Fresh and Early Age Concrete

Fresh and early age
concrete

SCT50 GROUP 14: ASSIGMENT 4

Word count: 5955
Date submitted: 28 May 2012

Group Members

Sivuyile Ngobozana(Group Leader)
Makintane Mofokeng
Kevin Volmink
Mfundo Taliwe
Charlie Visser
Pitso Reatile

SCT 50 Group 14: Assignment 4 Page 2 of 23

Summary
Concrete is in the fresh state while its shape can be changed and it can be compacted.
Concrete can remain in the fresh state normally for two to three hours. The length of this period
depends on various factors including temperature, cement type and content and admixture type
and content (CNCI, 2002)
Fresh cementitious materials behave as fluids with a yield stress which is the minimum stress
for irreversible deformation and flow. This yield stress can be measured using rheological tools
on the cement paste (Roussel, 2006)
Fresh concrete properties are very important in the performance of hardened concrete, so
proper attention needs to be taken and testing done on the fresh concrete to gather data that
will help understand the long term performance of the concrete.
Weather conditions especially temperature has a huge impact in fresh concrete during placing.
While low temperatures can result in delayed setting or retardation and decrease the rate of the
concrete early strength gain, high temperatures on the other hand will increase the rate of
hydration and result into premature stiffening of the concrete, plastic shrinkage cracking,
thermal stresses and cracking in large elements, permeability and also decrease the long-term
concrete strength and durability of the concrete. According to BS8500, the concrete temperature
shall not exceed 35 degrees Celsius at the time of delivery.
So proper testing and caution is imperative during delivery, placing, compaction and finishing of
fresh concrete as this will determine the long term durability of the concrete.


Table of Contents
1 The Assignment .................................................................................................................. 4
2 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 5
3 Fresh concrete testing.......................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
3.1 Yield stress and plastic viscosity ................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
3.1.1 Defination of yield stress and plastic viscosity ....... Error! Bookmark not defined.
3.1.2 Consistence of concrete by a single-point test ...... Error! Bookmark not defined.
3.2 Uses, advantages and disadvantages of the : ............... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Degree of compactability ...................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Flow table...8
V-funnel tests for fresh concrete.8
3.2.1 Conclusions..8
3.3 Yield stress measurements ........................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
3.3.1 Available methods for direct and indirect measurement of ... Error! Bookmark not
defined.
3.3.2 Relation to the single-point tests ........................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
3.4 Effect on plastic viscosity of : ........................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
3.4.1 Superplasticizers ................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
3.4.2 Air-entraining admixtures ....................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
4 Concrete for the construction of a windfarm ......................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.1 Considerations during placing to ensure the integrity of the base slab ........................14
4.2 Concise report for the contractor giving advice on:......................................................14
4.2.1 Suitable concrete compositions ...........................................................................14
4.2.1 Placing procedures ..............................................................................................14
4.2.1 Procedures for ensuring integrity of the slab after placing ....................................14
5 Methods for monitoring the concrete strength development in the base slabs .............. Error!
Bookmark not defined.


6 References .......................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.


1. The Assignment
Fresh and early age concrete

Question 1
(a) Define the terms yield stress and plastic viscosity in relation to the properties of fresh
concrete. Explain why the consistence of concrete cannot be fully characterized by a single-
point test.

(b) Discuss the uses, advantages and disadvantages of the degree of compactability, flow table
and V-funnel tests for fresh concrete.

(c) Describe the methods available for the direct and indirect measurement of yield stress and
explain how and why it is related to the single-point tests in (b) above.

(d) Describe and explain the effect on plastic viscosity of:
(i) superplasticizers
(ii) air-entraining admixtures.

Question 2
A wind farm consisting of a large array of turbines is to be constructed over a two year period in
an exposed location in which the daytime summer temperatures can reach 35degC and the
nighttime winter temperatures can fall to -10degC. Each turbine has a concrete base slab 12m
x12m x 4m deep. The reinforcement is congested, particularly in the region around the base of
the column supporting the turbine. The required concrete strength class for the base slabs is
C50/60. The slabs will be constructed at a rate of one per week.

(a) Discuss and explain the issues that need to be considered when placing the concrete and
for ensuring the integrity of the base slab in the period after placing.

(b) Prepare a concise report for the contractor giving advice on:
(i) suitable concrete compositions
(ii) placing procedures
(iii) procedures for ensuring the integrity of the slab in the period after concrete casting.

(c) Discuss methods for monitoring the development of strength of the concrete in the base
slabs to determine when the strength specified by the designer for erection of the columns is
achieved. Recommend a preferred method, giving reasons for your choice.


2 Introduction

Fresh concrete properties are very important as they partly determine the concrete performance
in the hardened state and have an effect on the long term durability of the concrete. Fresh
concrete testing is necessary to ensure that these properties meet the requirements The degree
of compactibility, flow table and v-funnel are some of the tests that will be looked at, and uses,
advantages and disadvantages thereof. The other important factors that will impart the concrete
performance are placing, compaction and curing.
A wind farm consisting of large array of turbines is to be constructed over a two year period and
under some challenging conditions. There temperature fluctuations from -10 degrees Celsius
during night time to 35 degrees Celsius during day time and there is congestion of
reinforcement.
There are certain considerations that need to be taken into account when placing the concrete
in order to ensure the integrity of the base slab after placing. When placing concrete in any
environment there are certain precautions to be taken, firstly it is to ensure that the mix design is
fit for the purpose, hence a suitable concrete composition should be looked at. The other
important factor is how is the concrete going to be placed, especially in an exposed location as
described in this case; a proper placing procedure will address this.
At the end of the day the contractor has to ensure that he delivers a durable concrete as per the
specification hence a concise report advising the contractor on the above issues is necessary.
Like in any project, there will be challenges along the way and time is always of essence; so it is
imperative to avoid unnecessary delays. For instance the strength development on the base
slabs will need to be monitored to ensure that the concrete has reached the specified strength
before the erection of the columns commence.


3 Properties of Fresh Concrete
3.1 Yield Stress and plastic viscosity
The main properties of fresh concrete can be described in terms of Fluidity,
Compactability and Stability (cohesiveness). The first two of these properties, fluidity
and compactability, have commonly been combined into a general property called
workability or more recently as consistence. (Domone, 2010)
Two definitions for consistence (workability) are given below:
i. that property of freshly mixed concrete or mortar which determines the ease and
homogeneity with which it can be mixed, placed, consolidated and finished
(ACI, 1990)
ii. that property determining the effort required to manipulate a freshly mixed
quantity of concrete with minimum loss of homogeneity (ASTM, 1993)
Neither of these definitions makes reference to a quantifiable or measurable property
and is therefore prone to subjectivity. Therefore it is important to be able to measure
consistence to more objectively understand and predict the properties of fresh
concrete.
3.1.1 Measurement of consistence
3.1.1.1 Fundamental Properties
Domone (2010) states that there is general agreement that the behaviour of fresh
paste, mortar and concrete all approximate reasonably closely to the Bingham model
as illustrated in Figure 1-1.
The yield stress (
y
), as shown below, is the shear stress at which movement occurs
(i.e. below this stress no movement occurs) and the plastic viscosity () is the rate at
which this movement occurs and the resulting relationship is called a flow curve
(Barnes, 2000).


Figure 3-1 the flow curve of fresh concrete and the definitions of yield stress and plastic viscosity
(Domone 2010)
3.1.1.2 Factors affecting consistence
Lower values for
y
and indicate that the concrete mix is more fluid and in particular a
lower
y
translates in lower resistance to flow at low shear stresses for example under
self-weight when being poured (Domone, 2010). A lower value for results in a mix
that is less cohesive or sticky and increased response when compacting with by
vibration, when localised shear rates can be large (Domone, 2010).
Domone (2010) further lists some important effects that the variation of mix proportions
and constituent materials has on
y
and as shown in Figure 1-2.
i. Increasing the water content while keeping the proportions of the other
constituents constant decreases
y
and in approximately similar proportions.
ii. Adding a plasticiser or super-plasticiser decreases
y
but leaves relatively
constant. In essence, the admixtures allow the particles to flow more easily but
in the same volume of water. The effect is more marked with super-plasticisers,
which can even increase , and can therefore be used to give greatly increased
flow properties under self-weight, while maintaining the cohesion of the mix.
iii. Increasing the paste content will normally increase and decrease
y
i.e. the mix
may start to flow more easily but will be more cohesive or stickier, and vice
versa.


iv. Replacing some of the cement with fly ash or ggbs will generally decrease
y
, but
may either increase or decrease , depending on the nature of the addition and
its interaction with the cement.
v. The small bubbles of air produced by air-entraining agents provide lubrication to
reduce the plastic viscosity, but at relatively constant yield stress.

Figure 3-2 Summary of the effect of varying the proportions of concrete constituents on the yield
stress and the plastic viscosity
In considering these effects it can be noted that the yield stress (
y
) and the plastic
viscosity () are independent properties, and different combinations can be obtained by
varying the mix constituents and their relative proportions. Both the yield stress and
plastic viscosity are required to define the behaviour of fresh concrete and hence
characterise its consistence.
3.1.2 Single point tests methods
Domone (2003) states that no single test or measurement can properly describe all of
the required properties of fresh concrete and hence recommends that the terminology
relating to workability (consistence) be divided into three classes as proposed by
Tattersall (1991) below:


Class 1: Qualitative, to be used in a general descriptive way without any attempt to
quantify, e.g. workability, flowability, compactability, stability, pumpability.
Class 2: Quantitative empirical, to be used as a simple quantitative statement of
behaviour in a particular set of circumstances, e.g. slump, flow table spread.
Class 3: Quantitative fundamental, to be used strictly in accordance with the
definitions in BS 5168: Glossary of rheological terms, e.g. viscosity, mobility,
fluidity, yield value.
Many tests have been devised and used over many years to produce quantitative
empirical values in Class 2 above. They give a single measurement i.e. one co-
ordinate on a flow curve, and are therefore often referred to as single-point tests, to
distinguish them from the two-point tests which give two measurements (Domone,
2003).
Domone (2003) states that single point tests are based on several different principles
and measure different properties and therefore a very wide degree of correlation is
obtained between them. He further compared different concrete mixes by ranking them
in order of increasing workability and different tests provided different ranking orders.
As a result single point tests cant fully characterise concrete consistence as they only
give a single measurement of the different properties of consistence and are based on
different principles. These tests are however still widely used because of their simplicity
and ease of use both in the laboratory and on site (Domone, 2010).
3.2 Tests on fresh concrete
The following tests on fresh concrete are discussed below in Table 1-1 with regards
their uses, advantages and disadvantages: degree of compactability, flow table and v
funnel. A short description of the test procedure for each of these tests is given in
appendix A (can be moved to main text if word count allows).
Table 3-1 Discussion of tests on fresh concrete
Test Uses Advantages Disadvantages
Degree of
Compactability
Low, medium and high
consistence mixes.
Simple to carry out.
Suitable for site use.
Operator dependant.
Provides a single test
value.
Flow Table High to very high
consistence mixes.
Gives some indication
of tendency of mix to
segregate.

Operator sensitive.
No extra information
gained by jolting.
Cannot satisfactorily


measure bulk concrete
properties.
Provides a single test
value.
V Funnel Self-compacting
concrete

3.2.1 Conclusions
Lower values for yield stress (
y
) and plastic viscosity () indicate that the concrete mix
is more fluid and in particular a lower
y
translates in lower resistance to flow at low
shear stresses and a lower value for results in a mix that is less cohesive. Yield
stress and the plastic viscosity are however independent properties and different
combinations can be obtained by varying the mix constituents and their relative
proportions. Therefore both yield stress and plastic viscosity are required to define the
behaviour of fresh concrete and hence characterise its consistence.
Single-point tests give a single measurement of the different properties of consistence
and can therefore not be used to fully characterise concrete consistence.


3.3 Yield Stress Measurement
Introduction
The hard, strong and durable concrete is achieved after the plastic period, however little
attention is paid to its fresh properties. The pumping, placing and compaction of concrete is
based on rheology, improved scientific approach has made it possible to predict the fresh
properties, select materials and design concrete of desirable performance. (Banfill, 2003)
Rheology is the scientific study of flow of matter and is concerned with the relationship among
stress, strain, rate of strain and time. The flow deals with the movement of adjacent elements
of liquids over each other. (Banfill, 2003)
The rotational rheometers are used to measure the shear stress of concrete at different shear
rates in order to measure the plastic stress and viscosity. (International Centre for Aggregate
Research, 2003)
3.3.1 Available methods for direct and indirect measurement
3.3.1.1 Tests on cement paste:
An instrument such as coaxial cylinder viscometer is the most commonly used for measuring
plastic stress and strain. (Newman and Choo, 2003)
The inner cylinder is rotated as indicated in figure 1 below and the torque required is measured.
The gap between the inner and outer cylinder is usually a few millimetres and sufficient for
cement paste. (International Centre for Aggregate Research, 2003)


Figure 1: A coaxial cylinder viscometer
3.3.1.2 Tests on concrete:
There are tests used to measure the rheology of concrete and they are used mostly in the
laboratory. Although small rheometers have been developed to be used on site, the availability
is limited due to the high cost. The rheometers for concrete must be capable of dealing with
large sample sizes. The distance between the inner and outer cylinder must be at least five
times the maximum aggregate size and the outer cylinder radius to the inner cylinder radius
should be 1.0 to 1.1 (International Centre for Aggregate Research, 2003).
3.3.1.3 Powers and Wiler Plastometer
The Powers and Wiler Plastometer has been designed to measure concrete, it can also be used
to measure paste and mortar. The design is based on the concept of coaxial cylinder
rheometer. The outside cylinder rotates while the inner cylinder measures the torque with
spring attached couple system. The device is shown in figure 2 below.

Figure 2: Plastometer
3.3.1.4 Tattersall Two-Point Workable Device
The two-point device was developed by G.H. Tattersall at Sheffield University in the 1970s after
determining that it would be inappropriate to measure the rheology using the coaxial cylinders
due to failure plane of concrete between the cylinders. The Tattersall two-point device uses the
impeller geometry to measure the rheology of concrete and the device has been refined over
the years by Tattersal and other researchers and is used intensively in concrete. The device
measures the torque required to turn the impeller in concrete. The two different impellers with
MH and LM system as indicated in figure 4 below are available to measure concrete based on


workability. The device is calibrated with Newtonian fluid of known viscosity and power law fluid
of known flow curve.

Figure 4: Helical Impeller (MH System) and Offset H-Impeller (LM System)
3.3.1.5 The BML viscometer
The BML viscometer is a coaxial cylinder rheometers which is dependent on Power and Wiler
plastometer and the Tattersall device. The outer cylinder rotates and the inner cylinder
measures the torque. The cylinder sizes can be changed to compensate for different concrete
stones sizes which are tested. The BML viscometer is suitable for concrete with slumps in
excess of 120mm and can be used for self compacting concrete and it has also been used for
concrete with slumps of 50-60mm. (ICAR, 2003)
3.3.2 Comparison to single-point test measurements
Only one value is measured in the single-point tests and the concrete is moving at a different
shear rate in each case. Each single-point test has an average shear which is similar to
determining one pint on the yield stress versus shear strain. (Newman and Choo, 2003)
In the slump test the movement is at zero or small when the measurement is taken and hence
the relationship between yield stress and slump exists. (Newman and Choo, 2003)
3.4 Effects on plastic viscosity of:
i. The effect of superplasticizers on plastic viscosity of concrete
The fluidity of concrete increases with increased dosages of superplasticizers and the
reduction in plastic viscosity is less than that of yield stress; the superplasticiser also


maintains the viscosity. Large dosages of superplasticizers can result in different
effects.(Newman and Choo, 2003)
ii. The effect of air-entraining agents on plastic viscosity of concrete
The air-entraining agents increase the viscosity at the almost constant yield stress and
the behaviour is linked to the type and source of constituent material. (Newman and
Choo, 2003)

4. Concrete for the construction of a wind farm
Introduction

The hydration of cement is a chemical reaction that takes place when water is added to the
cement and produces heat. In cold weather, the cement hydration takes place slower than in
hot weather conditions. Placing concrete under hot or cold weather conditions can have
effect on freshly placed concrete. The minimum concrete temperature recommended by BS
8110 for the fresh concrete should not fall below 5
0
C until the strength of 5 MPa is reached.
The time taken to reach the minimum strength will depend on the initial concrete
temperature, ambient conditions, sections size, mix constituents and insulation.

Weather condition needs special precaution when batching, transporting, placing, finishing,
curing and protecting concrete .Good concrete practice and proper planning are critical
when dealing with this environment. It requires an understanding of various factors that
affect concrete properties.

In plastic state concrete will freeze if its temperature fall below -5
0
C.If plastic concrete
freezes, its potential strength can be reduced by more than 50% and its durability will
adversely be affected. Low concrete temperature has a major effect on the rate of cement
hydration, which results in slower setting and rate of strength gain.


4.1.1 Heat of hydration

As it has being stated that the base column is 12m X 12m X 4m, it would be expected that
the enormous heat of hydration be generated. The following precautionary measures during
design stage should be considered.

Even though GGBS is temperature sensitive, its reaction rate with cement increases with
increase in temperature (Newman and Choo 2003). Considering the environment and time
of concreting under weather conditions mentioned above, the heat of hydration will be of
significance to activating reactions of GGBS and cement. The AS 1379 requires that
concrete temperature at the point of delivery be within the range of 5
0
C to 35
0
C.
Aggregates makes up the bulk of the concrete and also has the highest heat capacity, they
have the greatest effect on the temperature of the freshly mixed concrete (ACI 1999).By
adding crushed ice, liquid nitrogen during hot weather conditions to freshly mixed concrete
will reduce the heat of hydration in concrete (ACI 1999).

In cold weather conditions where temperature falls below 5
0
C, the mixing water should be
heated to accelerate the reaction of cementitious material (Richard and Neil 2002).

4.1.2 The placing of fresh concrete
Due to the blend of cement and extender, an extended setting time will be experienced due
to the temperature fall during night time. Wind breaks to prevent coldness and evaporation
during concrete placing will reduce thermal loss (Richard and Neil 2002). Before placing
concrete, formwork, reinforcement, prestressing steel and any surface with which the
concrete will be in contact must be kept free from ice and frost. Covering of formwork during
night time would be necessary.
The adequate access must be provided to ensure good placement. Adequate access along
the whole length of the formwork will be critical in achieving the good concrete placement.
Place the concrete in 450mm layers, and ensure the previous layer has been fully
compacted before placing the next one. Ensure the concrete does not strike the formwork
which may lead to concrete drying on the shutter and impairing the surface finish or the
reinforcement.

The formwork that is insulated to ensure the concrete temperature is maintained will be
advantageous. After concrete placement, the concrete must be protected to prevent early-


age freezing. The protection should remain in place until the concrete reach strength of
5N/mm
2.
.

The assignment has clearly stated that the placing of concrete is poured on conjested
steel reinforcement base column. Both conventional and self compacting concrete
can be used depending on how conjested is the reinforcement. To safe time and I
would advise the contractor to use self compacting concrete.

What is self compacting concrete?

Self Compacting Concrete is defined as a concrete that fills a form by its own weight, with
minimum or no vibration. The SCC is characterised by the high level of flow without
segregation, high deformability, ability to pass the space between reinforcement bars without
aggregate interlocking and exhibiting a good level of robustness ( Felekoglu et al, 2006).
The name Self Compacting clearly describes the properties of the concrete. Due to the
SCC deformability and self compacting properties the mix has enabled the construction
industry to be able to construct complex shaped structures, steel dense structures and
structures with difficult access with greater comfort than when the conventional concrete is
used. However to produce the SCC mix is not easy as the mix is sensitive to its design and it
requires strict controls (Ouchi et al, 2003).
The mix design and production of the SCC is made possible by the use of super plasticisers
that increase the workability of the concrete and enable the flow without segregation. In
some case a small dose of viscosity modifying agents is used to enhance the properties of
the mix.

4.1.3 Curing conditions

Curing should commence immediately after the slab has been casted by means of the
following different methods depending on weather conditions and state of concrete, ponding
with water, continuous spray mist, covering with plastic sheeting or sprayed on curing
compounds.


4.1.4 Concrete temperature during Production

During production, the concrete mixing temperature will be controlled by heating the mixing
water. Since the temperature of concrete affect the rate of slump loss and may affect the
performance of admixture, temperature fluctuation can result in variable behavior of
individual batch. Premature contact of very hot water and concentrated quantity of cement
may cause flash setting and cement balls in the truck mixers. The following mixing
procedure will be followed when mixing concrete.

When delivering the concrete with the mixer truck; the drum must rotate slowly to minimize
the temperature losses during delivery. (Petersons, 1966)

5. Methods of monitoring the strength development of concrete

In large-volume pours, the avoidance of excessive temperature rises and differentials is
essential to minimize problems of thermal cracking. (Newman, 2003). After temperature limits
are specified , temperature monitoring is required by specification.

Other reasons for monitoring strength development to eliminate failures during construction
were due to overestimation of the early-age strength of concrete, which resulted in early
removal of formworks when the partially matured concrete was not strong enough to support
upper levels of the structure.

In order to observe the property changes of a concrete at early age, a non-destructive test
(NDT) method that can continuously monitor the concrete behavior throughout its setting and
hardening procedure is highly desired. Besides the quality control issues, it is also necessary to
have an simple and easily accessible equipment setup, so that the measurement can be easily
applied to various structures, such as pavements, walls, columns and floor slabs.

Methods

Lok-test

The Lok-test system is used to obtain a reliable estimate of the in-place strength of concrete in
newly cast structures in accordance with the pullout test method described in ASTM C900, BS
1881:207, or EN 12504-3.

Two principal uses of LOK-TEST are for:


Determining whether in-place concrete strength is sufficient for early application of loads,
such as due to formwork removal, application of prestressing.
Determining whether the in-place strength is sufficient for terminating curing and thermal
protection. Evaluating the quality of the critical cover layer protecting the reinforcement
in the finished structure.

Principle

A steel disc, 25 mm in diameter at a depth of 25 mm, is pulled centrally against a 55 mm
diameter counter pressure ring bearing on the surface. The force required to pullout the insert is
measured. The concrete in the strut between the disc and the counter pressure ring is subjected
to a compressive load. Therefore the pullout force is related directly to the compressive
strength. Loading is performed either to a required force, in which case the test is
nondestructive, or to the peak-load, which results in a slightly raised, 55-mm diameter crack on
the surface. The disc is cast into concrete either by attaching it to formwork before placing
concrete or by inserting it manually into the fresh concrete.

Correlation and Accuracy of Estimated Strength

Lok-test provides an accurate estimate of in-place strength because the peak pullout force has
a well-defined correlation to compressive strength measured using standard cylinders or cubes.
More than 30 years of correlation experience from all over the world indicates close agreement,
suggesting that one general correlation is applicable for all normal density concrete mixtures,
as shown below. A different correlation, however, has been found for concrete made with
lightweight (low density) aggregate. (Petersen,2003).

Advantages of Lol-test method

Quick, inexpensive, provide good correlation.
Small changes in strength can be detected.
Correlation is not mix specific.

Disadvantages of Lol-test method

Some preplanning needed.
Some local damage

Capo test

The CAPO-TEST permits performing pullout tests on existing structures without the need of
preinstalled inserts. Capo-test provides a pullout system similar to the LOK-TEST system
for accurate on-site estimates of compressive strength. Procedures for performing post-installed
pullout tests, such as Capo-test, are included in ASTM C900.


Typical applications of the Capo-test include the following:

Quality control of the finished structure
Verification of in-place strength when strength of standard-cured specimens fails to meet
acceptance criteria
Estimating residual strength of concrete in existing structures
Evaluation of fire-damaged structures
Integrity of structures

Principle

When selecting the location for a Capo-test, ensure that reinforcing bars are not within the
failure region. The surface at the test location is ground flat and a 18.4 mm hole is cored
perpendicular to the surface. A recess (slot) is routed in the hole to a diameter of 25 mm and at
a depth of 25 mm. A split ring is expanded in the recess and pulled out using a pull machine
reacting against a 55 mm diameter counter pressure ring. As in the Lok-test, the concrete in the
strut between the expanded ring and the counter pressure ring is in compression. Hence, the
ultimate pullout force is related directly to compressive strength. The test is performed until the
conic frustum between the expanded ring and the inner diameter of the counter pressure is
dislodged. Thus there is minor surface damage, which should be repaired for aesthetic reasons
or to avoid potential durability problems.

Correlation and Accuracy of Estimated Strength

Several investigations have shown that the pullout strength measured by the Capo-test is
essentially the same as the pullout strength measured by Lok-test. Based on testing
experiences and laboratory studies, it has been found that the accuracy of the compressive
strength estimated by the Capo-test using the general correlations is similar to results obtained
with the Lok-test. (Moczko, 2002)

Advantages of Capo-test method

Less preplanning required, inexpensive and provide good correlation.
Correlation is not mix specific.
Useful for supplementary tests

Disadvantages of Capo-test method

Slower than Lok-test.
Some local damage.
Surface preparation may be needed.

Maturity measurement

The concrete maturity method is a proven strength estimation technique (ASTM C 1074) that
accounts for the effects of time and temperature on the strength development of in-place
concrete. This method gives a continuous estimate of concrete strength during the curing
period. (Gresser, 2012)


The maturity method is a technique to account for the combined effects of time and temperature
on the strength development of concrete. The method provides a relatively simple approach for
making reliable estimates of in-place strength during construction.

The temperature history is used to calculate a quantity called the maturity index. For each
concrete mixture, the relationship between strength and the maturity index is established
beforehand. The strength relationship and the measured in-place maturity index are used to
estimate the in-place strength

Principle

Determination of the appropriate maturity function for the specific concrete that will be used in
construction. Determination of the relationship between compressive strength and the maturity
index. Measurement of the in-place maturity index and estimation of the in-place strength.
Cylindrical concrete specimens are prepared using the same as the concrete to be used in
construction. Temperature sensors are embedded at the centers of at least two cylinders. The
sensors are connected to recording devices. The specimens are cured in a moist curing room.
Compression tests are performed on at least two specimens at ages of 1, 3, 7, 14, and 28 days.
At the time of testing, the average maturity value for the instrumented specimens is recorded. If
maturity instruments are used, the average of the displayed values is recorded (Barnes, 2007).

Relatively inexpensive


Correlation with strength is mix specific.

Limpet pull-off test
Limpet pull-off test measures the pull-off strength of the surface zone of concrete and the bond
strength of patch repairs with minimal damage. It is an exceptionally good tool for assessing the
progressive deterioration in these cases when exposed to normal or aggressive environments.

Principle

Two basic approaches can be used. One is where the metal disc is attached directly to the
concrete surface. This approach is used to make an assessment of the strength of a body of
concrete where there is no reason to believe that its surface is materially different to the rest of
the mass. Typically, it might be used to judge when it is safe to strike formwork.
The second approach is where partial coring of the surface is adopted. If the concrete surface is
carbonated or altered and, therefore, having different physical properties compared with the


interior, a much more valid strength value is obtained by coring to a depth below the affected
layer thereby causing the failure surface to occur in the unaffected mass. This second approach
has particular value in assessing and assuring the strength of the interface between base
concrete and surface repair material. If the partial core is continued below the interface and the
failure is on the interface, a direct measure of the bond strength of the interface is obtained.


Inexpensive to perform.
No pre-planning required.
Superficial damage only.


Correlation is mix specific.
Time needed for bonding to surface.
Surface preparation needed.
Poor correlation between pull-off force and concrete strength

Lok-test will be the preferred method as it is quick to use and is inexpensive. What is more
important is the reliability of the results and this method provides good correlation. The results
can be updated quickly as small changes in the results will be detected which is important for
decision making. The disadvantages of using this method are really minimal as small surface
damage can be repaired.


References

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