith a great difference &E1.F' in electronegativity.
Conductivity: The etent to !hich a substance can conduct electricity. $ust possess
electrons or ions that are free to move.
@elocali3ation: The sharing of one electron pair by more than t!o atoms.
Forces, dipole1dipole: 5ermanent electrostatic forces of attraction bet!een polar
molecules. "tronger than van der >aals.
Forces, /ydrogen bonding: 0ccurs !hen hydrogen attached to a highly
electronegative element &., F, or 0' is bonded to another highly electronegative
element &., F, or 0'. "tronger than dipole:dipole forces.
Forces, van der >aals: Temporary dipole forces due to momentary unevenness in
spread of electrons. >ea,est of intermolecular forces. 2ncrease !ith increasing molar
mass.
/ybridi3ation: The miing of atomic orbitals to create ne! orbitals of the same
energy.
$etallic bonding: The valence electrons in metals become detached from the
individual atoms so that the metals consist of a closely pac,ed lattice of ? ions in a
Gsea of delocali3ed electrons. Forces of attraction are bet!een ions and electrons and
not bet!een the ions themselves, !hich means that metals are malleable and ductile.
$olecular polarity: @epends on both the bond polarity and the symmetry.
6esonance hybrid: "tructures that arise from the possibility to dra! a multiple bond in
different positions e%uivalently. Can be better eplained by delocali3ation.
"olubility: The etent to !hich one substance dissolves in another.
7"456 theory: 7alence "hell 4lectron 5air 6epulsion theory. "tates that pairs of
electrons arrange themselves around the central atom so that they are as far apart from
each other as possible. 8reater repulsion bet!een lone pair of electrons than bonded
pairs.
Topic ) E'er(etic*
Average bond enthalpy: The average enthalpy change of brea,ing one mole of a bond
in a gaseous atom into its constituent gaseous atoms.
-orn1/aber cycle: 4nergy cycles for the formation of ionic compounds. 2f there is
little agreement bet!een the theoretical and eperimental values, this could indicate a
degree of covalent character.
4lectron affinity: 4nthalpy change !hen an electron is added to an isolated atom in
the gaseous state.
4ndothermic: A reaction in !hich energy is absorbed. H/ is ?. 6eactants more stable
than products.
4nthalpy: The internal energy stored in the reactants. 0nly changes in enthalpy can be
measured.
4ntropy: A measure of the disorder of a system. Things causing entropy to increase:
1' increase of number of moles of gaseous molecules9 2' change of state from solid to
li%uid or li%uid to gas9 =' increase of temperature
4othermic: A reaction in !hich energy is evolved. H/ is D. 5roducts more stable
than reactants.
8ibbs free energy: $ust be D for reaction to be spontaneous. H8 I H/ D TH"
/ess la!: 4nthalpy change for a reaction depends only on difference bet!een
enthalpy of products and enthalpy of reactants. 2t is independent of path!ay.
#attice enthalpy: The endothermic process of converting a crystalline solid into its
gaseous ions, or the reverse eothermic process. The lattice enthalpy increases !ith
decreasing si3e of the ions and increasing charge.
"pontaneous: A reaction that has a natural tendency to occur.
"tandard conditions: 2JF K and 1 atm.
Temperature: A measure of the average ,inetic energy.
"tandard enthalpy of vaporisation: The energy re%uired to vaporise one mole of a
li%uid.
4nthalpy of atomisation: The energy re%uired to produce one mole of gaseous atoms
from an element in its standard state.
-ond dissociation enthalpy: The energy change !hen one mole of a specific bond is
bro,en or created under standard conditions.
4nthalpy of Combustion: The energy released !hen one mole of a compound is
burned in ecess oygen.
"tandard enthalpy of formation: The energy change !hen one mole of a compound is
formed under standard conditions from its constituent elements in their standard
states.
"tandard enthalpy of solution: The energy change !hen one mole of a substance is
dissolved in an infinite amount of !ater under standard conditions.
Topic + ,i'etic*
Activated comple: Created during a bimolecular process. .ot a chemical substance
!hich can be isolated, but consists of reacting particles in !hich bonds are in the
process of being bro,en and formed. Can brea, do!n to form either the products or
bac, to the original reactants.
Activation energy: The minimum amount of energy re%uired for a reaction to occur
bet!een t!o particles. The other re%uirement is that the particles have to have an
appropriate geometry of collision.
Arrhenius e%uation: An e%uation sho!ing the relationship bet!een the temperature
and the rate constant. KIAe
&14a)6T'
-imolecular process: A reaction step !hen two species collide and interact.
Catalyst: 5rovide an alternative path!ay for a reaction such that the activation energy
re%uired to reach the activation comple is lo!ered.
Can be divided into t!o types: homogenous catalysts are in the same phase as the reactants, !hile
heterogeneous ones are in a different phase. /eterogeneous catalysts tend to !or, by bring the
reactant particles into close alignment by adsorbing them onto the catalytic surface.
/alf1life: The time ta,en for the concentration of the reactant to fall to half of its
initial value.
$olecularity: .umber of species ta,ing part in any specified step in the reaction.
0rder of reaction: The rate is al!ays proportional to the concentration of a reactant
raised to a po!er, !here the po!er is the order of the reaction !ith respect to that
reactant.
6ate constant: The constant of proportionality in the rate epression.
6ate epression: An e%uation that sho!s the relationship bet!een the concentrations
of the reactants and the rate of the reaction.
4very species in the rate epression must occur in the rate determining step or in an e%uilibrium
occurring before it.
6ate of reaction: The rate of increase of concentration of one of the products or the
rate of decrease of concentration of one of the reactants.
6ate1determining step: The slo!est step of a reaction &or the step !ith the lo!est
activation energy'. This determines the rate of the entire reaction.
Animolecular process: A process in !hich a single species brea,s do!n into t!o or
more products.
Topic - E./i0i1ri/m
Closed system: A system in !hich neither matter nor energy can be lost or gained. An
e%uilibrium can never occur in a system that is not closed.
Contact process: The synthesis of sulphur trioide, &7
2
0
:
is used as a catalyst'.
4%uilibrium constant: For a reaction aA ? b- 1E cC ? d@, !here the small letters are
coefficients and capital letters are the reactants, the e%uilibrium constant is LCM
c
L@M
d
)
LAM
a
L-M
b
. 7ariable units.
4%uilibrium, dynamic: An e%uilibrium in !hich the rates of the for!ard and reverse
reactions are the same.
/aber process: The synthesis of ammonia, !here Fe is used as a catalyst.
/omogeneous reaction: A reaction in !hich all the species involved are in the same
phase.
#e Chateliers principle: 2f an e%uilibrium is subNected to a stress, the e%uilibrium !ill
shift to minimi3e the effect of the stress.
5hase e%uilibrium: >hen the rate of vapori3ation is e%ual to the rate of condensation.
7apour pressure: The partial pressure of a vapour. -oiling occurs !hen a li%uids
vapour pressure e%uals the eternal pressure. The stronger the intermolecular forces
the lo!er the vapour pressure at a particular temperature.
Topic 2 "ci%* 3'% B3*e*
Amphoteric: Can have the properties of both a base and an acid, depending on
!hether it is reacting !ith a base or an acid.
-rOnsted1#o!ry: An acid is defined as a proton donator, !hile a base is a proton
acceptor.
-uffer: A solution that resists changes in p/ !hen small amounts of acid or al,ali are
added to it.
>hen a small amount of acid is added, the ecess of /? ions causes the e%uilibrium to shift to the
left 1E balances the difference. >hen a small amount of al,ali is added, the 0/1 ions react !ith the
/? ions to form !ater. The decrease in L/?M is compensated for by an e%uilibrium shift to the
right. 7ice versa for al,ali buffers. -uffer solutions are made by several means:
**strong base ? ecess !ea, acid9 **strong acid ? ecess !ea, base9 **!ea, acid ? same acids
salt9 **!ea, base ? same bases salt.
Concentrated: /igh number of moles of solute per volume of solution.
Conductivity: The more a solution is dissociated into its ions, the greater its
conductivity.
ConNugate: The species remaining after an acid has lost a proton &conNugate base' or a
base has gained one &conNugate acid'. pK
a
? pK
b
I pK
!
@iprotic: >here one mole of an acid produces t!o moles of hydrogen ions, e.g.
/
2
"0
;
.
4nd point: The point at !hich the indicator changes colour most rapidly.
4%uimolar: Containing moles at a ratio e%ual to the stoichiometric ratio.
4%uivalence point: >here the acid and base are in e%uimolar %uantities. 4actly
enough to react !ith each other.
2ndicator: A !ea, acid or base in !hich the dissociated form is a different colour to
the undissociated form. The end point occurs !hen the p/ is approimately e%ual to
the pK
in
value. 2deally, the end point corresponds to the e%uivalence point in a
titration.
#e!is theory: An acid is defined as an electron pair acceptor &e.g. -F
=
' and a base is
an electron donator &e.g. ./
=
'.
$onoprotic: >here one mole of the acid produces one mole of hydrogen ions, e.g.
/Cl.
p/: 5o!er of hydrogen. D log [H
+
]
"alt hydrolysis: The process by !hich a salt is bro,en do!n by !ater.
"trong: An acid or a base that dissociates completely into its ions. Ka EE 1.
"ome strong acids: hydrochloric, sulphuric, nitric &!ea,er than other t!o'. "trong bases:
hydroides of al,ali metals.
>ater, ionic product of: The e%uilibrium constant for the dissociation of !ater into its
ions, !here L/
2
0M is ta,en to be constant. 7alue of K
!
increases as temperature is
increased, as the dissociation is an endothermic process.
>ea,: An acid or base that only slightly dissociates into its ions. Ka PP 1. "ome !ea,
acids: ethanoic, carbonic. *>ea, bases: ammonia, aminoethane.
Topic 4 O5i%3tio' 3'% Re%/ctio'
Anode: >here oidation ta,es place. 2n electrolysis, it is the ? electrode and anions
are attracted here.
Cathode: >here reduction ta,es place. 2n electrolysis, it is the D electrode and cations
are attracted here.
4lectrolysis: 5assage of electric current through an electrolyte. Amount of discharge
is affected by: 1' current9 2' charge on ion, =' duration of electrolysis.
4lectrolyte: A substance !hich does not conduct electricity !hen solid, but does !hen
molten or in a%ueous solution and is chemically decomposed in the process.
4lectrolytic cell: Ased to ma,e non1spontaneous redo reactions occur by providing
energy in the form of electricity from an eternal source.
4lectroplating: A process of coating one metal !ith a thin layer of another metal, by
electrolysis.
/alf cell: A metal in contact !ith an a%ueous solution of its o!n ions.
0idation: The loss of electrons
0idi3ing agent: A substance that readily oidi3es other substances. 0idi3ing agents
are thus reduced.
6eactivity: A measure of the readiness of a substance to gain or lose electrons. The
stronger the reducing agent or oidi3ing agent, the more reactive it is.
6edo reaction: A reaction in !hich there is a transfer of electrons, i.e. reduction and
oidation occurring simultaneously.
6educing agent: A substance that readily reduces other substances. 6educing agents
are thus oidi3ed.
6eduction: The gain of electrons
"alt bridge: Allo!s the free movement of ions in a voltaic cell. 5aper dipped in a
saturated solution of K.0
=
is an eample of a salt bridge.
"horthand notation: For a voltaic cell. 4ample: Cu
&s'
)Cu
2?
&a%'
QQ /
?
&a%'
) /
2&g'
"tandard conditions: 2JF K, 1 atm, 1.+ $.
"tandard electrode potential: The electrode potential of one half1cell compared against
another half1cell, by convention, the hydrogen half1cell, !hich is arbitrarily given a
value of + 7.
"tandard cell potential: @ifference bet!een the t!o standard electrode potentials of
the t!o half cells.
"tandard hydrogen electrode: Arbitrarily assigned a potential of 3ero. 4lectrode
consists of an inert metal such as platinum dipped into a 1 $ solution of /Cl, !here
hydrogen gas at 1 atm flo!s in.
7oltaic cell: T!o different half1cells connected together to enable to electron
transferred during the redo reaction to produce energy in the form of electricity. The
electrons are produced at the half1cell that is most easily oidi3ed.
Topic 16 Or(3'ic Chemi*tr
-en3ene: /eagonal shape !ith delocali3ed C bonds. Andergo substitution rather than
addition reactions.
-oiling and melting point: @epend on intermolecular forces. The greater the intermol.
forces, the higher the m.p. and b.p.
-romination: (ello!)orange bromine is decolori3ed !hen added to an al,ene due to
addition reaction. Ased to test for al,enes.
Carbocation: A cation in !hich the carbon carries most of the ? charge. Can be
formed during "
.
1 substitution.
Chiral center: An asymmetric carbon atom, i.e. has four different groups of atoms
attached to it.
Cis1isomer: The geometric isomer in !hich the similar groups are on the same side of
the double bond. Commonly polar.
Condensation reaction: 6eaction in !hich t!o molecules Noin together !ith the loss of
a small molecule, typically !ater.
@ehydration: #oss of !ater. Alcohols can be dehydrated !hen they are reflued !ith
condensed sulphuric acid.
4sterification: 5rocess by !hich an alcohol and a carboylic acid are converted into
an ester and !ater, !ith sulphuric acid catalysis.
Fission, heterolytic: -ond brea,ing in !hich the more electronegative of the t!o
atoms Noined by the bond ta,es both of the electrons.
Fission, homolytic: -ond brea,ing in !hich each atom ta,es one of the e1 in the bond,
creating free radicals.
Free radical: A species containing at least one unpaired electron, as a result of
homolytic fission. 7ery reactive.
/alogenoal,ane, primary: /alogenoal,anes that have one al,yl group attached to the
carbon atom bonded to the halogen. Andergo "
.
2 mechanism in nucleophilic
substitution.
/alogenoal,ane, tertiary: /alogenoal,anes that have three al,yl groups attached to
the carbon atom bonded to the halogen. Andergo "
.
1 mechanism in nucleophilic
substitution.
/omologous series: A group of compounds !here neighbouring members differ by D
C/
2
. /ave similar chemical properties, but gradually changing physical properties.
/ydration: Addition of !ater. 4thanol can be formed from addition of !ater to
ethene.
/ydrocarbon: Compounds containing only carbon and hydrogen.
/ydrogenation: Addition of hydrogen. Can be used to reduce number of double bonds
in polyunsaturated vegetable oils present in margarine, causing it to become a solid at
room temperature.
/ydrolysis: 5rocess by !hich a molecule is bro,en do!n by !ater.
2somers: @ifferent compounds that have the same molecular formula but different
structure.
2somers, functional group: >here the isomers contain different functional groups.
2somers, hydrocarbon chain: >here there is a difference in the structure of the
hydrocarbon chain.
2somers, optical: >here a molecule sho!s optical activity in its mirror images.
4nantiomers rotate the plane of polari3ation of light in different directions. 0ccurs
!hen there is one or more chiral centers.
2somers, positional: >here the position of the functional group is different.
2somers, stereo1: >here the molecules have a different spatial arrangement of atoms
and hence different =@ shapes. "ubdivided into geometric and optical isomers
&enantiomers'.
2somers, structural: >here the atoms have a different structural formula altogether.
"ubdivided into positional, hydrocarbon chain and functional group isomers.
$echanism, "
.
1: A unimolecular process by !hich a halogenoal,ane undergoes
nucleophilic substitution. A t!o1step mechanism: a rate1determining step in !hich the
bond bet!een the carbocation and the halogen are bro,en, follo!ed by a step in !hich
the nucleophile is attracted to the carbocation. Faster than "
.
2, as the formation of the
intermediate carbocation is faster than the "
.
2 route !hich involves a transition state
!ith relatively high activation energy.
$echanism, "
.
2: A bimolecular process by !hich a halogenoal,ane undergoes
nucleophilic substitution. $echanism involves formation of a transition state !hich
involves both of the reactants.
$onomer: Components of a polymer.
.ucleophile: The species that donates the electron pair in an organic chemical
reaction. A nucleophile is also a #e!is base. Typical nucleophiles are C.
1
, 0/
1
and
./
=
.
.ucleophilic substitution: "ubstitution that occurs !ith a halogenoal,ane reacting
!ith a nucleophile.
5eptide bond: 1CI0./1. -ond formed as the result of condensation reaction bet!een
a carboyl group and an amino group.
5eptide, di1: T!o amino1acids Noined together.
5eptide, poly1: $ore than 2+ amino1acids Noined together.
5eptide: $olecule formed by aminoacids Noined together by peptide bonds &by
condensation reaction in !hich !ater is lost'.
5olymer: 7ery long molecule made up of repeating units.
5olymeri3ation, addition: Forming a polymer by addition of monomers.
5olymeri3ation, condensation: Forming a polymer by substitution reaction bet!een
monomers, each having t!o functional groups.
6eaction, addition: A reaction in !hich the reactant is added across a CIC bond,
converting it to a C1C bond. Addition reactions !ith !ater re%uires an /
2
"0
;
catalyst.
Addition reactions !ith hydrogen use .i as catalyst.
6eaction, substitution: A reaction in !hich one group is substituted for another.
"ubstitution reactions !ith halogenoal,anes are nucleophilic substitutions. -en3ene
does not undergo substitution reactions readily as its C bonds are delocali3ed.
6eflu: A condenser !hich causes any vapour produced to condense and returns to
the flas, and continues to react. 2f the carboylic acid is desired from the oidation of
a primary alcohol, this must be done under reflu. 0n the other hand, if the aldehyde
is desired, this can be distilled from the reaction miture as soon as it is formed.
"aturated: Containing only single bonds. Al,anes are saturated.
"pectrometry, mass: "eparating ions according to mass.
"pectroscopy, 26: Analy3ing the bonds present !ithin a molecule by sending infrared
light through it, causing the bonds to absorb radiation of characteristic fre%uencies.
"pectroscopy, .$6: Analysis of hydrogen environments to deduce the structure of a
molecule.
Trans1isomer: The geometric isomer in !hich the similar groups are on different sides
of the double bond. Commonly non1polar.
Ansaturated: Containing double bonds bet!een carbon aoms. Al,enes are
unsaturated. Can be tested for by bromination.