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uI0vANNI LISTA




In 17u2, Queen Anne of Englanu ueclaieu wai on Fiance anu Spain in oiuei to settle
the Spanish succession ciisis. At stake was the unification of Louis XIv's monaichy with the
Spanish ciown anu its extenueu colonial anu continental teiiitoiies. Such a union woulu have
given biith to a potentially unopposeu hegemonic powei, able to subveit the iules of
Euiopean inteinational politics. Bence, aftei yeais of laboiious negotiations, militaiy action
became the ultimate means at the uisposal of uiplomacies. The content of the ueclaiation of
wai was peifectly in accoiuance with the contempoiaiy English foieign policy, uesciibeu as
uesigneu 'foi pieseiving the Libeity anu Balance of Euiope, anu ieuucing the exoibitant
powei of Fiance'
1
. 0nce anu foi all, the concept of bolonce of power was embouieu in an
official act, aftei an evolution that maue it a founuing element of Euiopean inteistate
ielations.


7(3.*89)31*(


In this veiy shoit piece, I will tiy to biiefly illustiate the oiigins of the iuea of balance of
powei. Since the piactices of equilibiium became a conscious behavioui at the uawn of the
XvIII centuiy, my ieconstiuction will focus on the pievious evolution of the concept to finu its
theoietical ioots. This evolution ianges fiom the fiist spontaneous appeaiance of oequilibrium
potentioe in the ancient woilu to the tieaty of 0tiecht (171S), when balance of powei became
the unquestioneu uogma of inteinational ielations. At 0tiecht enueu the Wai of Spanish
Succession (17u1-1714) anu the peace confeience is consiueieu to be the momentum in which

1
Eer mojesties Jeclorotion of wor oqoinst Ironce onJ Spoin (17u2).
2
the iuea of balancing the powei of Euiopean States was fiist couifieu. The piehistoiy of such a
piactice is in fact the histoiy of the tiansfoimation of equilibiium fiom being the meie
outcome of a mechanical piocess, viitually automatic, to a shaieu value, an aim consciously
puisueu by the States in oiuei to achieve inteinational secuiity. I believe this last veision has
to be consiueieu the ieal uesciiption of balance of powei.
Bowevei, seveial uefinitions have been elaboiateu foi the metaphoi 'balance of
powei'. Wight, foi instance, founu nine uiffeient ways in which the concept has been useu.
2

Yet, all of these uiffeient uefinitions can be soiteu by the piinciple of intentionality, outlineu
among otheis by Chabou anu Noigenthau.
S
0sing this piinciple, it coulu be aigueu that theie
aie two uiffeient conceptions of balance of powei. The fiist one, that Little uefines as
auveisaiial, assumes that equilibiium is the outcome of a spontaneous uynamic insiue a
system of States. Following this logic, it is the thieat of hegemony that piomotes occasional
leagues anu alliances cieateu with the puipose of opposing the most poweiful actoi of the
system. Balance is thus the natuial, unstable iesult of constant stiuggle foi suivival. In
contiast to this inteipietation lies the seconu: oequilibrium potentioe is to be consiueieu as a
conscious anu common goal of the States involveu in the system. Fiom this point of view,
uenominateu associational, gieat poweis seek to cieate a stable mechanism able to
implement inteinational secuiity thiough coopeiation anu, when necessaiy, wai. Such a
uefinition piesumes a systematic theoietic ieflection fiom each actoi involveu in tipping the
scales.
4
Keeping this ciucial uistinction in minu, we can now tiy to ieconstiuct the evolution
of the concept of balance of powei since its veiy fiist manifestation.


:.*; 3"# &()1#(3 -*.'8 3* #&.'4 ;*8#.( <9.*6#/ 3"# *.1=1(2


In his notable essay 0f tbe Bolonce of Power (17S2), the Scottish philosophei Baviu
Bume askeu himself anu his ieaueis 'whethei the iJeo of balance of powei be owing entiiely

2
Naitin Wight, 'The Balance of Powei', in B. Butteifelu anu N. Wight, Biplomotic lnvestiqotions: Fssoys in tbe
Tbeory of lnternotionol Politics, Lonuon, Allen anu 0nwin, 1966.
S
Feueiico Chabou, lJeo Ji Furopo e politico Jell'equilibrio, euiteu by Luisa Azzolini, Bologna, Il Nulino, 199S anu
Bans }. Noigenthau, Politics Amonq Notions: Tbe Struqqle for Power onJ Peoce, New Yoik, Alfieu A. Knopf, 197S.
Foi a full account of the concept of balance of powei fiom an auveisaiial point of view, see Kenneth Waltz,
Kenneth, Tbeory of internotionol politics, New Yoik, Ranuom Bouse, 1979.
4
Richaiu Little, Tbe Bolonce of Power in lnternotionol Relotions: Hetopbors, Hytbs onJ HoJels, Cambiiuge,
Cambiiuge 0niveisity Piess, 2uu7.
3
to mouein policy, oi whethei the pbrose only has been inventeu in these latei ages'
S
. Refeiiing
to ancient uieece, many examples can inueeu be founu in classical authois such as Thucyuiues
to tiace back the oiigins of the concept. The Peloponnesian League was foimeu in vI centuiy
B.C. to contiast the pieuominance of Athens, wheieas the Belian League (478 B.C.) was
uesigneu to iesist the piessuie of the Peisian Empiie. Such alliances, howevei, weie the
outcome of occasional necessity anu uiu not actually piouuce a coheient anu systematic
methou to iun inteistate ielations. This consiueiation can apply to anothei example maue by
Bume anu ielateu to Roman histoiy: accoiuing to the uieek histoiian Polybius, Bieio, tyiant
of Syiacuse, in spite of being an ally of Rome ueciueu to suppoit Caithage uuiing the Punic
Wais, actively aiuing Basuiubal in 2S9 B.C. Foi the suivival of his uominions in Sicily, Bieio
believeu that neithei of the two opponents shoulu oveicome the othei in theii fight foi
supiemacy.
6

Eventually, Rome uiu succeeu in imposing its iule ovei the Neuiteiianean woilu. It is
commonly accepteu that the age of empiies, geneially speaking, uisplays an inevitable
absence of cases iefeiable to the tiauition of balance of powei. Political equilibiium, which
somehow showeu itself in the uniemitting ielations between uieek oict, completely
vanisheu unuei the Naceuonian yoke fiist anu Roman uomination afteiwaius. Noieovei, not
even the fall of Westein empiie (476 A. B.) ieally gave iise to a pluiality of Euiopean actois.
As stateu by Chabou,
7
the whole Neuieval peiiou coulu only impiopeily be consiueieu as a
bipolai system, in which the Boly Roman Empiie anu the Papacy balanceu each othei in
constant stiuggle. In fact, both entities weie vital to the unity of Chiistenuom, as two faces of
the same coin. Tempoial powei was still one: theie was a unique State anu it was the Empiie.
Theiefoie, it iemaineu ciucial that the Italian juiist Baitolus ue Saxofeiiato uevelopeu the
notion sibi princeps in oiuei to atomise soveieignty among the Italian comuni anu stait a legal
emancipation of Euiopean polities bioauly speaking. It was only when fully inuepenuent
States geneiateu a stiuctuie of powei anu began to puisue an autonomous foieign policy that
balance ieappeaieu in Euiope.
8

This State-builuing piocess ioughly completeu in Xv centuiy Italy, wheie the peace of
Loui (14S4) cieateu a sufficiently stable equilibiium insiue a iegional States-system of many

S
Baviu Bume, '0f the Balance of Powei' in Fssoys Horol, Politicol onJ literory, Inuianapolis, Libeity Classics,
1987.
6
Bume, 0f Bolonce of Power, pp. SS2-SS8 anu Albeito Aubeit, l'Furopo Jeqli lmperi e Jeqli Stoti: Honorcbie
universoli equilibrio Ji potenzo e pocifismi Jol Xv ol Xvll secolo, Baii, Cacucci Euitoie, 2uu8, pp. S7-S8.
7
Chabou, lJeo Ji Furopo e politico Jellequilibrio, pp. 6-17.
8
Naiia Pia Albeizoni, 'Balla iegalit sacia al saceiuozio iegale. Il uifficile equilibiio tia papato e impeio nella
cbristionitos meuievale', in C. Beaizot, F. Lanuucci anu u. Zecchini, lequilibrio internozionole Joqli onticbi oi
moJerni, Nilan, v&P, 2uuS, pp. 8S-124; Quentin Skinnei,Tbe founJotions of moJern politicol tbouqbt, vol. I Tbe
Renoissonce, Cambiiuge, Cambiiuge 0niveisity Piess, 1978, pp. 6-1S.
4
uiffeient soveieignties. The peace tieaty, stipulateu aftei seveial yeais of iavaging wais, was
oveiall successful in ensuiing fifty yeais of ielative tianquillity, until the Fiench invasion of
1494. Ceitainly, teiiitoiial ambitions of the peninsula's gieat poweis - venice, Nilan,
Floience, Rome anu Naples - uiu not instantly uisappeai, as the outbuist of many small
conflicts uemonstiate. But balance of powei began to be peiceiveu as a theoiy with an
intiinsic value. In that sense, Storio Jltolio (1SS7-1S4u), by the Floientine uiplomat
Fiancesco uuicciaiuini, ienueieu an iuealiseu account of this peiiou of equilibiium, in
contiast to the uevastations biought by the Italian Wais (1494-1SS9) that he was witnessing.
Loienzo ue' Neuici, Je focto iulei of Floience, is thus piaiseu foi his ability to guaiantee that
'le cose u'Italia in mouo bilanciate si mantenessino, che pi in una che in un'altia paite non
penuessino.'
9
A myth was boin, which closely linkeu secuiity anu quiet to the ieviveu piactice
of balance of powei.
1u

Neveitheless, uuicciaiuini was well awaie that il Hoqnifico was seeking fiist of all to
secuie the inteiests of Floience. 0sing a uistinction stiesseu by Bull,
11
the oiuei that emeigeu
in Xv centuiy Italy can be uefineu as a system iathei than as a society. Italian States weie
namely inteiacting, being obligeu to take into account the behavioui of the othei actois of the
system. They weie not conscious of common inteiests oi common values at the basis of
shaieu iules. They uiu not peiceive themselves as pait of a whole. Rathei, the system was
baseu on mutual suspicion. Anu this was to be uiamatically uemonstiateu by the uescent of
Chailes vIII of Fiance on the peninsula.
12
That ciucial event is consiueieu to be an histoiical
lanumaik, since it tiansfeiieu the iueas anu uynamics of the semi-encloseu Italian system of
States to the bouy of continental Euiope. In the yeais following 1494, Italy became inueeu the
battlefielu of the iising poweis of the Westein woilu. All togethei, they composeu the new
balance of Euiope, soon to be shatteieu.


:.*; 9(134 3* 8121(3#=.&31*(/ 3"# .&81)&'12&31*(


In fact, the possibility of a pluial equilibiium was soon uismisseu by the election of

9
Fiancesco uuicciaiuini, Storio J'ltolio, vol. I, in 0pere, Nilano, uaizanti, 196S, p. S74.
1u
Riccaiuo Fubini, ltolio quottrocentesco. Politico e Jiplomozio nell'eto Ji lorenzo il Hoqnifico, Nilan,
FiancoAngeli, 1994.
11
Beuley Bull, Tbe Anorcbicol Society: A StuJy of 0rJer in WorlJ Politics, Basingstoke, Nacmillan, 2uu2, pp. 4-1S.
12
The fact that Luuovico il Noio, uuke of Nilan, calleu the king of Fiance to inteivene in Italian affaiis is quite
stiiking in that sense. 0n these matteis, see Albeito Aubeit, lo crisi Jeqli onticbi Stoti itolioni, Floience, Letteie,
2uuS.
5
Chailes v of Bapsbuig as Boly Roman Empeioi in 1S19. So vast weie his teiiitoiies, ianging
fiom the kinguoms of Spain to Bungaiian uominions, that, in the woius of Bume, 'mankinu
weie anew alaimeu by the uangei of univeisal monaichy'
1S
. In a bipolai system in which
Fiancis I of Fiance was the piincipal opponent of Chailes v's ambitions, the menace of
monorcbio universolis
14
inueeu tiiggeieu the foimation of seveial alliances. Theii composition
was veiy much ueteimineu by the couise of the events, following the auveisaiial uynamics
typical of the Italian system: as soon as one of the iival monaichs seemeu to oveicome the
othei, the minoi poweis involveu in the fight immeuiately took theii siue with the weakei.
Balance of powei, in its fiist Euiopean expiession, was thus a policy to which small States
appealeu to contiast the excessive powei of oveiextenueu entities. Like the Bapsbuig
multiple monaichy was.
The piojects of Chailes v to become Jominus totius orbis, howevei, veiy quickly pioveu
to be complicateu to iealise. Two majoi elements contiibuteu to uownsize the Empeioi's
uieams of a woilu unuei a single monaich: ieason of State
1S
anu ieligion. The uevelopment of
the foimei became entangleu with the lattei, biinging to completion the on-going State-
builuing piocess of Euiopean polities. Fiist of all, by the beginning of XvI centuiy Euiope was
composeu by a pluiality of soveieign entities. Each of these was uiiven by will to powei anu
necessity. The theoiy of ieason of State, in such a context, emeigeu foi two uiffeient aims.
Fiom a theoietical point of view, to justify the existence of a new paiticulai social foimation in
opposition to the 0niveisalist claims of the Empiie. Fiom a piactical point of view, to
ieinfoice this new entity in its inteinational stiuggle foi suivival, that is to pieseive its
stotus.
16
Seconuly, the Euiopean ieligious unity was foievei toin apait by the outcome of the
Refoimation (staiteu in 1S17 in Wittenbeig), which at the same time weakeneu political
integiity of the Boly Roman Empiie. Woiking togethei, the two elements contiibuteu to
unueimine eveiy puipose of univeisality.
Inueeu, the Empeioi eventually lost his battle with Fiancis I of Fiance to achieve
univeisal monaichy anu the peace of Cteau-Cambisis (1SS9) maikeu the enu of the bipolai
balance between the Bapsbuig anu Fiance. The iesults of the Italian Wais weie confiimeu by

1S
Bume, 0f tbe Bolonce of Power, p. SS8.
14
The concept of univeisal monaichy anu its uevelopment, antithetic anu theiefoie complementaiy to the
balance of powei tiauition, is to be founu in Fianz Bosbach, Honorcbio universolis: ein politiscber leitbeqriff Jer
frben Neuzeit, uottingen, vanuenhoeck & Rupiecht, 1988 anu, moie iecently, in Anthony Paguen, lorJs of oll tbe
WorlJ: lJeoloqies of Fmpire in Spoin, Britoin onJ Ironce c.1S00-c.1800, New Baven, Yale 0niveisity Piess, 199S.
1S
About the concept of ieason of State, see Quentin Skinnei, "The State of Piinces to the Peison of the State", in
visions of Politics, II, Cambiiuge, Cambiiuge 0niveisity Piess, 2uu2; Nichael Stolleis, Stoot unJ Stootsroison in Jer
frben Neuzeit. StuJien zur 6escbicbte Jes offentlicben Recbts. Fiankfuit am Nain, Suhikamp, 199u; Nauiizio
viioli, Bollo politico ollo Roqion Ji Stoto: lo scienzo Jel qoverno tro Xlll e Xvll secolo, Rome, Bonzelli Euitoie, 1994.
16
}onathan Baslam, No virtue like Necessity: Reolist Tbouqbt in lnternotionol Relotions since Hocbiovelli, New
Baven, Yale 0niveisity Piess, 2uu2, pp. 14-2S.
6
the thoiough analysis of the ex-}esuit uiovanni Boteio. Among his wiitings, the most
impoitant woik to consiuei heie is ceitainly Belle Relotioni 0niversoli (1S91-1S96). In this
seiies of accounts, the Pieumontese authoi investigates the paiameteis apt to measuie the
mightiness of Euiopean States anu, hence, the ieal powei iatio between the actois of the
Westein woilu. Bemogiaphy, economic uevelopment, militaiy powei anu colonial uominions
of seveial kinguoms anu iepublics aie analyseu anu emphasizeu as the new factois that
ueteimine the powei of polities. In uoing so, Boteio uefinitively conuemneu monorcbio
universolis as a ielic of the past. The woilu hau become pluial anu ielativistic, an aiena wheie
conflict between soveieign States was the natuial outcome of the piecepts of rotio Stotus.
17

Fuitheimoie, ieligious uiffeiences heavily affecteu inteinational politics since the miu-
twenties of the XvI centuiy. As a iesult of the Refoimation, the spiiitual unity of Euiope faueu
away just like its political integiity uiu with the enu of the Boly Roman Empiie's univeisal
soveieignty. Buiing the wais of ieligion, which lasteu until the peace of Westphalia (1648),
alignments anu alliances weie heavily influenceu by faith. An example in that sense can be
founu in the foieign policy of two ielatively new poweis of the system: Englanu anu Spain. In
1S8S, Elizabeth I of Englanu sent an aimy to help coieligionist Butch iebels against Philip II of
Catholic Spain, who was tiying to squash the ievolt anu eiauicate the Calvinist heiesy fiom his
uominions. Thus, bioauly speaking, confessional States exaceibateu the natuie of conflicts,
now baseu on ieligious values that weie alteinative to each othei anu always incompatible.
Fanaticism animateu the stiuggles between Piotestants anu Catholics, so that wai became a
means to annihilate the othei. Without an acceptance of coexistence, the balance of Euiope
was moie than evei piecaiious.
18

Bowevei, the ieligious aspect shoulu not be too much emphasizeu. Political issues still
constituteu an impoitant aspect of Euiopean inteistate ielations. In seveial cases, it was the
most essential aspect. Fiench foieign policy, foi instance, nevei ieally fitteu into the
confessional scheme. Caiuinal Richelieu besiegeu the Buguenot stiongholu of La Rochelle in
1628, but then helpeu the Piotestant piinces of ueimany to fight against the Bapsbuig
Empeioi without any ieligious sciuple. Not to mention the iivaliy with Spain, shaiing the
same faith as Fiance.
19
As the Fiench soluiei anu wiitei Benii ue Rohan summeu up peifectly

17
uiovanni Boteio, le relotioni universoli Ji 6iovonni Botero Benese, Jivise in quottro porti, 1S96 anu Romain
Bescenuie, 0ne qopolitique pour lo Contre-Rforme: les Relozioni 0niversoli Je 6iovonni Botero {1S44-1617), in
Fsprit, lettre{s) et expression Je lo Contre-Rforme en ltolie o loube Jun monJe nouveou, Actes uu Colloque
inteinational (27-28 novembie 2uuS), 0niveisit Nancy 2, C.S.L.I., 2uuS, pp. 47-S9.
18
Chabou, lJeo Ji Furopo e politico Jellequilibrio, pp. 21-27 anu Aubeit, lFuropo Jeqli lmperi e Jeqli Stoti, pp.
12S-126.
19
Richaiu Bonney, Politicol cbonqe in Ironce unJer Ricbelieu onJ Hozorin, 1624-1661, New Yoik, 0xfoiu
0niveisity Piess, 1968.
7
in his le Hercure JFstot (16SS), 'tous les Piinces et Estats ue la Chiestient non suiets ou
paitisans u'Espagne ont ue l'inteiest ue lui foimei un contiepoius necessaiie'
2u
. veiy often
inueeu, ieligious matteis weie useu as piopaganua in oiuei to achieve the ieal objectives of
the States, always uictateu by necessity anu inteiest. Fiom that point of view, the Thiity Yeais'
Wai (1618-1648) can be consiueieu as an impoitant tuining point in inteinational ielations.


:.*; -&. 3* 3"# 3.#&31#2/ 3"# >1.3" *+ & 2*)1#34


Thus, aftei the final attempt fiom Chailes v to unite it, Euiope iemaineu uiviueu.
Between the enu of XvI centuiy anu the beginning of the XvII centuiy, a pluiality of new
actois iaiseu. The enu of Chailes' uesigns leu to the uivision of his teiiitoiies: Spain, guiueu by
Philip II, became the main powei on the continent. Its oveiseas colonies pioviueu the Bispanic
monaichy with a seeming inexhaustible amount of iesouices. The Low Countiies, howevei,
weie eventually successful in theii iebellion against the Castilian couit anu became
inuepenuent in 1S81. With the name of 0niteu Piovinces, they constituteu a new powei,
uestineu to be one of the main chaiacteis of Euiopean inteinational game. The same fate was
awaiting Englanu, a minoi peiipheial kinguom that since Beniy vIII playeu a balancing iole
between Fiance anu the Bapsbuig ciown. Elizabeth I pioceeueu along the same lines,
ieinfoicing the fleet anu offeiing financial help to eveiy opponent of Spain, although without
getting uiiectly involveu in continental wais.
21

The ueiman States insiue the Boly Roman Empiie fuithei accentuateu the multipolai
natuie anu instability of the balance of Euiope. Nainly because, as it happeneu in the bioauei
Euiopean context, the Refoimation uiviueu them accoiuing to theii ieligion anu iauicaliseu
theii State-builuing piocesses entangling them with spiiitual paiticulaiity. Inueeu, in oiuei to
inciease theii political autonomy Piotestant piinces uefenueu theii inteiests togethei in
opposition to the Catholic Empeioi. This happeneu foi instance in 1SS1, when the
Schmalkaluic League was cieateu to question - anu inueeu counteibalance - the authoiity of
Chailes v monu militori. The successive peace of Augsbuig (1SSS) uiu not completely solve
the ieligious pioblems of the Empiie, but iathei haiueneu the uiffeiences between each State

2u
Benii ue Rohan, le Hercure J'Fstot, ou receuil Je Jivers Jiscours J'Fstot, 16SS, p. S99.
21
0n Spain, see }ohn B. Elliott, lmperiol Spoin, 1469-1716, Lonuon, St Naitin's Piess, 196S. 0n 0niteu Piovinces,
see ueoffiey Paikei, Tbe Butcb Revolt, Lonuon, Allen Lane, 1977. About Englanu's foieign policy, see Chailes
Bavenant, 'An Essay upon the Balance of Powei' in Fssoys, Lonuon, 17u1.
8
in the long iun. In sum, at the veiy centie of Euiope lieu a iegional system of States that
constituteu the iueal battlefielu foi the giowing confessional poweis of the continent.
22

Inueeu, the Thiity Yeais' Wai was mainly fought in ueiman teiiitoiies. Inteinational
alliances ueteimineu mostly by faith contenueu with each othei foi supiemacy in a wai that
can be consiueieu as the most uiamatic anu extenueu conflict of the eaily mouein peiiou in
Euiope.
2S
Its outcome, howevei, is conventionally peiceiveu as a milestone of inteistate
ielations. The so-calleu peace of Westphalia (1648) - aiiangeu in the tieaties of Nnstei anu
0snabick
24
- leu to the acceptation of piinciples that weie alieauy uiscusseu thioughout
Euiope. Inueeu, the iuea of an inteinational system was since the uawn of the XvII centuiy
commonly acknowleugeu. Besiues 0niveisalist claims anu ieligious fanaticism, obseiveis
weie well awaie that multipolaiity was a mattei of fact. Foi some thinkeis, it was even
necessaiy. In fact, it was not by chance that many utopian pamphlets about Euiope's oiuei
weie publisheu uuiing the wai. The most impoitant among them,
2S
insteau of coming back to
the tiauition of Euiopean meuieval unity, acknowleugeu a multilateial context to enfoice
peace. Pluiality coulu be compatible with peace, just like the agieement of Loui uemonstiateu
in Xv centuiy Italy.
0f couise, the uiffeience between Italian anu ueiman States was that the lattei weie Je
jure unuei the soveieignty of the Empeioi. Theiefoie, the paiticipants in the negotiations hau
fiist to enfoice peace insiue the Boly Roman Empiie in oiuei to secuie the peace of Euiope.
The wai itself uemonstiateu that the two systems weie closely linkeu. Wheieas iestoiing the
stotus quo onte bellum was a quite conseivative move, the Westphalian settlement pioveu to
be iathei innovative in many senses. Fiist of all, some of the clauses inseiteu in the tieaty
eventually iemoveu ieligion as a ieason foi wai. Biffeiences of faith weie accepteu as the coie
of new inteinational ielations, which slowly set to become completely seculaiiseu anu thus
moie stable. Seconuly, the States themselves became the waiiantois of the tieaties. The
univeisal authoiity of the Pope, who since meuieval times meuiateu between conflicting siues,
was uefinitely oveitaken in a new pluialist woilu. Each State hau even iesponsibilities foi the
maintenance of peace anu secuiity. As a consequence, foieign inteivention to iestoie the

22
Beinz Schilling, Aufbrucb unJ Krise. Beutscbe 6escbicbte von 1S17 bis 1648, Beilin, Sieulei, 1988, pp. 219-299.
2S
Foi an account of the wai itself, see Roalu u. Asch, Tbe Tbirty Yeors Wor: tbe Eoly Romon Fmpire onJ Furope,
1618-1648, Basingstoke, Nacmillan, 1997.
24
About the uetails of the negotiations, see ueoffiey, Beiek & Paikei Cioxton,"A swift onJ sure peoce": tbe
Conqress of Westpbolio 164S-1648, in Tbe Hokinq of Peoce: Rulers, Stotes, onJ tbe Aftermotb of Wor, New Yoik,
Cambiiuge 0niveisity Piess, 2uu9.
2S
le Nouveou Cyne (162S) fiom Emeiic Ciuc anu the 6ronJ Bessein (16S8) fiom the Buke of Sully aie the most
notable ones.
9
Constitutio Westpbolico of the Empiie was authoiiseu.
26

0n such basis, Noigenthau claimeu that Westphalia coulu be uefineu as a conscious
anu pluial attempt to iealise a Euiopean balance of powei.
27
Conveisely, 0sianuei, among
otheis, has iebutteu this thesis, aiguing that theie was no systematic thinking uuiing the
negotiations about oequilibrium potentioe anu that eveiy allusion to the notion of balance has
to be iefeiieu to the behavioui of inuiviuual States. Inueeu, in the miuule of XvII centuiy the
Euiopean States-system was still halfway between the obsolete meuieval system anu a new
system. The conseivative appioach of the gieat poweis of Euiope leu to the pieseivation of
this inueteiminate stotus quo anu its stiuctuies, iathei than to the builuing of a new shaieu
inteinational oiuei.
28
Thus, using the uistinction fiom Bull iepoiteu above, even post-
Westphalian Euiope was still a system of States anu not yet a society. Ceitainly, States
iecognizeu each othei as autonomous entities anu shaieu some common iules. But these
iegaiueu pioceuuies to iestoie the oiuei insiue the Boly Roman Empiie, iathei than
substantial values to builu a new, wiuei inteinational community. A fuithei step was neeueu.
Bowevei, foi ioughly twenty yeais stability was moie oi less guaianteeu. It was not
befoie the Wai of Bevolution (1667-1668) anu the iise of the uomineeiing peisonality of
Louis XIv of Fiance that Euiope was seiiously enuangeieu again. The aggiessive foieign
policy of the Roi Soleil piovokeu a ieaction of the main Euiopean poweis - Spain, 0niteu
Piovinces, the Empiie anu of couise Englanu - so that once again, alliances weie cieateu to
avoiu continental hegemony. An example in that sense is the League of Augsbuig, oiganiseu
unuei the commanu of the neo-king of Englanu William III of 0iange, which uniteu almost
eveiy Euiopean fiont iank powei against Fiance in the Nine Yeais' Wai (1688-1698). The
uefinitive ciisis of the system of States, howevei, was ueteimineu by the Spanish succession:
uue to a uynastic entanglement, a single Bouibon monaich coulu have iuleu both kinguoms of
Fiance anu Spain. Initially accepting to uiviue Spanish teiiitoiies between Fiance anu the
Boly Roman Empiie, Louis XIv eventually ueciueu to take his chance to incoipoiate the
Spanish thione. None of the othei actois of Euiope coulu have alloweu such a union, anu wai
was once moie ueclaieu.
29

The peace negotiations staiteu because of anothei uynastic event: the election as Boly

26
Aubeit, lFuropo Jeqli lmperi e Jeqli Stoti, pp. 176-19S anu Ian Claik, leqitimocy in lnternotionol Society, New
Yoik, 0xfoiu 0niveisity Piess, 2uuS, pp. S1-71.
27
Noigenthau, Politics Amonq Notions, pp. 18S-191.
28
Anuieas 0sianuei,Tbe stotes system of Furope, 1640-1990: peocemokinq onJ tbe conJitions of internotionol
stobility, 0xfoiu, Claienuon Piess, 1994, pp. S1-82 anu 'Soveieignty, Inteinational Relations, anu the Westphalian
Nyth', in lnternotionol 0rqonizotion, SS (2), 2uu1, pp. 2S1-287.
29
Aubeit, lFuropo Jeqli lmperi e Jeqli Stoti, pp. 2S1-2S2 anu Cinzia Ciemonini, 'Fiancia, Spagna e impeio nella
seconua met uel Seicento tia egemonia fiancese e "balance of powei"', in lequilibrio internozionole Joqli onticbi
oi moJerni, 2uuS, pp. 12S-146.
10
Roman Empeioi of Chailes vI of Bapsbuig in 1711. 0nce the alteinative canuiuate suppoiteu
by the allies to the thione of Spain, Chailes hau become, iionically enough, a potential thieat
to Euiope just like his ancestoi Chailes v hau been. The inteinationalisation of succession
questions, in fact, was one of the main piinciples ueteimineu at 0tiecht. The main conflicts of
the seconu half of XvII centuiy, mentioneu above, weie inueeu causeu by uynastic uisputes.
Bioauly speaking, the peiception that Euiope hau become a community of actois closely
inteiielateu - actually so inteiielateu that a unique soveieign coulu inheiit many uiffeient
kinguoms - faueu the uistinction between inteinal anu inteinational matteis, extenuing the
concept of foieign inteivention alieauy stateu in Westphalia to the whole continent. }ust like
Biitish pailiaments hau to ueciue on the one Biitish king, Euiopean poweis iealiseu that, in
oiuei to avoiu oveiextenueu entities, they hau to act in conceit to settle the questions of
succession.
Su

Fuitheimoie, compaieu with the agieements of Westphalia, those of 0tiecht uiu not
emphasise souices of law, such as tieaties oi custom. A iemaik by Bolingbioke, the Biitish
foieign secietaiy involveu in the negotiations, is quite stiiking in that sense: 'enough has been
saiu conceining iight, which was in tiuth little iegaiueu by any of the paities conceineu |.j in
the whole couise of these pioceeuings'.
S1
Wheieas in Nnstei anu 0snabick the attempt hau
been to pieseive the static oiuei that alieauy existeu, iefeiiing to existing legitimisation
souices, it was coopeiation that was mainly stiesseu in 171S. Balance of powei, explicitly
inseiteu in the tieaties, became a supieme, geneial inteiest that oveicame all of the otheis. A
consequence of this uecisive step was that Euiopean States complieu with a moie even
uistiibution of powei. Fiance ienounceu to the Spanish thione anu all the negotiatois
accepteu seveial exchanges of teiiitoiies. It was the enu of the bipolai tenuency of the
Euiopean States-system, now composeu of bioauly equal actois unuei the supeivision of
uieat Biitain, the ieal winnei of the Wai of Spanish Succession.
S2

Thus, the new associational natuie of Euiopean system stiesseu inteinational secuiity.
As the English wiitei Befoe stateu quite thoioughly in 17uu 'geneial quiet of Euiope pievails
to set asiue the Point of nice }ustice, anu ueteimine in favoui of Publick Tianquility'.
SS
Wais, at
least until the outbuist of the Fiench Revolution (1789), ceaseu to be a means to achieve

Su
Evan Luaiu, Tbe Bolonce of Power: Tbe System of lnternotionol Relotions, 1648-181S, Bong Kong, NacNillan,
1992, pp. 149-17S; Claik, leqitimocy in lnternotionol Society, pp. 76-78; Romolo Quazza, lo politico Jellequilibrio
e le querre Ji successione, in Problemi storici e orientomenti storioqrofici, euiteu by E. Rota, Como, Cavalleii, 1942,
pp. 6SS-68S.
S1
Quoteu in 0sianuei, Tbe stotes system of Furope, 1640-1990, p. 1uu.
S2
Claik, leqitimocy in lnternotionol Society, pp. 74-76; Luaiu, Tbe Bolonce of Power, pp. 12-1S; 0sianuei, Tbe
stotes system of Furope, 1640-1990, pp. 1uu-1u2.
SS
Baniel Befoe, A true collection of tbe writinqs of tbe outbor of tbe true born enqlisb-mon, Lonuon, 17uS.
11
supiemacy anu became an instiument to enfoice secuiity. Belligeients weie no moie uiiven
by ieligious matteis anu fought in flexible alliances with the explicit puipose of pieventing the
iise of hegemonic poweis. A fluiu anu uynamic society of States evolveu in what Noigenthau
uefineu the 'goluen age'
S4
of balance of powei. Fiom 0tiecht onwaius, such a society was
goveineu by gieat poweis. uieat Biitain, Spain, Fiance, the 0niteu Piovinces anu the Boly
Roman Empiie constituteu a conJominium that piomoteu common policies thioughout
Euiope anu, bioauly speaking, the woilu.
SS



5*()'921*(2


The evolution was thus complete. Fiom the ancient woilu, wheie it was the outcome of
the inteiaction of occasional alliances, the notion of balance of powei tiansfoimeu itself. It
fiist vanisheu uuiing the Roman uomination. Then, togethei with the fiagmentation of the
tempoial authoiity of the Boly Roman Empiie, it ieappeaieu in Xv centuiy Italy.
Notwithstanuing the fact that oequilibrium potentioe was celebiateu as the final iemeuy to
settle that iegional system of States, it still constituteu the meie iesult of self-inteiesteu
foieign policy. The auveisaiial kinu of balance also uominateu the successive phases of
Euiopean histoiy, when ieason of State anu ieligion contiibuteu to complete the State-
builuing piocess of the actois of the system. Pluiality, a pieconuition of inteinational
equilibiium, was uefinitely confiimeu aftei Chailes v's attempt to achieve univeisal
monaichy. Bowevei, ieligious uiveisity aggiavateu the natuie of conflicts, so that until the
Westphalian tieaties coexistence pioveu to be uifficult to accept. The peace of 1648
eventually seculaiiseu wais anu laiu the founuations foi anu inteinational shaieu oiuei,
finally achieveu in 171S. Inueeu, the Tieaty of 0tiecht was uesigneu 'to settle anu establish
the peace anu tianquillity of Chiistenuom, by an equal balance of powei (which is the best
anu most soliu founuation of a mutual fiienuship anu of a concoiu which will be lasting on all
siues)'.
S6


S4
Noigenthau, Politics Amonq Notions, p. 189.
SS
Bull, Tbe Anorcbicol Society, pp. 194-222; Claik, leqitimocy in lnternotionol Society, pp. 8u-82; Luaiu, Tbe
Bolonce of Power, pp. 2S-29.
S6
Fiom the Tieaty of 0tiecht between Biitain anu Spain, quoteu in Baslam, No virtue like Necessity, p. 1uS.