Journal of

Daoist Studies
Volume 6
2013
JournalofDaoistStudies
TheJournalofDaoistStudies(JDS)isanannualpublicationdedicatedtotheschol
arly exploration of Daoism in all its different dimensions. Each issue has three
main parts: Academic Articles on history, philosophy, art, society, and more
(limit8,500words);ForumonContemporaryPracticeonissuesofcurrentactivi
ties both inChina and other parts of the world(limit 5000words); andNews of
theField,presentingpublications, dissertations,conferences,andwebsites.
Facilitators: LiviaKohn,JamesMiller,RobinWang
Editorial Board: Shawn Arthur, Friederike Assandri,StephanPeterBumbacher,
Suzanne Cahill, Joshua Capitanio, Alan Chan, Chang Yihsiang, Shinyi Chao,
Chen Xia, Kenneth Cohen, Donald Davis,Catherine Despeux,Jeffrey Dippman,
Ute Engelhardt, Stephen Eskildsen, Elisabeth Friedrichs,Norman Girardot, Seth
Harter,JonathanHerman,AdelineHerrou,DominiqueHertzer,ShihshanSusan
Huang, Clarke Hudson, P. J. Ivanhoe, Jiang Sheng, Kang Xiaofei, Paul Katz,
SungHae Kim, J. Russell Kirkland Terry Kleeman, Louis Komjathy, Ronnie
Littlejohn, Liu Xun, LiuYi, L Xichen, Victor Mair, Mei Li, Mark Meulenbeld,
ThomasMichael,ChristineMollier,HarrisonMoretz,MoriYuria,DavidPalmer,
Fabrizio Pregadio, Michael Puett, James Robson, Harold Roth, Robert Santee,
Elijah Siegler, Edward Slingerland, Richard Wang, Robin Wang, Michael Winn,
XuLiying,YangLizhi,YaoPing,RobinYates,YenHsehcheng,ZhangGuang
bao,ZhangQin
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Table of Contents
Articles
GALIA DOR
TheChinese Gate:A UniqueVoid forInnerTransformation 1
MIHWA CHOI
MaterializingSalvation:ALiturgicalProgramandItsAgenda 29
ELMAR OBERFRANK
SecretlyTransmittedDirectPointerstotheGreatElixir 58
DANIEL M. MURRAY &JAMES MILLER
TheDaoistSocietyofBrazilandthe GlobalizationofOrthodox
UnityDaoism 93
XU LIYING
DaoistTemplesinModernCityLife:TheSingapore CityGod
Temple 115
Forum on Contemporary Practice
SHARONSMALL
NewVisionsofthe Zhuangzi 145
MICHAEL M. TOPHOFF
DaoistPrinciplesintheMartialArts:TheirRelevanceforIllness
Prevention 161
ADAMD. FRANK
EnactingaDaoistAestheticthroughTaijiquanTraining 176
GERHARD MILBRAT&KNUTGOLLENBECK
MasterLiJiacheng andtheNewWaysofInternalAlchemy 193
STEVE JACKOWICZ
OmManiPadmeHum inDaoistRevision 203
JEANNE WHITE
FlowinginLifewiththe Yijing 211
News of the Field
Publications 223
Conferences 235
NewVenues 239
Scienceon Qi 240
Contributors 245
Daoist Principles in the Martial Arts
Their Relevance for Illness Prevention
MICHAEL M. TOPHOFF
Intimesofdiminishingresourcesandofsoaringcostsinmentalandso
matic health care, public health services should focus more on preven
tionratherthanonthetreatmentofillness.Throughhealthmaintenance
and illness prevention, public wellness can be enhanced and individual
sufferingreduced.
Westerntechniques for healthmaintenancemoreoftenthannotre
flect the Cartesian dichotomy of body and mind in addressing either
physical ormentalhealthcare. Chinesemartialartandothercultivation
practices, on the other hand, encompass the complexity of human exis
tenceinitsphysical,mental,andspiritualwholeness.Martialarts,while
clearlypointingtowardsapplicationinsituationsofwarfareandconflict,
can yet be instrumental in fostering health and preventing illness. They
have a dual focus: enhancing health in its most encompassing (even
spiritual) sense, they are excellent tools for the training of mindfulness.
Mindfulness is today recognized as one of the most important ingredi
entsinthepreventionofstressrelateddiseasesandrecurrentdepression
(KabatZinn1996;Teasdaleet. al.2000;Tophoff2003).
Although there is much overlap between forms, Chinese martial
arts divide generally into external and internal styles (wai/neijia quan)
(Wong1997;Diepersloot1999;Lu2006).Externalstylesemphasizemus
cular increase and skeletal strengthening;internal stylesmainly address
body energy and mental cultivation. External fighting styles are fre
quently associated with Chan Buddhist roots in the Shaolin monastery;
internal styles are linked, romantically, with Daoist shrines and monas
teries on Mount Wudang. Internal styles emphasize change on a more
personal level, rather than increase of natural abilities like speed and
force; they seekto increasethesequalitiesbymodifyingtheir usualpat
terns of response (Lu 2006, 8). Deeply rooted in Daoism, which puts
healthandlongevityinthecenterofitsteaching(Kohn 2004;2006;2009;
162/JournalofDaoistStudies 6(2013)
Tophoff 2003; 2006), internal martial arts imply the cultivation of a
healthywayofbehavinginthedaytodayworldinordertopreventill
nessandsuffering.
Legendary Origins
The origins of Chinese martial art forms are a point of contention be
tweenChanBuddhistsandDaoists.Bothclaimthattheygobacktotheir
religions, presenting various legends of various kinds. Thus Chan Bud
dhistspointtoBodhidharma (Damo),the Indianmissionarymonk, who
travelledleisurelyonaleafofgrassincrossingtheYangtzeonhiswayto
the Shaolin monastery. Here he encountered studious monks who, fol
lowingtheoriginalBuddhisttradition,shunnedthephysicalactivitiesof
daily life in their hope of becoming a paccekkabuddha: a personally
enlightened being (Kloppenborg 1974). Since their noble striving fre
quently led to illness and untimely death, Bodhidharma introduced
physicalexercisesintothemonasticscheduletoenhancehealthandpre
vent illness.Asabyproduct of theirphysical activity,themonks gradu
ally acquired such degrees of fitness that they coulddefend themselves
against potential aggressors, albeit without arms (see Diepersloot 1999;
Liangand Yang 2002;Hung andKlingborg1969;Shahar2007).
The benefits of physical exercises, however, have a much longer
history in Daoism, where they are first mentioned in the Zhuangzi of
about300BCEandaredetailedinvariousmedicalmanuscriptsfromthe
2
nd
centuryBCE(seeKohn2008).TheearliestclassicofChinesemedicine,
the Huangdi neijing suwen (The Yellow Emperors Classic of Internal
Medicine,BasicQuestions),alsofromtheHandynasty,similarlyempha
sizes illness prevention. It says, To administer medicines to diseases
whichhavealreadydeveloped...islikebeginningtodigawellafterget
ting thirsty (Veith1972,105).
Followingthistradition,the3
rd
centuryphysician HuaTuoempha
sizedphysical exercise inthe formof imitations ofanimalmovementto
improvehealth(seeWangandBarrett2006).Whiletheexercisetradition
continued to unfold, records also document that Daoist monks of the
early 7
th
century were so well trained inthemartial artsthattheycould
fightfortherisingTangrulers(Shahar2006).Theinternalmartialartsof
MountWudang,ontheotherhand,aresaidtogobacktoZhangSanfeng
andhis observation of abattlebetween acrane and asnake(Liao1990).
Tophoff,DaoistPrinciplesintheMartialArts /163
The practices and their methods are generally hard to trace, since tech
niqueswerekeptsecretandpasseddownfrommastertostudentinone
family orlineage.
Basic Ingredients
Themost fundamentalingredient inthedynamicsofmacroandmicro
cosmicchangeisqi.TheChinesecharacterdepictssteamorvaporrising
from cooked rice (Lai 1968, 29). It is translated variously as
air, pneuma, ether, atmosphere,power, or energy. Defini
tions tend to be prescientific, metaphorical, and vague.qiis the eternal
powerthatmovestheuniverse(Waysun 1977);itisvital(Wong1997)or
bioelectric energy(Liang 2002).Inprimordial, undifferentiatedchaosbe
fore creation, qi is present as pure energymatter which [has] not yet
emerged (Schipper 1993,84).
Within thehumanbody, this energymatterhumanizes within the
fetusatthemomentofconception.AtbirthitsplitsintotheThreeTreas
ures: jing, qi, and shen. Jing is closely associated with sexual energy as
the raw source of sexual desire and the feeling essence of earthiness
(Winn2006,158).qi is cosmicenergypersonalizedintheindividual.Shen
is spirit and consciousness, and as energy force it directs mental func
tioning.
Intheprocessofaging,the Three Treasuresgraduallyareexhausted:
beginning with birth primordial energy leaks away. Internal energy
negatively correlates with age; people experience it as a decrease of
health, illness, weakening, and death. Leakage of generative energy is
caused by sexual activities, e. g., loss of semen. Vital energy diminishes
withthedevelopmentofemotions,whereasshendecreaseswithincreas
ingmindactivities(Wong 1997).
Within this mechanistic model of leakage, the cure is obvious: one
hasto stopthe leakage and recover the lost energies.In orderto accom
plish this, the process that led to the persons birth has to be reversed,
and thus to return to the prebirth, subtle state of unity with the uni
verse(Breslow1999,139).
The Three Treasures unify the human being within his very exis
tence between Heaven and Earth. The dialectical connection of the per
son in the polarities of mind and matter reflects a holistic worldview
also exemplified in the internal martial arts. Western approaches to
164/JournalofDaoistStudies 6(2013)
healthmaintenance through fitnessandsportprograms, however, usu
ally are quite unilateral in their physical goals such as cardiovascular
strengthening. In this way they fail to address an important part of the
essentialcausalfactorsinstressrelatedpathology.
Dialectics
Daoist teachings center between the opposites of stability and change.
Microcosmically, human beings are stabilized between Heaven and
Earth,andyettheyarepartandparcelofaneternalmacrocosmicfluxof
yin and yang. The circular nature of these processes can be illustrated
throughtheDaoistparadigmofchange,whichisessentiallyexpressedin
the Daodejing as theLawofOpposites:
Whatisintheendtobeshrunkmustfirstbestretched.
Whateveristobeweakenedmustbeginbybeingmadestrong.(Waley1958:
187;seealsoFung1937)
Inthisprocess ofchange, thecomplementary tendency toward sta
bilitymust always be taken intoaccount. Ifchangeis emphasized too
much,theopposingstateofstabilitywillparadoxicallybestrengthened,
andviceversa. Inother words, the opposingforceshave tobe acknowl
edgedandrespectedbeforetheycanbeappliedtotheprocessofchange
(Tophoff 2003,35).
In Daoist practice, however, the circular model of change is cer
tainly not always respected. Instead, a causallinear model of change is
dominantincertaintechniquesofalchemythatliterallyservetoprolong
life and lead toimmortality. Masters recommendedthe ingestion ofcin
nabar, now known as mercuric sulfide, a quite poisonous substance. If
thedosewasadequate, theadeptattainedimmortality(Tophoff2003,44).
Incontrasttothis,theparadigmofnonaction(wuwei)incorporatesa
circular model of change: change is not produced but happens. Here
immortalityasthelinearextensionoflifeisnotanoption.However,the
model allows foran immortal way of being,beautifully illustratedby
Zhuangzi with the metaphor of one who wanders through all of crea
tion,enjoyingitsdelightswithouteverbecomingattachedtoanypartof
it (Watson 1968, 6).In other words, the delights ofcreation include life
aswellasdeath. Thefreeandeasywandererdies,asdoesthesageofthe
Tophoff,DaoistPrinciplesintheMartialArts /165
Daode jing, who lives long because he models himself on nature; be
cause hemodelshimself on nature, hehas todie (Welch 1966, 93).Na
turehereappearsbothintheliteralandanalogicalsenseitisobserved
andcontemplated.Forthisreason,thecontemplationofinneraswellas
outernatureplaysa fundamentalroleininternalstylesofmartialarts.
Inner Force
The concept of force in the internal martial arts is complex. On the one
hand, there is the force coming from the opponent. In full congruence
with the paradigm of nonaction, this force should never be directly op
posed; it is to be met by the other person with its opposite: noforce. If
forceisencountered,yieldingistheanswer(Diepersloot1999,225).This,
in fact, reframes the force of the attack into a gift of energy, which one
gladlyreceives,andwhichinasituationofcombatorconflict,whether
verballyor nonverballymightbereturnedwithouteffort.
1
The persons own force comes in two forms: muscle force (li; lit.
strength)andinnerforce(jin;lit.suppleness). Shaolinexternalstyles cen
ter on the development of muscle force; however, it is limited in time
and power,beingexhausted asand whenthemusclesstarttoacidify.
When qi, an energetic quality that nourishes, warms, transforms
and rises, (as) the life force of the human body (Despeux 2006, 52), is
allowed to freely circulate and to increase in the body so that tendons,
sinews and ligaments become supple through training, then inner force
arises. Inner force is an expansion force, characterized by resilience and
vitality,producedthrough the integration ofthe entire body as unity. It
isdirectedbyintention(yi),thedirectionalaspectoftheconsciousmind,
generatedbyclearthinking andonepointedfocus.
Wheremuscleforcefollowsalinearpattern,innerforceoperatesin
acircularway.Throughthisinnerforcethebodymanifeststhedynamics
of apparent oppositesstillness and motion, tension and relaxation. As
1
InJapaneseZen,eventheexistenceofanenemyisdebatedandconceived
asanimageofthemind.AsZenMasterGannopointsout:Ifanopponentfights
you, it means you lacktrue insight.Solvethekoan:Originally not one thing ex
istsandnothingwillobstructyou(Stevens,2001,17).
166/JournalofDaoistStudies 6(2013)
Brecher notes, the stance in inner force is like a flywheel which, when
turningextremelyfast,looksstatic (1998,95).
Qicannotflow freely not when themuscles aretense; itonly flows
when they are relaxed. The intention, moreover, can direct the inner
force outwards, where qi acts like gunpowder: its explosive force is
called bringing forth force (fajin/fali). It is the highest level of martial
arts training (Brecher 1998). The explosive character of inner force pro
ducedintheformofouterforcecomesfromthebodyasawhole,going
instantaneously from a state of extreme relaxation to amomentary state
of extreme, highly focused tension, only to return directly to stillness,
thusreflectingtheyinyangparadigmofchange.
Attitude
Inmartial arts,theright attitudeconducive tohealthylivingfollows the
Daoistviewofthebodyanditscultivationamicroscopicreplicaofthe
macrocosm,itisalsotheimageofthecountry...andcorrespondstothe
Daoist vision of the inner world and to related physical exercises
(Schipper1993,104).
2
The Daodejingexpresses theDaoistperspective beautifully:
Whodealswiththe state. ..asthoughitwerehisbody
Isthebestpersontobeentrustedwith therule.
Wholoveshissubjectsasiftheywerehisbody
Isthebestpersontocommitthestate. (ch.13;see Waley1958,157)
Illness prevention means to keep the person healthy in a state of
proper qi. Balance or inner harmony refers to the dialectics of calmness
and moveability where qi is constantly refreshed and nourished. The
process of freefloating qi in the body, however, implies a profound
metabolic interchange between inner and outer world in order to nour
ishandto renewthevital energy. Whilethe intentiondirectsthe qiout
ward as in bringing forth force, the person also receives qi from the
2
ThisviewstandsinstarkcontrasttotheBuddhistteachingsthatviewthe
bodyasahindrancetotrueinsightandasourceofillusionsandfalseconscious
ness: This physical body of yours, Chan master Linji says, can neither ex
poundthedharmanorlistentoit(Sasaki1975,8).
Tophoff,DaoistPrinciplesintheMartialArts /167
environment. Here again, a prerequisite for this to happen is mindful
ness, which enables theperson to experiencethe incoming stimuli as a
gift in whatever form.Inthis way, incoming energycanbe invested in
onesownreservoirofinnerforcesothatapositivefeedbackloopcanbe
established.
The concept of mindfulness is based on the Sanskrit smriti, which
originallymeans remembranceandistranslatedinto Chineseasnian
whichconsistsofthewordsfornowandmind.InaBuddhistcontext,
the word means recollect, reflect, or a moment (Soothill and Hodous
1937, 258). Characterized by awareness and an attentive openness to
ward thepresentmoment,mindfulness is acontinuousmeditative state
whichis,sotosay,continuedintotheactionitself(Tophoff 2003,123).
Thisstatehastobecultivatedcarefully.Todoso,onecanmakethe
bodythebasis,theroot,thefoundationofthecultivationprocess,anchor
oneself in physicality and transform the very nature of bodily existence
(Kohn 2006,3).In general, onecould state thatall internal styles of Chi
nesemartialartsaremindfulnesstrainingintheircultivatingthestillness
of the hereandnow and the lively movement of qi. This cultivation is
not to be limited to sparse moments; it has to develop into a lifestyle
wherestillnessandmovement,activityandrestareinterwovenwithina
cyclicaldialectic.
Movement in Stillness
Within ahealthy organism, the dynamic equilibrium of yin and yang is
alwaysmaintainedinahealthydialecticofexpansionandcontraction,of
movement and stillness. This coexistence can be experienced through
severalwaysofmartialorstandingmeditations. Unlikethemorequietist
Buddhist sitting meditations, here the entire body is trained in its vital
functioning of connecting tissue, joints, ligaments, tendons, cartilage,
andmuscles.Instandingmeditation,ontheoutside,thepersonseemsto
be almost in complete stillness, yet on the inside there is the vigorous
interplayoftensionversusrelaxation,contractionversusextension.
The nonultimate or no poles state (wuji) is like the empty, pri
mordial state of the universe, before yin and yang separated and took
formandstructure.Sinceqi here doesnothaveyinandyang,itistrans
parent to the entire universe (Liang 2002). In no poles, the person
168/JournalofDaoistStudies 6(2013)
stands straight and upright for fifteen minutes, with the eyes open.
3
Since the levels of emotion decrease in stillness, it is preeminently ap
propriateinsituationsofstressandtension.
Thethreebodyposture(santishi)originallyreferstohumanityin
thecontextof thepolaritiesofHeaven(yang)andEarth(yin).It isamore
demanding form of standing meditation. The constant actioninnon
action of contracting and extending the connective tissue in the same
stance is a demanding form of work or gongfu. As connective tissue in
theentirebodyisexercised,qiflowseasilyandtheinnerforceincreases.
Using intention, we focus the mind without focus: it becomes an open
mind,beholdingtheworldanditswonders.ReflectingtheBuddhasno
fear mudra, this posture leads to the state of nonanalytic thinking,
whichenablesthe adepttorespondspontaneouslytothetotalconfigura
tion of any given situation, rather than focusing on any single aspect
(Diepersloot 1999,37).
Standingform(zhanzhuang)isanotherofstandingmeditationthat
was developed by Wang Xiangzhai (18851963), the founder of Mind
Boxing (yiquan). Herethe practitioner emanates stillness as the activity
of standing is total, affecting every organ, bone, and tissue (Dong 1993,
70). As a way to train the inner force, it serves both martial and health
development.Infact,Wangremarks,theacmeofmartialartsabilitylies
in theparadox that only themovement(of qi)cultivated in stillnesscan
producestillness(ofmind)inphysicalmovement(Diepersloot1999,74).
Stillness in Movement
Where standing forms of meditation within the martial arts manifest
outer stillness and inner movement, movement forms in martial arts
manifesttheopposite instillingthemindwhilethebodymoves.
Qigong(orthemartialcontextWugong)isthepracticeofqi cultiva
tionthat integratesbreathing,movement,andmeditation.It isthe foun
dation of the internal force (Hung 1969). Here, intention plays a central
role: themorethemindisfocused,themoreqi develops(Cohen1997,93).
Breathing in qigong is usually natural and not produced, however,
3
InDaoist sitting meditation,suchas oblivion, the eyesaresemiclosed or
closed,tobetterobserveinternalprocesses.Nopolesisthebeginstanceofthe
martialarts.Herewakefulnessisofhighimportanceandtheeyesarewideopen
tothesurroundings.
Tophoff,DaoistPrinciplesintheMartialArts /169
some alternate breathing techniques also occur, such as Daoist reversed
andembryonicbreathing.Originatinginnopoles,theprimordialstate
ofemptiness,Daotakesforminyinandyangandtranslatesintoaseries
of gongfumovements thatareboth applicable incombat andconducive
to illness prevention. It is at the core of the internal martial art style of
GreatUltimateBoxing(taijiquan).
Martial applications here emphasize welcoming the opponent
ratherthanresistinghim.Thiscanbeexperiencedasaflowingandgen
tle interplay of inner and outer world, as a metaphor for the power of
yielding, reflecting the teaching of the Daode jing: The best officers of
court()circumspecttheyseemed()watchful,asonewhomustmeet
dangeroneveryside() yetyielding,asicewhenitbeginstomelt(Ch.
XV,Waley,1958,160).
In contrast to Great Ultimate Boxing, which uses defense as attack,
the martial art of Form Intention Boxing (xingyiquan)uses attack as de
fense (Liang 2002, xxi). It dynamically integrates movement with inten
tion,usingthesystemofthefive phases(Lu2006,2930).Here,too,prac
titioners realizecontraction inrelaxation andmanifestrelaxation incon
traction. In striking out, inner force as directed by the intention takes
form asan almost explosive bringingforth force.Training inthisform
works toward developing a strong, focused mind in an alert, agile and
resilientbody.
The martial art of Mind Boxing (yiquan) interweaves stillness and
movementwhilecultivatingconscious, focused intention. It is the art of
noform. Its founder Wang Xiangzhai advocates the practice of stillness
and the cultivation of mind and intent as primary practice. In this way,
the organism can rediscover its innate ability of natural movement
(Diepersloot 1999). Starting with the standing form, the practitioner
movesintoaseriesofslowmovementsthatflowwithmanifestedinten
tion. Although physical effort here is minimal, concentration, attention,
andmindfulnessareintense.Thepracticeleadstosurplusenergybuild
ingupinthebody(Dong1993).
Applications
Feasibleandpracticableapplicationsofmartialartsmaketheirwayinto
dailylifeindifferentways.Somebasicstandingmeditations may wellbe
170/JournalofDaoistStudies 6(2013)
practicedspeciallyinthemorning,others,likenopolescanbedoneat
oddtimes,suchasinthecheckout lineinthesupermarket.
Likewise, naturalandmindful breathing andqigong exercisesmay
become part of ones daily repertoire. Moving in the way of Great Ulti
mate Boxing not only benefits health but prevents stress in contact or
conflict with the outside world, because it exemplifies going with the
flow instead of resisting it. The still positions in Mind Boxing help to
train the connectivity of tissue and muscles and it fosters strength of
mindandintention.Theinterplayofrelaxationandtension,essentialfor
healthmaintenance,canbepracticedinFormIntentionBoxing
Adeptscanusetheserelativelyeasypracticeswithinalifestylethat
also involves preventing illness through healthy eating, avoidance of
intoxicants, and appreciation of landscapesboth inner and outer. All
thisisdone,asKristofer Schipperdescribesit,inordertoremainingalert,
master of oneself, upright and lucidto enter life with a firm step and
leave it with an equally firm step (1993, 214). It greatly contributes to
makingusasmuchaspossibletheartisansofourowndestiny.
Immortalityinthiscontextdoes nothappen in the future,butright
hereandnow.Itdoesnotimplythenegationofbiologicalprocessesand
doesnotdenydeath.Instead,itpointstoahealthylifewhereweexperi
ence each moment in its completeness, in a way as if there is no end.
This as if quality is fundamental not only to understand immortality
but alsotointernalize it in daily life.Thisperspectiveof immortalityal
lowsusto preventillnessby maintaininga healthylife fromonemoment
tothenext.Torealizethis,developingonesownautonomygoeshandin
handwithbuildingaprofoundandnourishingconnectionwiththeout
sideworld.
Toenterandleavelifewithafirmstepthismeansthatdeathis
a reality even in the context of immortality. In the Daoist paradigm, I
mayargue,energymatterbecomeshumaninthefetusatthemomentof
conception and dehumanizes again at death. The cyclical nature of
change takes form in a potentially never ending process of transforma
tion,asonewavefollowsthenextone.
Deathitselfmaybeasourceofadeepanxietyandoftencontributes
to feelings of isolation and depression. Naturally, the death of a loved
oneoronesownimminentdeathcausesgriefandsorrow.TheZhuangzi
has thestory of Qin Shi, who went tomourn Laozi and leftaftergiving
threeshort wails.Adiscipleaskedhimwhether hethoughtit was proper
Tophoff,DaoistPrinciplesintheMartialArts /171
tomournLaozilikethis.Hesaid,Ofcourse,continuing:Themasters
comingtoearthwastimelyandhisdeparture, natural(ch.6;Wang1999,
47).Atimelycomingandnaturaldeparturehavenothingtodowithjoy
or sorrow.Ancient Daoisttextspraise a detachedperspective as the key
tothe emancipationfrombondage.
Likewise, one tries to hold on to life, to grasp it, to freeze the mo
ment before death in an immortal eternity. Daoist principles, however,
brought to life in the martial arts, are valid in their application to such
momentsofcrisis.Theyimplytheprofoundunderstandingofthe nonac
tion paradigm, where change flows along in naturalness. In that sense,
andinmartial arts terms, wemayconceive ofdeath as agift of life.Ac
cepting the dialectics of birth and death means the realization of inner
freedom in the sense of both truepersonal autonomy and intimate con
nectionwithnature andtheuniverse.
ApplyinginternalstylesofChinesemartialartstoillnessprevention
thusenablesustomeetdeathasahealthypersonwhenthemomenthas
come. It istheprivilege of ourpersonal freedom when andhow we de
cidetomeethim.
Research Evidence
Thehealthbenefitsofmartialartspracticeincludeincreasedselfreliance
among the elderly, fewer falls, higher exercise capacity, better balance,
and various benefits to the immune and autonomic nervous systems
(Burke et al. 2007; Macarie and Roberts 2004). Practicing martial arts
tends toenhance selfesteem (Weiser et al. 1995) whilereducing anxiety
and depression (Cai 2000). Also, traditional martial arts are effective in
reducingaggression(Zivinetal.2001).Thesebenefitsareaconsequence
of enhanced selfregulation (Lakes et al. 2004). For this reason, Wood
wardsuggestsusingmartialartsasatreatmentmodalityforyouthswho
areatriskforviolence(2009).Inreviewing the researchliterature,Binder
summarizes studies about the longerterms effects of martial arts prac
tice. Thefindingsofmostofthesestudiesshowthatthispracticeleadsto
positivepsychosocialchangesintheparticipants (2007).
Beyondthephysicalpractice, meditationandmindfulnessarerich
indeliveringbenefits,asis demonstratedinavastbodyofresearch. Ef
fects includepositive changesinthecardiovascular system(Delmonte
1984),bloodpressure(Cort1989),and bloodchemistryinthesenseof
172/JournalofDaoistStudies 6(2013)
loweringlevelsofstresshormones (Sudsangetal.1991).Inaddition,
mindfulnessmeditationiseffectiveinreducingpain,painrelatedbehav
iors,recurrentdepression,anxiety,eatingdisorders, andchangesin
moodandsymptoms(seeKabatZinn1996;Teasdaleetal.2000;Specaet
al.2000;Segaletal.2002;Hlzeletal.2011). Mindfulnesstraining
throughSensoryAwarenessshowedsignificantchangesinthesenseof
improvementon:increasedawarenessofglobalbodilystates,heightened
subjectivefeelingofwellbeinginthebody,ininterpersonalrelationsand
socialrole(Tophoff 2003).
Conclusion
InternalstylesoftheChinesemartialarts, bothintermsofphysical prac
ticesandastoolsformindfulnesstraining,arehighlyusefulinstruments
fortheprevention of illhealth. Rooteddeep in Chinese history, they in
tegrateandactivatecertainkeyDaoistprinciplesandmakeactiveuseof
the dialectic reciprocity of movement and stillness in both meditation
and training. Easily integrated into daily life, they enhance health and
vigor well into old age. Seenfrom theirpractical application, the Daoist
concept of immortality appears as a state of mind in the present rather
than a transformative, spiritual, or mythological goal. It is a way of de
scribingthe goal oflearningtomeetlife in all itsdimensionsand thus
alsodeathas a fullyhealthyindividual.Modernresearchconfirms the
efficaciousnessofthesetechniquesand thevalidityof their applications.
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