VEHICLE SPEED MEASUREMENT

SYSTEM
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Topic Page No.
CERTIFICATE ....................................................................................................... 2
DECLARATION ..................................................................................................... 3
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT .................................................................................... 4
ABSTRACT..............................................................................................................
C!APTER ".INTROD#CTION.............................................................. ................ $
".". T%e Ba&ic Co'cep( ....................................................................................... )
".2. Ci*c+i( De&c*ip(io'...................................................................................... ,
".3. Co-po'e'(& Li&(.......................................................................................... ".
C!APTER 2.CONSTR#CTION AND WORKING
2.". Co'&(*+c(io'... "2
2.2. PCB /a0o+(. "3
2.3. PCB 1e&ig'i'g .. "4
2.4. Co1i'g. "2
C!APTER 3.Co-po'e'( De&c*ip(io'
3.". Re&i&(a'ce.....32
3.2.
Capaci(o*...33
3.3. Se-ico'1+c(o* Dio1e .. 34
3.4. LED. 3
3.. La&e*..3)
3.$ LDR ...42
3.) PIC"$F,)) Mic*oco'(*o//e*.. 44
3.,.3o/(age *eg+/a(o* IC ),.
3.2 T*a'&4o*-e*... )
C!APTER 4.CONCL#SION . 2

BIBLIOGRAP!5 ... $.





ABSTRACT
With the advent of modern era an exponential increase in the number of vehicle the
number of accident has risen alarmingly. One of the main reasons for such a rise is the
negligence of drivers especially on highway, where less traffic seemingly allow him to
take a negligent approach toward safety rules. Often high speeding vehicles pose a
danger to fellow commuter .This project aspire to solve such problem by measuring the
vehicle speed and then giving alarm in case of overspeed.




CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

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1%1 BASIC CONCEPT
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.1%& CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION
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Ultrasonic Range Meter
The Ultrasonic Range Meter is an efficient way to measure the distance of unreachable
obstacles. It is based on sending sound waves through a specific medium and observing
the returning echoes to measure the distance from the device to the obstacle.
The device is divided into three parts, transmitter, receiver and the microcontroller. The
transmitter consists of an electronics circuitry which generates electrical signal .In
addition, an electromechanical transducer to convert electrical signal to physical form to
drive through the medium, which is air. The receiver also consists of an electronics
circuitry which detects the echoes bounced back from the obstacles. The microcontroller
is programmed for selectivity sequence and to calculate the time of flight of the signal to
find the distance and display it.
The system architecture of the Ultrasonic Range Meter was built to be cheaper, requires
less power and delivers better performance. It can be reconfigured to adapt to a variety
of pulsed Ultrasonic systems.
Introduction
The main purpose of this proect is to measure the distance to unreachable obects,
obstacles or places using a portable device.
!
Figure 2.1: The hand"held ultrasonic range meter device.
2.2 Motivation
The motivation of using this device is when construction engineers at any sites need to
measure distances to unreachable places in a quick and easy way using this device with
high efficiency and accuracy.
2.3 Characteristics
This device detects the distance to an obect and shows the result in centimeters. This
device is activated by a trigger mechanism, pressing the trigger for one time will give us
the distance to an obect if there was no error like poor aiming. The distance to an obect
is displayed using a digital display with a high intensity in order to be seen in any lighting
conditions.
It is a simple and portable device similar to a gun as shown in Figure 2.2 that uses a
laser pointer to aim at a specific area to get the reflection at the receiver side.
#$
Figure 2.2: %escription of each part of the device.
2.4 Conclusion
In order to design and build a portable device, the weight of the device is a primary
problem. The technology of using ultrasonic to measure distances is in continuous
progress, features have been added to this technology to make it easy to use and more
accurate by assigning more challenging constraints. The constraints of our device are
discussed in the ne&t chapter.
3.1 Introduction
%efining the constraints of our device will help to design and then build the hand"held
ultrasonic range meter device. 'y defining these constraints, the problems will be
##
clearer, the suitable solutions will become easier to find and those constraints will help to
get the design needed from the engineer.
3.2 Minimum target size and ultrasonic medium
The minimum target si(e is )$cm*)$cm in order to get detection at the receiver side.
The ultrasonic medium is air.
3.3 Target range
The target range is the distance range between the person who is using the hand"held
ultrasonic range meter device and the targeted obect. The target range consists of two
boundaries, one is the minimum distance limit and the other is the ma&imum distance
limit. If the operator of the hand"held ultrasonic range meter device e&ceeds these two
boundaries, the hand"held ultrasonic range meter device may not detect the distance or
may display a false detection.
The target range is between #$ centimeters and +$$ centimeters.
3.4 Range measurement accuracy
,ach specific distance has an error percentage- the more samples sent the less the
error is.
The range measurement accuracy is the accuracy of the distances measured between
the operator of the hand"held ultrasonic range meter device and the targeted obect- it
allows knowing how much each distance is close to the real value of the distance. The
range measurement accuracy is ./" + cm. The less this value is, the more accurate
distances would be calculated by the hand"held ultrasonic range meter device.
3.5 The battery
0 ! 1 battery could be used to activate this device.
3. !eight and size
2ur device would not e&ceed the weight $.3 kilogram. This weight is acceptable for the
operator to carry the hand"held ultrasonic range meter device and to fi& his arm while
aiming at the targeted obect.
#4
The area of the cover is #3cm & 5 cm, and the height is 6 cm.
3." #udget
This hand"held ultrasonic range meter device is between 3$ U.7 dollars and 53 U.7
dollars.
3.$ Time
The time estimated to accomplish the hand"held ultrasonic range meter device is one
month due to the changes in the constraints.
3.% &umber o' engineers
The number of engineers working on the hand"held ultrasonic range meter device is
three engineers.
3.1( Conclusion
0fter discussing and choosing the constraints, the solutions for these sets of challenging
problems are to be discussed and solved physically and mathematically in the ne&t
chapter.
4.1 Introduction
To solve the problem of detecting the distance to an obect, many solutions are presented.
In this chapter the solutions are discussed, all the advantages and disadvantages are
shown. The comparison between these solutions will help to determine which solution has
more advantages and satisfies the constraints at the same time.
4.2 )and*held laser range meter device
4.2.1 Description
#+
This device is characteri(ed by its accuracy and portability- it uses a laser beam. The
two techniques might be used to measure the distance. There are two techniques that
have been used in order to measure distances, the time of flight technique and the
triangulation technique.
4.2.1.1 Time of flight measurement
,ven the fastest photon requires a certain period of time to cover the distance from the
sensor to the target and back. This time is directly proportional to the distance traveled,
taking into account the velocity of light in the medium involved, which may be easily
derived from the velocity of light in a vacuum. The cost and comple&ity of this method
depends upon the precision and resolution required.
%ata acquisition and analysis electronics must cope with ns and sub"ns time scales8
decimeter ranges may be easily resolved by nanosecond pulses but precision in the
millimeter and sub"millimeter range requires pulse lengths of a few tens of picoseconds
and the associated electronics. 9learly, a poorly resolved pulse will lead to uncertainty in
the accuracy of the measurement- the standard deviation in measured distance is
proportional to the optical pulse rise time and is inversely proportional to the signal"to"
noise ratio. 0t ranges of a few kilometers and above, a different problem arises- at such
distances the amount of reflected photons which reach the detector is very small. 7ignal
intensity can be improved by optimum beam focusing at the source, or by the use of a
retro reflector mounted in the target.
4.2.1.2 Triangulation
Triangulation is the most commonly used method for distances of #$ meters or less. 0
laser or :,% is used to produce a collimated beam which then impinges on the surface
of the target. The target reflects light in many directions, some of the reflected light
reaching the detector. The position of the reflected light focused onto the detector
depends on the distance between the sensor and target. %etectors such as position
sensitive detectors ;<7%=, diode arrays or 99% arrays enable the reflected light to be
#)
detected with high spatial resolution and at high sampling frequencies. The sensor"
obect distance is calculated trigonometrically and accuracies of better than $.3> are the
norm.
Measurement times of less than #$ ms are common, allowing real"time study of moving
or vibrating obects. The light source should be compact and should produce an intense,
small spot of light with minimal divergence. 0mplitude modulation is used in order to
eliminate the effects of stray ;background= light.

Figure 4.1: ?and"held laser range meter device.
4.2.2 The advantages
0s shown in Figure 4.1, the hand"held laser range meter device is a portable device.
It is characteri(ed with its high accuracy and high precision. The laser beam consists of
a small beam width which reaches a long target range.
4.2.3 The disadvantages
The poor aiming on the targeted obect causes a bad reflection of the laser and that
would display a false detection of the obect@s distance that has been targeted.
#3
The atmospheric conditions may affect the ranging capabilities of the hand"held laser
range meter device. The rain and snow reflect the laser beam and that may display a
false detection of the obect@s distance.
4.3 )and*held ultrasonic range meter device
4.3.1 Description:
This device works on the same concept of the laser gun device but the difference is that
it uses a large beam width of ultrasonic waves as shown in Figure 4.2. The time of flight
and triangulation techniques might be used to measure the distance using ultrasonic
waves.
Figure 4.2: ?and"held ultrasonic range meter device.
4.3.2 The advantages
The hand"held ultrasonic range meter device is a portable device as shown in Figure
4.2. The hand"held ultrasonic range meter device is characteri(ed with its precision and
high accuracy. 0tmospheric conditions will not affect the capabilities of the device.
#A
4.3.3 The disadvantages
The beam of the hand"held ultrasonic range meter device consists of a large beam width
as shown in Figure 4.2 and that may cause a false detection of the obect@s distance at
the receiver side because the beam may hit a group of obects placed near each others
and the reflection of the ultrasonic wave is caused by several obects. The obect must
be flat and not an absorber and it should be normal to the direction of the ultrasonic
wave. This device could be ammed and is affected by interference.
4.4 Com+arison
0fter looking at the advantages and the disadvantages, the best solution is to use the
gun device using laser beams. The beam width of the hand"held laser range meter
device is smaller than the beam width of the hand"held ultrasonic range meter device as
shown in Figure 4.5- this enables the operator of the hand"held laser range meter device
to hit a specific obect and get less reading errors unlike other devices.
The comparison has shown that the hand"held ultrasonic range meter devices could be
better in some cases because it will not be affected by the atmospheric conditions. 0s
shown in Table 4.1, using a descending order from the best accuracy and precision of
the devices to the worst, the most accurate and precise is the hand"held laser range
meter device. The second is the hand"held ultrasonic range meter device. %epending on
our constraints, our choice was to design an ultrasonic range meter because of the
budget and availability of the components.

Table 4.1: Solutions comparison with respect to its accuracy and precision.
#5
Figure 4.3: 'eam width comparison of ultrasonic waves and laser beams.
4.5 Conclusion
,ach solution has its advantages and disadvantages depending on the situation where
the device is used- the hand"held laser range meter device is a fast growing technology
because of its efficiency and its accuracy as well as the hand"held ultrasonic range
meter device as shown in Table 4.1. In the ne&t chapter the design of the hand"held
ultrasonic range meter device will be implemented.
De6ices Ha"d7held lase
a"4e !e#e
Ha"d7held ul#as)"ic
a"4e !e#e
Accuac$ !ig% acc+*ac0 !ig% acc+*ac0
Pecisi)" !ig% p*eci&io' P*eci&e
#6
9?0<T,R 3
0ll designs are based on specific constraints. The design of the hand"held ultrasonic
range meter device is based on measuring the distance using the time of flight
technique. The process of this design is more e&plained in details in the ne&t section.
5.2 The overall system
The calculations are done by the following way. Birst of all, the device calculates the time
that the ultrasonic wave took to reach the targeted obect and come back to the receiver.
Thus, if we need to calculate the time needed for the ultrasonic wave to reach the obect
from the device, we divide the previous time we had by two. 7econd, the device
multiplies the time by the speed of sound ;+)$ m/s= to get the distance between the
device and the obect. The time from transmission of the pulse to reception of the echo is
the time taken for the sound energy to travel through the air to the obect and back
again. 7ince the speed of sound is constant through air, measuring the echo reflection
time lets you calculate the distance to the obect using this equation8
%istance C ;s * t=/4 ;in meters= ;3.#=
Dhere8 s Em/sF is the speed of sound in air and t EsF is the round trip echo time.
Tale !.1: The delay times of boundary range
R)u"d #ip ech) #i!e Dis#a"ce
t C 366 us
". c-
t C #5.A ms
3 -
.
#!
Figure !.1: General block diagram.
/%&%1 Calcula#i)" )8 #he dis#a"ce #) a" )19ec#
The hand"held Ultrasonic Range meter device offers precise ranging information from
roughly #$cm to + meters. The ranger works by transmitting a pulse of sound outside the
range of human hearing. This pulse travels at the speed of sound away from the ranger
in a cone shape and the sound reflects back to the ranger from any obect/target in the
path of this sonic wave. The ranger pauses for a brief interval after the sound is
transmitted and then awaits the reflected sound in the form of an echo. The controller
driving the ranger then requests a ping- the ranger creates the sound pulse, and waits
for the return echo. If received, the ranger reports this echo to the controller and the
controller can then compute the distance to the obect based on the elapsed time.
The <ulse Trigger Input line should be held low and then brought high for a minimum of
#$$Hsec to initiate the sonic pulse. The pulse is generated on the falling edge of this
input trigger. The ranger@s receiver circuitry is held in a short blanking interval of A$$
Hsec to avoid noise from the initial ping and then it is enabled to listen for the echo. The
echo line is low until the receive circuitry is enabled. 2nce the receive circuitry is
enabled, the falling edge of the echo line signals an echo detection or nothing if there is
no reflection.
The long"range measurement is difficult a little. To measure the correct distance, the
following conditions are necessary.
The obect must be perpendicular to the range meter.
The surface of the obect must be flat.
There is not obect which reflects the ultrasonic around.
4$
Figure !.2: Theoretical graph of the pulses and its echo"reflection pulse.
5.3 Ultrasonic system
It consists of a transmitter and receiver pair on the device and a microcontroller with a
digital display. There are two different transducers for transmitter and receiver. The
transmitter transmits and the receiver waits for the reflected signals. The Figure 5.3
illustrates this system.
4#
Figure !.3: The overall design of the ultrasonic system.
!.3.1 Ultrasonic Transmitter
The transmitter consists of an electronics circuitry and an electromechanical transducer.
The electronic circuitry generates the required frequency electrical signal and the
electromechanical transducer converts that electrical signal into the physical form and
activates the open medium surface. This oscillating physical surface creates the
ultrasonic Daves. The oscillating surface creates a pressure variation and ultimately a
pressure wave with a frequency equal to that of the surface oscillation. The Figure 5.4
shows the generation of ultrasonic waves.
Figure !.4: The transmitter circuit design.
44
The transmitter was designed to oscillate at a resonant frequency of about )$ I?(. The
333 timer generates a )$ I?( sinusoidal ultrasonic wave. The frequency is calculated by
using the following formula8
B C #.)) / 4 * R# * 9 C #.)) / 4 * #3.A IJ * #nB C )A k?(. ;3.#=
This design of the transmitter was done in way to get the closest value to )$ I?( by
adusting the resistor and the capacitor to the values shown in the Figure 5.4.
!.3.1.1 The !!! timer datasheet
The 333 monolithic timing circuits is highly stable controller capable of producing
accurate time delays, or oscillation .In the delay time of operation, the time is precisely
controlled by one e&ternal resistor and capacitor .Bor a stable operation as an oscillator,
the free running frequency and the duty cycle are both accurately controlled with two
e&ternal resistors and one capacitor. 0s shown in Figure 5.58
Figure !.!: The 333 block diagram.
4+
The Table 5.2 shows the datasheet of the 333 timer, the parameter rating and the units
characteri(ed by each component.
Tale !.28 The datasheet of the 333 timer
"#mol $arameter Rating Unit
199 7upply 1oltage .#A 1
<d
Ma&imum allowable
power dissipation
A$$ mD
T0
2perating ambient
temperature range
$ to 5$ K9
1T? ;1cc C 3v= Threshold voltage +.++ 1
1TRIG;1cc C 3v= Trigger 1oltage #.A5 1
1R,7,T Reset 1oltage $.+ to #.$ 1
.!.3.2 Ultrasonic Receiver
The receiver also has the same configuration e&cept that it has a receiver electronic
circuitry and a transducer, which converts the ultrasonic sound waves into an electrical
signal. The sound waves travel into the medium and are reflected by an obect in the
path of the waves. This reflected wave is then sensed by the receiver, which actually
calculates the time of flight of the signal to find the distance. The Figure 5.6 illustrates
the receiver circuit.
4)
Figure !.%: The receiver circuit design.
!.3.2.1 &asis of the operational amplifier
The operational amplifier is the amplifier with the very big voltage gain.
In case of T:$64 to be using this time, at the specification, the voltage gain becomes
#3$1/m1. It is the #3 1 output in $.# m1 of the input. To say becomes #3$,$$$ times of
gain. In case of the operational amplifier, the value of the voltage gain doesnLt have the
relation too much. 0nyway, the fact that the voltage gain is big is important.
!.3.2.2 The Difference 'ain amplification
There are positive input and negative input in the operational amplifier.
The voltage gain can be calculated by the following formula.
43
G C 1o/1i C ";Rf/Ri= ;3.4=
Figure !.(: The difference gain amplification.
Using the voltage divider formula8
1b C 1# * R4/;R# . R4= ;3.+=
The current passing through Ri is the same current passing through Rf because the
current entering the negative input is negligible in H0 ;in the ideal operational amplifier, it
is considered (ero= and this gives the following equation8
;1i M 1a= / Ri C ;1a M 1o= / Rf ;3.)=
1o C ;1# * R4 * ;Rf . Ri= / ;R# . R4= * Ri=M 1i * Rf / Ri ;3.3=
4A
!.3.2.3 "ignal amplification circuit
The signal amplification circuit is illustrated below in the Figure 5.8.
Figure !.): The circuit of the signal amplification.
The ultrasonic signal which was received with the reception sensor is amplified by 43$$
times ;A6d'= of voltage with the operational amplifier with two stages.
The voltage gain G is #$$ times at the first stage ;)$d'= and 43 times ;46d'= at the ne&t
stage. Generally, the positive and the negative power supply are used for the operational
amplifier. The circuit this time works with the single power supply of .3 1. Therefore, for
the positive input of the operational amplifiers, the half of the power supply voltage is
applied as the bias voltage and it is made 4.3 1 in the central voltage of the amplified
alternating current signal.
Dhen using the operational amplifier with the negative feedback, the voltage of the
positive input terminal and the voltage of the negative input terminal become equal
appro&imately. 7o, by this bias voltage, the side of the positive and the side of the
negative of the alternating current signal can be equally amplified. Dhen not using this
bias voltage, the distortion causes the alternating current signal. Dhen the alternating
45
current signal is amplified, this way is used when working the operational amplifier for
the two power supply with the single power supply.
Using the formula in 3.#8
1i is the input voltage at the ultrasonic transducer.
1o# is the output voltage of the first amplification stage.
1o4 is the output voltage of the second amplification stage.
0t minimum distance, d C #$ cm,
1i ma& C 4.3$$$) 1.
1o# C ;3 * )5I * ;#$$k . #k= / ;)5k . )5k= * #I= " 4.3$$$) * #$$k / #k C 4.)!A 1.
1o4 C ;3 * )5I * ;#$$k . +.!k= / ;)5k . )5k= * +.!I= " 4.)!A * #$$k / +.!k C 4.A 1.
0t ma&imum distance, d C + m,
1i ma& C 4.)!!! 1.
1o# C ;3 * )5I * ;#$$k . #k= / ;)5k . )5k= * #I= " 4.)!!! * #$$k / #k C 4.)A 1.
1o4 C ;3 * )5I * ;#$$k . +.!k= / ;)5k . )5k= * +.!I= " 4.)A * #$$k / +.!k C 4.3$#3A 1.
N1i C 4.3$$$) M 4.)!!! C $.$) m1.
0 slight change in 1i formed a bigger change in 1o4.
N 1o4 C N1i * Gain C $.$) * 43$$ C #$$ m1.
!.3.2.4 Data of the T*+)2 operational amplifier
0s for T:$64, the two operational amplifiers are enclosed with the one package.
46
Figure !.,: <in connections top view.
Tale !.3: The datasheet of the T:$64 operational amplifier.
"#mol "#mol -alue Unit
"uppl# -oltage
199
1,,
.#6
"#6
1
Differential .nput -oltage 1I% O+$ 1
.nput -oltage Range 1I%R O#3 1
/utput "hort 0ircuit
Duration
t79 9ontinuous
$o1er Dissipation
2$lastic $ac3age4
<%
#/6P0
A6$
#$
mD
mD/Q9
/perating 5mient
Temperature Rage
T0 $ " .5$ Q9
"torage Temperature Range Tstg "A3 " .#3$ Q9
"le1 rate 7R #A 1/Hs
4!
'ain and1idth product G'D ) M?(
The magnitude of the input voltage must not e&ceed the magnitude of the supply voltage
or #31, whichever is less. The output may be shorted to ground or either supply.
Temperature and/or supply voltages must be limited to ensure that power dissipation
ratings are not e&ceeded.
Bor the 5)# operational amplifier, G'D C # M?(, 7R C $.3 1/Hs.
Bor the T:$64 operational amplifier, G'D C ) M?(, 7R C #A 1/Hs.
1i;t= C $.$) cos ; )$$$$ * 4 * R * t= m1.
1o;t= C #$$ cos ; )$$$$ * 4 * R * t= m1.
;1o;t==S C 4 * R * )$$$$ * $.# C $.$43 1/Hs.
$.$43 1/Hs T $.3 1/Hs the 5)# operational amplifier could be used.
$.$43 1/Hs T #A 1/Hs the T:$64 operational amplifier could be used.
The T:$64 operational amplifier has a better slew rate.
Bor a #$> error in the frequency, B C )$$$$ * $.! C +A$$$ ?(.
The required gain bandwidth product for a gain C 43$$ is,
G'D C +A$$$ * 43$$ C !$ M?( U ) M?(.
The signal amplification is split into two stages because of this gain bandwidth product.
The ma&imum gain G ma& C ) M?( / +A$$$ ?( C ###.##.
The ma&imum gain is greater than the gain for the first stage #$$ and the second stage
43.
!.3.3 Detection circuit
+$
The detection is done to detect the received ultrasonic signal. It is the half"wave
rectification circuit which used the #V)#)6 diodes.

Figure !.1+: The detection circuit.
T%e DC :o/(age acco*1i'g (o (%e /e:e/ o4 (%e 1e(ec(io' &ig'a/ i& go((e' <0 (%e capaci(o*
<e%i'1 (%e 1io1e. T%e "N4"4, 1io1e i& +&e1 <eca+&e i( i& a 4a&( &=i(c%i'g 1io1e.
+#
5.5 Power supply and battery
The Ultrasonic transmitter and receiver require four connections to operate. Birst there
are the power and ground lines. The Ultrasonic transmitter and receiver require a 31
power supply capable of handling roughly 3$m0 of continuous output. The remaining
two wires are the signal wires, one to enable or disable the transmitter and the other to
get the returned echo. The microcontroller needs also a 31 to operate. This 31 power
supply is got using a regulator. The user can use a #41 %9 power supply or a !1 battery
to operate this device illustrated in Figure 5.13.
Figure !.13: The power supply circuit.
5.6 Ultrasonic sensors
0 market survey has been done to select the best available ultrasonic pro&imity sensor
available at that time. The following are some of the sensors that have been considered
for the development of this system.
Tale !.!: The Ultrasonic sensor specifications.
Transducer Range 'eam
angle
Measurement
speed
Brequency 7ensitivity
7W")$T/R #$ cm " + m +$K 4$ ms )$ Ih( high
+4
7ens9omp
A$$
#3 cm M#$.5 m #3K 4$$ ms 3$ Ih( good
The ultrasonic transducers are optimi(ed for 43 k?(, +4 k?(, )$ k?( or wide bandwidth
transducers. This proect uses a )$ k?( transducer but it will still work with the others if
the appropriate changes to the software are being made. The receiver and generator
circuits will work as they are. The )$ k?( signal is easily generated by the
microcontroller but detection requires a sensitive amplifier and a peak detector.
Transducers are devices that convert electrical energy to mechanical energy, or vice
versa. The transducer converts received echoes into analog electrical signals that are
output from the transducer. Ultrasonic transducers operate to radiate ultrasonic waves
through a medium such as air. Transducers generally create ultrasonic vibrations
through the use of pie(oelectric materials such as certain forms of crystals or ceramic
polymers. The overall capacitance of a transducer is dependent upon the area and the
thickness of the pie(o material.
#/(*a&o'ic (*a'&1+ce*& a*e a:ai/a</e i' :a*io+& (ec%'ica/ 4o*-&. #/(*a&o'ic (*a'&1+ce*& a*e
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<eca+&e o4 (%ei* *o<+&('e&&. T%e0 <a&ica//0 i'c/+1e a pieKoce*a-ic 1e:ice a& a' e/e-e'(
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p/+*a/i(0 o4 e/e-e'(& <ei'g a**a'ge1 (o 4o*- a (*a'&1+ce*. PieKoce*a-ic +/(*a&o'ic
(*a'&1+ce*& a*e (%e (*a'&1+ce*& o4 c%oice 4o* *+gge19 i'1+&(*ia/ app/ica(io'& <eca+&e (%e0
a*e e44icie'( a'1 e':i*o'-e'(a//0 *o<+&(. T%e&e &e'&o*& %a:e <ee' +&e1 i' i'1+&(*0 4o*
'+-e*o+& app/ica(io'&J %o=e:e* %a:e 'o( <ee' capa</e o4 &%o*( *a'ge o<Iec( 1e(ec(io'
+'(i/ *ece'(/0. A -ic*o@-ac%i'e1 +/(*a&o'ic (*a'&1+ce* BM#TC i& 4o*-e1 +&i'g ;'o='
&e-ico'1+c(o* -a'+4ac(+*i'g (ec%'iH+e& *e&+/(i'g i' a capaci(i:e +/(*a&o'ic (*a'&1+ce*
ce// (%a( co-p*i&e& a 4/e8i</e -e-<*a'e &+ppo*(e1 a*o+'1 i(& e1ge& o:e* a &i/ico'
&+<&(*a(e. T%e -e-<*a'e i& &+ppo*(e1 <0 (%e &+<&(*a(e a'1 4o*-& a ca:i(0. T%e M#T -a0
<e e/ec(*ica//0 e'e*giKe1 (o p*o1+ce a' app*op*ia(e +/(*a&o'ic =a:e. Si-i/a*/09 =%e'
++
e/ec(*ica//0 <ia&e19 (%e -e-<*a'e o4 (%e M#T -a0 <e +&e1 (o *ecei:e +/(*a&o'ic &ig'a/&
<0 cap(+*i'g *e4/ec(e1 +/(*a&o'ic e'e*g0 a'1 (*a'&4o*-i'g (%a( e'e*g0 i'(o -o:e-e'( o4
(%e e/ec(*ica//0 <ia&e1 -e-<*a'e9 =%ic% (%e' ge'e*a(e& a *ecei:e &ig'a/. Capaci(i:e
-ic*o@-ac%i'e1 +/(*a&o'ic (*a'&1+ce*& BcM#T&C a*e (i'0 1iap%*ag-@/i;e 1e:ice& =i(%
e/ec(*o1e& (%a( co':e*( (%e &o+'1 :i<*a(io' o4 a *ecei:e1 +/(*a&o+'1 &ig'a/ i'(o a
-o1+/a(e1 capaci(a'ce. Fo* (*a'&-i&&io' (%e capaci(i:e c%a*ge i& -o1+/a(e1 (o :i<*a(e (%e
1iap%*ag- o4 (%e 1e:ice a'1 (%e*e<0 (*a'&-i( a &o+'1 =a:e. I' ge'e*a/9 +/(*a&o'ic
(*a'&1+ce*& a*e co'&(*+c(e1 <0 i'co*po*a(i'g o'e o* -o*e pieKoe/ec(*ic :i<*a(o*& =%ic%
a*e e/ec(*ica//0 co''ec(e1 (o p+/&i'g@*ecei:i'g &0&(e-. M3N
!.%.1 6lectrostatic Ultrasonic "ensors
,lectrostatic ultrasonic sensors operate similar to an electrical capacitor. These sensors
usually are composed of a fi&ed conductive plate and a free metallic surface coated with
a layer of insulation that separates the two plates.
Dhen an electric potential is placed across the fi&ed conductive plate, the free metallic
surface is pulled against the fi&ed plate. Dhen an oscillating electrical potential is applied
to the fi&ed plate, the free plate oscillates at a similar frequency thereby creating
acoustic pressure waves. Dhen receiving an ultrasonic signal, the ,lectrostatic
ultrasonic sensors produce a varying capacitance created by the pressure waves hitting
the free metallic surface.
!.%.2 $ie7oelectric Ultrasonic "ensors
<ie(oelectric ultrasonic 7ensors are composed of a <ie(o material and an acoustic
surface. The <ie(o material can either be a crystal or ceramic. The <ie(o material is
attached to the acoustic surface such that any physical changes in the geometry of the
material will affect the acoustic surface.
Dhen an electrical potential is placed across the <ie(o material, the geometry changes
thereby disturbing the acoustic surface.
+)
Dhen an oscillating electrical potential is placed across the <ie(o material, the acoustic
surface generates an acoustic signal. Dhen receiving an ultrasonic signal, the ultrasonic
waves strike the acoustic surface thereby compressing the <ie(o material.
The <ie(o material emits electrons when compressed thereby creating an electrical
signal.
<ie(oelectric materials vibrate in response to alternating voltages of certain frequencies
applied across the material. <ie(oelectric elements are similar to common analog
capacitors in that pie(o elements generally include two electrodes separated by a
pie(oelectric material that functions as a dielectric, shown in Figure 5.14 and the
sensitivity with respect to frequency is described in Figure5.15.E+F
Figure !.14: The 7W")$T/R ultrasonic transducer.
+3
Figure !.1!: The sensitivity of the 7W")$T/R with respect to the frequency.
5.7 The schematic of the ultrasonic range meter design:
T%e 4+'c(io'a/i(0 o4 (%i& &0&(e- ca' <e 1i:i1e1 i'(o (%*ee -ai' pa*(& a& &%o=' i' Figure
.!"J (%e (*a'&-i((e*9 (%e *ecei:e*9 (%e -ic*oco'(*o//e* a'1 (%e 1igi(a/ 1i&p/a0.
The transmitter, enabled via the microcontroller, is designed to activate a 333 oscillator
with a frequency of )$ I?(. The width of the pulse is $.# ms, every )$ ms a pulse is
transmitted.
2ne of the most important and sophisticated part of the device is the receiver.
The receiver consists of a signal amplification stage and peak detection stage.
The signal is amplified by a gain of 43$$ in order to reduce the noise effect.
+A
In order to reduce the cost of the power supply of the device, the ./" 1cc was avoided
and $"3 1 power supply was used in the design of the signal amplification stage.
The peak detection is used to transform the signal into a pulse.

The microcontroller controls all the parts in the device and performs all the arithmetic
calculations of the distance and displays it on the 5"segment digital display. This process
of distance calculation is continuously repeated as long as the device is turned on.
The laser pointer on the device is used to pinpoint the target in order to get less error
caused by the malfunction use of the device.
The program used in the <9' design is ,&press<9' which is a professional program.
The design of the <9' is splitted into two <9' circuits as shown in Figures 5.28, 5.29-
one for the transmitter and receiver and the other for the microcontroller with transistors
used to enable the 5"segment display.
Figure !.1%: The overall schematic of the Ultrasonic range meter.
+5
Figure !.1(: The printed circuit board diagram of the microcontroller.
6.1 actors affecting the performance of Ultrasonic sensors
<osition/distance measurement using ultrasonic sensors is based on the principle of
measuring the time of flight of the ultrasonic waves in a particular medium. There are
number of factors which affect the accuracy of measurement and therefore should be
+6
taken into consideration while designing the ultrasonic sensing system. The following are
some of the factors.
%.1.1 Radiation pattern:
0ll ultrasonic sensors have their specific radiation pattern associated with it.
This acoustic radiation pattern is a function of spatial angle called beam angle. 'eam
angle, J Ois defined as the total angle between the points at which the sound power
reduces to half its peak value, commonly known as + d' points.
The spot diameter of the beam can be formulated as.
% C 4R tan ;$.3 JO= ;3.A=
Dhere, % C spot diameter in centimeters.
R C target range in centimeters.
J C beam angle in degrees.
0t minimum range, R C #$ cm and J C +$K.
% C 4 * #$ * tan ;#3K= C 3.+36 cm.
0t ma&imum range, R C +$$ cm and J C +$K.
% C 4 * +$$ * tan ;#3K= C #A$.5A! cm.
Radiation pattern consists of a main lobe and side lobes. Radiation power is dominant
mainly in the front region of the sensor, so as to say that the main lobe is directly in front
of the sensor, followed by side lobes sidewise with null region in between these lobes.
Radiation pattern is mainly determined by factors such as the frequency of operation and
the si(e, shape and acoustic phase characteristics of the vibrating surface. The beam
pattern of the transducer is independent of its nature as a transmitter or receiver.
+!
In most of the application, side lobes are suppressed and narrow beams are used. This
suppression is achieved by the processing system and so, the radiation pattern of the
transducer may not be same as the radiation pattern of the whole ultrasonic sensing
system. The narrowness of the beam pattern is a function of the diameter of the
radiating surface to the wavelength of the sound at the operating frequency. 0s the %/X
Oratio increases, beam narrows out whereas as %/X ratio decreases, beam broadens. Bor
most of the application narrow beam is desired and therefore %/X Oratio should be more.
The following Figures 6.1, 6.2 show the radiation pattern, its main lobe and side lobes
with the relative attenuation.
Figure %.1: Geometric appro&imation of the ultrasonic beam width.
)$
Figure %.2: 'eam pattern with respect to amplitude.
%.1.2 Fre8uenc#9 1avelength and attenuation:
The frequency of the ultrasonic sensing system is determined by the resonant frequency
of the ultrasonic transducer. The selection of this transducer is made considering
number of factors such as transducer si(e, measurement resolution, measurement
range, background noise and attenuation. The wavelength of the ultrasonic wave can be
found out with the following formula,
X OC 9/f ;A.#=
Dhere X Ois the wavelength, 9 is the velocity of sound equal to +)$ m/s at 4$K 9 and f is
the frequency equal to )$ I?(.
9, velocity of sound varies with variation in temperature, pressure, medium type,
humidity, air turbulence, conventional currents. 7o before calculating the wavelength, the
speed of sound is required to be calculated.
X C +)$/)$ C 6.3 mm.
%.2 6nvironmental factors:
The attenuation of sound power depends on the speed of sound, which depends on
many environmental factors like temperature, medium, pressure, humidity, acoustic
interference, radio frequency interference.
%.2.1 Temperature
The velocity of sound in a medium varies with temperature. 7o, the time taken by the
sound to echo back to the receiver will vary and since this time of flight is proportional to
the measured distance. The measured distance will vary with the variation in
temperature. Thus the variation in temperature introduces errors in the measurement.
)#
The sound wave propagation speed in the air depends on the temperature. 7o, to
measure the distance more correctly, it is necessary to revise according to the
temperature. The sound wave propagation speed can be calculated using one of the two
formulas.
1 C ++#.3 . $.A * T E m/sec F ;A.4=
T 8 The temperature ;Q9=
Tale %.1: The speed of sound at each temperature.
Temperature 2:04 in air "peed of sound 2m;sec4
"#$ +43.3
$ ++#.3
#$ ++5.3
4$ +)+.3
+$ +)!.3
)$ +33.3
3$ +A#.3

)4
300
310
320
330
340
350
360
370
-10 0 10 20 30 40 50
Temperature !"
#
p
e
e
d

o
f

s
o
u
n
d

m
$
s
Figure %.3: Graph of speed with respect to temperature
In this proect, the speed of sound used in this program is +)$ m/s because this speed is
relative to the temperature 4$ K9 which is an average value. 0 temperature sensor could
be added to this proect with a small manipulation to the program, in order to use the
right speed value. In this way, this device would be used in all atmospheric conditions.
E)F
%.2.2 $ressure and humidit#
0s the pressure reduces, the density of particle in the medium decreases thus providing
less and less resistance to the traveling wave. 0lthough slightly pressure effects the
velocity of sound wave, humidity which is defined as the moisture content in the medium
basically has a very little effect on the velocity of sound but it actually effect the radiating
surface. The acoustic pressure p must satisfy the three"dimensional wave equation.
;A.+=
%.2.3 Medium
)+
1elocity of sound depends on the kind of medium the sound travels. 7ound speed varies
with different medium. The Table 6.2 summari(es some of the medium with the sound
velocity in it.
Tale %.2: The ultrasonic wave speed through different mediums
Medium "peed9 m;s at 1+:0
0ir ++#.3
0mmonia )#).6
0rgon +$#.!
9arbon %io&ide 435.6 ;low frequency=
9arbon %isulfide #6).5
9arbon Mono&ide ++5.#
9hlorine 4$3.)
,thylene +#+.!
?elium !A!.6
?ydrogen #4A!.)
Illuminating Gas )!$.)
Methane )+#.!
Veon )+).!
Vitric 2&ide +4).!
Vitrogen ++).$A
Vitrous 2&ide 4A#.6
2&ygen +#5.4
.
%.2.4 5coustic .nterference
))
If the environment contains number of obects that generates background noise and if
this background noise falls in the sensitive frequency of the receiver of the ultrasonic
sensing system, it will result in erroneous measurement.
This error is more pronounced when the amplitude/power of the background noise is
more then the echo itself resulting in very low 7VR ;signal to noise ratio=, which is
undesirable. Typically, the background noise is less at higher frequency and so narrow
beam angles works best in an area where background noise is high.
%.2.! Radio Fre8uenc# .nterference
Radio frequency signal present in the environment also affects the ultrasonic sensing
system.
%.3 Target 0onsideration
The principle of ultrasonic sensing is based on transmission of sound wave followed by
the reflection of the echo. These echoes are summed up at the receiver. The return echo
is a function of target distance, geometry, surface, si(e, composition, orientation of
obect/sensor etc.
%.3.1 0omposition
7ome of the obects are good reflector and some are good absorber. 7o the amount of
echo returned back depends on the kind of material the obect is composed of. This
finally effects the measurement as it varies from obect to obect for the same fi&
distance of the target from the sensor. The obect must not be composed of soft surfaces
that absorb most of the sound energy.
%.3.2 "i7e and shape
)3
7i(e and shape affects the amount of echo reflected back to the receiver. Bor e&ample,
for large planner obect ;obect si(e UU beam si(e= almost all the ultrasonic wave will be
reflected back to the receiver. Dhereas in case where the obect is very small as
compared to the beam si(e, then part of the ultrasonic sound wave will be reflected to
the receiver and the rest will be lost. The shape determines the angle at which the
ultrasonic wave will be reflected. 9ommon to all ultrasonic ranging systems is the
problem of ultrasonic reflection. Dith light waves, our eye can see obects because the
incident light energy is scattered by most obects, which means that some energy will
reach our eye, despite the angle of the obect to us or to the light source. This scattering
occurs because the roughness of an obectLs surface is large compared to the
wavelength of light 33$ nm. 2nly with very smooth surfaces such as a mirror does the
reflectivity become highly directional for light rays. Ultrasonic energy has wavelengths
much larger A.+3 mm in comparison. Therefore, ultrasonic waves find almost all large
flat surfaces reflective in nature. The amount of energy returned is strongly dependent
on the incident angle of the sound energy.
Figure 6.4 shows a case where a large obect is not detected because the energy is
reflected away from the receiver.
Figure %.4: Undetected large obect due to reflection.
)A
%.3.3 $osition and /rientation
If the si(e of obect is small as compared to the beam si(e, then the measurement
depends on the position of the obect in the beam region. Dhen obect is on the main
lobe a&is, the reflected echo reaching to the receiver will be very strong and if it is out of
a&is, the reflected echo will be weak.
0lthough the basic range formula is accurate, there are several factors when considering
the accuracy of the result. 7ince the speed of sound relies on the temperature, a #$V
temperature difference may cause the range to be in error by #>.
Geometry also affects range in two maor ways. The range equation assumes that the
sonar beam width is negligible. 0n obect may be off center, but normal to the
transmitted beam. The range computed will be correct, but the Y"component may be in
error. Using the formula8 Y C R * sin f ;A.)=
0t a range of ! meters and a beam width of +$V, the Y component would be 4.++ meters
off center. Figure 6.5 illustrates this.
)5
Figure %.!: 2bect offset due to ultrasonic beam width.
0nother geometric effect is shown in Figure 6.6. Dhen the obect is at an angle to the
receiver, the range computed will be to the closest point on the obect, not the range
from the center line of the beam. This is called cosine error.
Figure %.%: Range error due to angle between obect and sonar.
.4 ,o-er o' the detected signal
De need to calculate the power of the detected laser beam in order to detect the
reflection at the receiver in a ma&imum distance range. <ower of the detected signal is
calculated by the following way8
<det C <ult * Z * [ * 7 / ;) * \ * R]= ;A.3=
<ult is the power of the emitted ultrasonic wave.
7 is the obect target area that reflected the echo.
R is the distance between the device and the target.
Z is the target response to the ultrasonic wave.
)6
[ is the geometric form"factor for propagation of the ultrasonic wave and the response
signal through the ambient media ;air, water ^=.
6.5 %oise
The output of the sensor involves noise, which is primarily introduced because of the
uncertainty of the echo which might comes back from the false obect/target. 0lso the
attenuation of the sonic burst depends on the position of the obect/target in the lobe
region.
. .rrors
In general it is desired to develop the worst case analysis to permit the design of the
hand"held ultrasonic range meter device capable of operation under all conditions with a
minimum error ;ma&imum acceptable error is ./" + cm=. The errors associated with both
calculations and measurements can be characteri(ed with regard to their accuracy and
precision as shown in Figure 6.7. 0ccuracy refers to how closely a computed or
measured value agrees with the true value. <recision refers to how closely individual
computed or measured values agree with each other.
)!
Figure %.(: ;a= The samples are inaccurate and imprecise. ;b= The samples
are accurate and imprecise. ;c= The samples are inaccurate and
precise. ;d= The samples should be accurate and precise in order
to get the acceptable error.
%.%.1 Truncation errors
The truncation errors are those that result from using an appro&imation in place of an
e&act mathematical procedure.
Bor a distance that is being measured, the hand"held ultrasonic range meter device
showed a distance R but the real distance was R ./" + cm. This means that the error is
at its ma&imum.
0t a minimum distance range, with the distance equal to #$ cm.
T# is the real time of the real distance for the echo to propagate, get reflected by the
targeted obect then get back to the receiver.
3$
T# C ;$.# m * 4= / +)$ m/s C 366 Hs.
T4 is the time captured by the microcontroller for the echo to propagate, get reflected by
the targeted obect then get back to the receiver.
T4 C ;$.#4 m * 4=/ +)$ m/s C 5$3 Hs.
Truncation error C ;;T4 M T#=/T4= * #$$ C #A.A >. ;A.A=
0t a ma&imum distance range, with the distance equal to +$$ cm.
T# is the real time of the real distance for the echo to propagate, get reflected by the
targeted obect then get back to the receiver.
T# C ;+ m * 4= / +)$ m/s C #5.A ms.
T4 is the time captured by the microcontroller for the echo to propagate, get reflected by
the targeted obect then get back to the receiver.
T4 C ;+.$5 m * 4=/ +)$ m/s C #6.$3 ms.
Truncation error C ;;T4 M T#=/T4= * #$$ C 4.3) >. ;A.5=
%.%.2 0osine error
The effect attributable to cosine error occurs with ultrasonic when the position of this
ultrasonic range meter device is not in true alignment with the target. 7ince the distance
to be determined is relative to the position of the obect with respect to the position of the
device, any deviation from true alignment results in an increase in the distance
displayed.
3#

CHAPTER &
CONSTRUCTION AND :OR;IN<
&%1 CONSTRUCTION
A&&e-</e (%e ci*c+i( o' a PCB. A' ac(+a/@&iKe9 &i'g/e@&i1e PCB /a0o+( 4o* &pee1 c%ec;e*
i& &%o=' i' 4ig. a'1 i(& co-po'e'( i' o(%e* o'e. Be4o*e ope*a(io' +&i'g a -+/(i -e(e*
c%ec; =%e(%e* (%e po=e* &+pp/0 o+(p+( i& co**ec(. I4 0e&9 app/0 po=e* &+pp/0 (o (%e
ci*c+i( <0 4/ippi'g &=i(c% S3 (o ?o'P. I' (%e ci*c+i( +&e /o'g =i*e& 4o* co''ec(i'g (%e (=o
LDR&9 &o (%a( 0o+ ca' (a;e (%e- o+( o4 (%e PCB a'1 i'&(a// o' o'e &i1e o4 (%e %ig%=a09
"..-e(*e& apa*(.
I'&(a// (%e (=o /a&e* (*a'&-i((e*& B&+c% a& /a&e* (o*c%e&C o' (%e o(%e* &i1e o4 (%e %ig%=a0
e8ac(/0 oppo&i(e (o (%e +/(*a&o'ic . Re&e( (%e ci*c+i( <0 p*e&&i'g &=i(c% S29 &o (%e 1i&p/a0
&%o=& ?.....P #&i'g &=i(c% S"9 &e/ec( (%e &pee1 /i-i( B&a09 $. ;-p%C 4o* (%e %ig%=a0.
W%e' a'0 :e%ic/e c*o&&e& (%e 4i*&( /a&e*9 +/(*a&o'ic =i// (*igge* IC. T%e o+(p+( o4 IC goe&
%ig% 4o* (%e (i-e &e( (o c*o&& ".. -e(e*& =i(% (%e &e/ec(e1 &pee1 B$. ;-p%C a'1 LED"
g/o=& 1+*i'g (%i& pe*io1. W%e' (%e :e%ic/e c*o&&e& (%e &eco'1 /a&e* /ig%(9 (%e o+(p+( o4
34
IC2 goe& %ig% a'1 Le12 g/o=& 4o* (%i& pe*io1. B+KKe* &o+'1& a' a/a*- i4 (%e :e%ic/e
c*o&&e& (%e 1i&(a'ce <e(=ee' (%e /a&e*& &e( +p& a( -o*e (%a' (%e &e/ec(e1 &pee1 B/e&&e*
pe*io1 (%a' p*e&e( pe*io1C. T%e co+'(e* &(a*(& co+'(i'g =%e' (%e 4i*&( /a&e* <ea- i&
i'(e*cep(e1 a'1 &(op& =%e' (%e &eco'1 /a&e* <ea- i& i'(e*cep(e1.
T%e (i-e (a;e' <0 (%e :e%ic/e (o c*o&& <o(% (%e /a&e* <ea-& i& 1i&p/a0e1 o' (%e LCD
1i&p/a0. Fo* 4.;-p% &pee1 &e((i'g9 =i(% (i-e* 4*eH+e'c0 &e( a( "..!K9 i4 1i&p/a0 co+'( i&
/e&& (%a' ?$..9P i( -ea'& (%a( (%e :e%ic/e %a& c*o&&e1 (%e &pee1 /i-i( Ba'1 &i-+/(a'eo+&/0
(%e <+KKe* &o+'1&C. Re&e( (%e ci*c+i( 4o* -o'i(o*i'g (%e &pee1 :e%ic/e.
&%& PCB LAYOUT
3+
&%' PCB DESI<NIN<
P*i'(e1 ci*c+i( <oa*1 i& a piece o4 a*(. T%e pe*4o*-a'ce o4 a' e/ec(*o'ic& ci*c+i( 1epe'1&
+po' /a0o+( a'1 1e&ig' o4 PCB. 3a*io+& &(ep& i' 1e&ig' o4 PCB a*e e8p/ai'e1.
3)
T%e ge'e*a/ co'&i1e*a(io' =%i/e a*(=o*; i& 1i&c+&&e1 <e/o=A
PCB i& +&e1 (o *o+( e/ec(*ica/ c+**e'( Q &ig'a/ (%*o+g% coppe* (*ac;9 =%ic% a*e 4i*-/0
<o+'1e1 (o a' i'&+/a(i'g <a&e. T%e -a(e*ia/ +&e1 4o* PCB i& pape* p%e'o/ic =%ic% i& /e&&
co&(/0 Q +&e1 i' co'&+-e* e/ec(*o'ic& ci*c+i(&. Pape* p%e'o/ic i& -o*e *e&i&(a'( (o
-oi&(+*e <+( 1i44ic+/( (o -ac%i'e1 1*i// a& g/a&& epo80.
Rules 8) La$)u#
PCB i'(e*co''ec(& :a*io+& e/ec(*o'ic co-po'e'(& <0 a' i'(e*co''ec(io'. T%e ge'e*a/
co'&i1e*a(io'& a*eA
". Mec%a'ica/ co'&i1e*a(io'&9 &iKe &%ape9 -o+'(i'g PCB e(c.
2. #&e* &0&(e- co'&i1e*a(io'& =%e(%e* 4o* co'&+-e* o* /a<o*a(o*0 o* i'1+&(*0.
3. E/ec(*ica/ Q e/ec(*o'ic pa*a-e(e*& &+c% a& i-pe1a'ce9 gai'9 e/ec(*o-ag'e(ic
co+p/i'g e(c.
4. Ea&e o4 -ai'(e'a'ce.
Desi4"i"4
No=@a@1a0& PCB %a& <eco-e a' i-po*(a'( 4ac(o* 1+*i'g 1e&ig'i'g :a*io+& ci*c+i(&.
A1:a'(age& o4 PCB o:e* 'o*-a/ =i*i'gA
". PCB i& 'ece&&a*0 4o* i'(e*co''ec(i'g a /a*ge 'o. O4 co-po'e'( i' :e*0 &-a// a*ea
=i(% -i'i-+- pa*a&i(ic =i*i'g e44ec(.
2. PCB i& &+i(a</e 4o* (%e -a&& p*o1+c(io' =i(% /e&& c%a'ce o4 =i*i'g e44ec(.
3. Wi*i'g i& a:oi1e1.
4. Se*:ici'g i& ea&ie*.
. B0 +&i'g PCB9 e/ec(*o'ic eH+ip-e'( <eco-e& -o*e *e/ia</e9 &-a// i' &iKe Q /e&&
co&(/0.
$. S-a// co-po'e'( a*e ea&i/0 -o+'(e1 o' PCB.
). Co'&(*+c(io' i& 'ea(9 &-a// Q (*+/0 a =o*; o4 a*(.

33

&%'%1 P)duc#i)" )8 PCB !a"uall$
To p*epa*e (%e PCB -a'+a//0 4o//o=i'g p*oce1+*e i& accep(e1A
". Mea&+*e (%e 1i-e'&io' o4 co-po'e'(& &+c% a& *e&i&(o*9 capaci(o* o* 1io1e&.
2. Mea&+*e (%e p*ope* &pace <e(=ee' (e*-i'a/& o4 ac(i:e co-po'e'(& &+c% a&
(*a'&i&(o*9 ICP& e(c.
3. Deci1e %ig% 1e'&i(0 o* /o=@1e'&i(0 ci*c+i(. #&e :e*(ica/ -o+'(i'g =%e*e:e*
po&&i</e.
Mea&+*e (%e 1i-e'&io' o4 co-po'e'(& a'1 &paci'g <e(=ee' (e*-i'a/& o4 ICP&. D*a= (%e
/a0o+( a& i' a*(=o*; +&i'g (*ace pape* Q ca*<o' pape*. D*a= (%e i-age o4 4ig+*e.
T%e' ca;e %o/e& i'(o PCB <0 +&i'g 1*i// -ac%i'e& Ba4(e* e(c%i'g i& 1o'eC. A:oi1 1*i//i'g
<e4o*e e(c%i'g.
A4(e* 1*0i'g pe' i';9 ;eep PCB i' FeC/3 &o/+(io' Q a11 &o-e !CI 4o* 4a&(e* e(c%i'g.
A4(e* 1*i//i'g (%e PCB9 1*a= /a0o+( +&i'g e(c%i'g pe' o4 goo1 H+a/i(0 Q /ea:e i( 1*0i'g.
D+*i'g e(c%i'g +'=a'(e1 coppe* i& 1i&&o/:e1 FeC/3 &o/+(io' Q =a'(e1 coppe* (*ac;& a*e
&a:e1 <e/o= i';.
P)cedue
T%e p*oce1+*e o4 -a;i'g o4 PCB co'&i&(& o4 4o//o=i'g &(ep&A
BIC D*a=i'g o4 (%e /a0 o+(.
BIIC P*i'(i'g o4 PCB
BIIIC E(c%i'g o4 PCB
Da,i"4 )8 #he la$)u#
Wi(% (%e ci*c+i( 1iag*a- a'1 (%e e'(i*e co-po'e'( a( %a'19 =e 1*a= a co-p/e(e /a0 o+(
p/a' o' a g*ap% pape*. We &%o+/1 ca*e *ega*1i'g /oca(io' &%ape +(i/iKa(io' a'1 =e ;eep
(%e /i'e o' (%e o(%e* &i1e a& 4o* a& po&&i</e9 =e (*ace (%e co-p/e(e /a0o+( o' a (*ace pape*.
Pi"#i"4 )8 PCB
3A
We c+( (%e *e4e**e1 &iKe o4 PCB +&i'g %a=; &a= a'1 4i/e. No= =e p+( ca*<o' pape* o' i(.
Si'ce (%e (*aci'g pape* (*a'&pa*e'( =e ca' 'o= *ep*o1+ce ca*<o' pai'( o:e* (%e ca*<o'
&+*4ace <0 +&i'g <a// pe' o:e* i(.
E#chi"4 )8 PCB
E(c%i'g i& a p*oce&& o4 a((ac;i'g Q *e-o:i'g (%e +'p*o(ec(e1 Q +'=a'(e1 coppe* 4*o-
PCB (o 0ie/1 1e&i*e1 co'1+c(o* pa((e*'. T%e -o&( co--o' e(c%a'( +&e1 i' i'1+&(*0 i&
4e**ic c%/o*i1e. T%eo*e(ica//0 a'0 o'e o4 4o//o=i'g &o/+(io' ca' +&e1 (o e(c% (%e <oa*1A
". A--o'i+- pe*&+/p%a(e.
2. C+p*ic aci1
3. C+p*ic c%/o*i1e
4. Fe**ic c%/o*i1e
Me(%o1 o4 e(c%i'g i'c/+1e& (*a0 *oc;i'g9 (a'; e(c%i'g Q &p*a0 e(c%i'g. O+( o4 (%e&e9 (*a0
*oc;i'g i& &i-p/e&( o'e. T%e&e co'&i&( o4 a (*a0 o4 P0*e8 g/a&& a((ac%e1 (o a po=e*@
*oc;i'g (a</e9 i4 po=e*@*oc;i'g (a</e i& 'o( a:ai/a</e9 *oc;i'g o4 (*a0 =i(% e(c%i'g
&o/+(io' ca' <e 1o'e -a'+a//0 a/&o.
Fe**ic c%/o*i1e c*0&(a/& o4 .. g-. a*e -i8e1 i' =a(e* (o -a;e a (o(a/ &o/+(io' o4 " /i(e*
C+p*ic Q 4e**ic io'& p*ecipi(a(e o+( o4 &o/+(io' (%e *oo- o4 &/+1ge (%a( (e'1& (o &e((/e a(
<o((o- o4 e(c%i'g <a(%. I1ea/ e(c% co'1i(io' *eH+i*e& (%a( e(c%a'( <e %ea(e1 (o a
(e-pe*a(+*e <e(=ee' $.@). 1eg*ee&.
T%e PCB i& i--e*&e1 i' e(c%a'( &o/+(io' =i1(% coppe* &i1e +p i' (%e (*a0. O'/0 o'e
<oa*1 &%o+/1 <e e(c%e1 a( a (i-e9 a& (%e (a</e i& *oc;e1 (%e +'p*o(ec(e1 coppe* 1i&&o/:e&.
W%e' e(c%i'g i& co-p/e(e1 (%e <oa*1 i& *i'&e1 +'1e* =a(e* Q(%e' a//o=e1 (o 1*0. #&i'g
/acH+e* (%i''e* o* ace(ic aci1 o* pe(*o/ *e-o:e& (%e *e&i&( -a(e*ia/. A4(e* (%e *e&i&( %a&
<ee' *e-o:e19 c/ea' (%e coppe*. A4(e* (%e <oa*1 i& i'&pec(e1 Q i'&pec(e1 Q app*o:e19 i(
i& *ea10 4o* =%o/e 1*i//i'g9 co-po'e'( -o+'(i'g (%e' 4o* &o/1e*i'g.
35
S)ldei"4 Tech"i=ue
S)ldei"4
So/1e*i'g i& a p*oce&& 4o* (%e Ioi'(i'g -e(a/ pa*(& =i(% (%e a11i(io' o4 &o/1e* =%e*e (%e
-e/(i'g (e-pe*a(+*e i& &o/:a(e1 <e/o= (%a( o4 -a(e*ia/ Ioi'e1.
Selec#i)" )8 P)pe S)ldei"4 I)"
T%e*e &%o+/1 <e a p*ope* &o/1e*i'g i*o' 4o* eac% (0pe o4 Io<9 a& =e ;'o= (%a( -e(a/ i& a
:e*0 goo1 co'1+c(o* o4 'ea( (%e*e4o*e =%e' &o/1e*i'g o' a -e(a/9 c%a&&i& o4 %ea:0 i*o' i&
+&e1.
B+( i( =i// 'o( p*ac(ica/ (o +&e &+c% (0pe o4 i*o' o' a PCB +&e1 i' p*oIec( <eca+&e %ea(
1i&&ipa(io' o' (%e o(%e* &i1e co+/1 1a-age a PCB a /o= =a((age& B3=CP &o/1e*i'g i*o' i&
+&e1 4o* (%i& p+*po&e.
Selec#i)" )8 s)lde
Se/ec(io' o4 p*ope* &o/1e* =i*e 4o* (%e Io< i& (%e -aIo* co'&i1e*a(io' i' (%e -a;i'g o4
goo1 &o/1e*i'g co''ec(io'& i( &%o+/1 <e o4 /o= -e/(i'g (e-pe*a(+*e -e(a/ co'&i&(i'g
<a&ica//0 o4 4i' a'1 /oa1 =i(% :a*0i'g a-o+'( o4 o(%e* -e(a/ &+c% a& a a'(i-o'0 a'1
ca1-i+- (o gi:e a//o0& :a*io+& p%0&ica/ p+*po&e i' (%e p*oce&& o4 Ioi'i'g o4 (=o -e(a/
(oge(%e* (%e &o/1e* 1e(ac% a &-a// a-o+'( o4 &+*4ace o4 eac% a( (e-pe*a(+*e <e/o= (%e*e
-e/(i'g poi'( (%e ac(io' o4 -e/(i'g &o/1e* o' -e(a/ i& &i-i/a* (o (%e ac(io' o4 =a(e* o' &a/(
ge'e*a//0 (%e co-po&i(io' +&e1 4*o (%e &o/1e* i' $.R (i' a'1 4.R /ea1.
Flu>
T%e app/ica(io' o4 a p*ope* 4/+8 i& a 'ece&&a*0 /i'; i' (%e &o/1e*i'g c%ai' (%e -e(a/ =e
co--o'/0 +&e1 i' e/ec(*o'ic& i& +&+a//0 co':e*(e1 =i(% a 4i'e 'o'@-e(a//ic 4i/- ca//e1
6o8i1e7. T%e -aIo* 4+'c(io' o4 (%e 4/+8 i& (o 1ea/ =i(% (%e -e(a/ o8i1e.
S)ldei"4 Tech"i=ue
36
". P*ope* i*o' &%o+/1 <e &e/ec(e1 o* a &pecia/ Io<. A &i1e (ippe19 %ig% :o/(age i&
'ece&&a*0 =%e' &o/1e*i'g o' a -e(a/ c%a&&i& pe'. Fo* PCB *epai*i'g a /o=
=a((age pe'ci/ i*o' &%o+/1 <e *eco--e'1e1 (ip o4 =%ic% &%o+/1 <e 'a**o=.
2. T%e i*o' (ip &%o+/1 <e ;ep( c/ea'9 =%e' i*o' i& +&e1 co'(i'+o+&/0. I( i& e8po&e1 (o
ai* a'1 (%e (ip -a0 <eco-e o8i1iKe1 o8i1iKa(io' ca' <e p*e:e'(e1 <0 ;eepi'g (%e
(ip -a0 c/ea' a( a// (%e (i-e.
3. W%e' (%e i*o' i& (+*'e19 (%e (ip &%o+/1 <e =%ippe1 *e-o:e1 a'0 e8ce&&i:e -e(a/
&o/1e*. A *a0 &%o+/1 'e:e* <e +&e1 (o =*i(e (%e (ip <eca+&e i( -a0 %a:e &-a//
1epo&i( o4 ca*<o' i'&(ea1 o4 a co--e*cia/ (ip c/ea'e*.
4. T%e a*ea (o <e &o/1e*e1 &%o+/1 c/ea' a( a// (%e (i-e. I( -a0 /oo; c/ea'. A (%i'
o8i1e 4i/- -a0 <e p*e&e'( a'1 p*e:e'( p*ope* &o/1e*i'g o'/0 o* g*ea&i/0 1epo&i( o*
&-a// <i( o* /a*ge -a(e*ia/ &%o+/1 <e c/ea'e19 (%a( -a0 <e e-<e11e1 o' (%e
&+*4ace (o <e &o/1e*e1 p+*po&e.
. A 4/a( 4ace o4 a =e//@&%ee(e1 i*o' &%o+/1 <e app/ie1 agai'&( (%e &+*4ace (o <e
&o/1e*e1. T%i& &%o+/1 <e %ea(e1 (o a %ig% (e-pe*a(+*e e'o+g% (o -e/( (%e &o/1e*.
$. T%e &o/1e* &%o+/1 <e *e-o:e1 4i*&( a'1 =%e' (%e i*o' o' I+'c(io' &%o+/1 <e
1i&(*i<+(e1 o* -o*e a'0 po*(io' o4 i(.
). W%e' (%e &+*4ace i& &+44icie'(/0 %ea(e19 (%e &o/1e* i& app/ie1 (o (%e 1epo&i( a'1 'o(
(o -e/( a'1 4/o= 4*ee/0 (o=a*1& (%e i*o'.
,. T%e a*ea a*o+'1 (%e I+'c(io' &%o+/1 <e c%ec;e1 (o a'0 e8ce&& &o/1e* o' (i''i'g
p/a(e9 =%ic% ca' ca+&e &%o*(&.
2. T%e e8ce&& o4 &o/1e* &%o+/1 <e *e-o:e1 a'1 c/ea'e1.



3!
CHAPTER'
COMPONENT DESCRIPTION
'%1 RESISTOR
Re&i&(o* i& a co-po'e'( o4 a' e/ec(*ic ci*c+i( (%a( *e&i&(& (%e 4/o= o4 1i*ec( o* a/(e*'a(i'g
e/ec(*ic c+**e'(. Re&i&(o*& ca' /i-i( o* 1i:i1e (%e c+**e'(9 *e1+ce (%e :o/(age9 p*o(ec( a'
e/ec(*ic ci*c+i(9 o* p*o:i1e /a*ge a-o+'(& o4 %ea( o* /ig%(.
A' e/ec(*ic c+**e'( i& (%e -o:e-e'( o4 c%a*ge1 pa*(ic/e& ca//e1 e/ec(*o'& 4*o- o'e *egio'
(o a'o(%e*. T%e a-o+'( o4 *e&i&(a'ce (o (%e 4/o= o4 c+**e'( (%a( a *e&i&(o* ca+&e& 1epe'1&
o' (%e -a(e*ia/ i( i& -a1e o4 a& =e// a& i(& &iKe a'1 &%ape. Re&i&(o*& a*e +&+a//0 p/ace1 i'
e/ec(*ic ci*c+i(&9 =%ic% a*e 1e:ice& 4o*-e1 =%e' c+**e'( -o:e& (%*o+g% a' e/ec(*ica/
co'1+c(o*.
W%e' a :o/(age9 o* e/ec(*ic po(e'(ia/9 i& app/ie1 (o oppo&i(e e'1& o4 a ci*c+i(9 i( ca+&e&
c+**e'( (o 4/o= (%*o+g% (%e ci*c+i(. A& (%e c+**e'( 4/o=&9 i( e'co+'(e*& a ce*(ai' a-o+'( o4
*e&i&(a'ce 4*o- (%e co'1+c(o* a'1 a'0 *e&i&(o*& i' (%e ci*c+i(. Eac% -a(e*ia/ %a& a
c%a*ac(e*i&(ic *e&i&(a'ce. Fo* e8a-p/e9 =oo1 i& a <a1 co'1+c(o* <eca+&e i( o44e*& %ig%
*e&i&(a'ce (o (%e c+**e'(J coppe* i& a <e((e* co'1+c(o* <eca+&e i( o44e*& /e&& *e&i&(a'ce. I'
a'0 e/ec(*ic ci*c+i(9 (%e c+**e'( i' (%e e'(i*e ci*c+i( i& eH+a/ (o (%e :o/(age ac*o&& (%a(
ci*c+i( 1i:i1e1 <0 (%e *e&i&(a'ce o4 (%e ci*c+i(. Re&i&(o*& a*e o4(e' -a1e (o %a:e a &peci4ic
:a/+e o4 *e&i&(a'ce &o (%a( (%e c%a*ac(e*i&(ic& o4 (%e ci*c+i( ca' <e acc+*a(e/0 ca/c+/a(e1.
A$
Re&i&(o*& a*e 1e&ig'e1 (o %a:e a &peci4ic :a/+e o4 *e&i&(a'ce. Mo&( *e&i&(o*& +&e1 i'
e/ec(*ic ci*c+i(& a*e c0/i'1*ica/ i(e-& a 4e= -i//i-e(e*& /o'g =i(% =i*e& a( <o(% e'1& (o
co''ec( (%e- (o (%e ci*c+i(. Re&i&(o*& a*e o4(e' co/o* co1e1 <0 (%*ee o* 4o+* co/o* <a'1&
(%a( i'1ica(e (%e &peci4ic :a/+e o4 *e&i&(a'ce. So-e *e&i&(o*& o<e0 O%-P& /a=9 =%ic%
&(a(e& (%a( (%e c+**e'( 1e'&i(0 i& 1i*ec(/0 p*opo*(io'a/ (o (%e e/ec(*ica/ 4ie/1 =%e' (%e
(e-pe*a(+*e i& co'&(a'(. T%e *e&i&(a'ce o4 a -a(e*ia/ (%a( 4o//o=& O%-P& /a= i& co'&(a'(9
o* i'1epe'1e'( o4 :o/(age o* c+**e'(9 a'1 (%e *e/a(io'&%ip <e(=ee' c+**e'( a'1 :o/(age i&
/i'ea*.
'%& CAPACITOR
Capaci(o*9 o* e/ec(*ica/ co'1e'&e*9 i& a 1e:ice +&e1 4o* &(o*i'g a' e/ec(*ica/ c%a*ge. I' i(&
&i-p/e&( 4o*- a capaci(o* co'&i&(& o4 (=o -e(a/ p/a(e& &epa*a(e1 <0 a 'o'@co'1+c(i'g
/a0e* ca//e1 (%e 1ie/ec(*ic. W%e' o'e p/a(e i& c%a*ge1 =i(% e/ec(*ici(0 4*o- a 1i*ec(@
c+**e'( o* e/ec(*o&(a(ic &o+*ce9 (%e o(%e* p/a(e =i// %a:e i'1+ce1 i' i( a c%a*ge o4 (%e
oppo&i(e &ig'J (%a( i&9 po&i(i:e i4 (%e o*igi'a/ c%a*ge i& 'ega(i:e a'1 'ega(i:e i4 (%e c%a*ge
i& po&i(i:e. T%e e/ec(*ica/ &iKe o4 a capaci(o* i& i(& capaci(a'ce9 (%e a-o+'( o4 e/ec(*ic
c%a*ge i( ca' %o/1.
Capaci(o*& a*e +&e4+/ =%e' 1i*ec( c+**e'( -+&( <e p*e:e'(e1 4*o- e'(e*i'g &o-e pa*( o4
a' e/ec(*ic ci*c+i(. Fi8e1@capaci(0 a'1 :a*ia</e@capaci(0 capaci(o*& a*e +&e1 i'
co'I+'c(io' =i(% coi/& a& *e&o'a'( ci*c+i(& i' *a1io& a'1 o(%e* e/ec(*o'ic eH+ip-e'(.
A#
La*ge capaci(o*& a*e a/&o e-p/o0e1 i' po=e* /i'e& (o *e&o'a(e (%e /oa1 o' (%e /i'e a'1
-a;e i( po&&i</e 4o* (%e /i'e (o (*a'&-i( -o*e po=e*.
Capaci(o*& a*e p*o1+ce1 i' a =i1e :a*ie(0 o4 4o*-&. Ai*9 -ica9 ce*a-ic&9 pape*9 oi/9 a'1
:ac++-& a*e +&e1 a& 1ie/ec(*ic&9 1epe'1i'g o' (%e p+*po&e 4o* =%ic% (%e 1e:ice i&
i'(e'1e1.
'%' SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE


Ci*c+i( Diag*a-
Dio1e i& a e/ec(*o'ic 1e:ice (%a( a//o=& (%e pa&&age o4 c+**e'( i' o'/0 o'e 1i*ec(io'. T%e
1io1e&9 -o&( co--o'/0 +&e1 i' e/ec(*o'ic ci*c+i(& (o1a0 a*e &e-ico'1+c(o* 1io1e&. T%e
A4
&i-p/e&( o4 (%e&e9 (%e ge*-a'i+- poi'(@co'(ac( 1io1e9 1a(e& 4*o- (%e ea*/0 1a0& o4 *a1io9
=%e' (%e *ecei:e1 *a1io &ig'a/ =a& 1e(ec(e1 <0 -ea'& o4 a ge*-a'i+- c*0&(a/ a'1 a 4i'e9
poi'(e1 =i*e (%a( *e&(e1 o' i(. I' -o1e*' ge*-a'i+- Bo* &i/ico'C poi'(@co'(ac( 1io1e&9 (%e
=i*e a'1 a (i'0 c*0&(a/ p/a(e a*e -o+'(e1 i'&i1e a &-a// g/a&& (+<e a'1 co''ec(e1 (o (=o
=i*e& (%a( a*e 4+&e1 i'(o (%e e'1& o4 (%e (+<e.

'%5 LED
A 1io1e i& a' e/ec(*o'ic co-po'e'( (%*o+g% =%ic% c+**e'( pa&&e& i' o'/0 o'e 1i*ec(io'.
Lig%(@e-i((i'g 1io1e& BLED&C a*e &e-ico'1+c(o*& (%a( p*o1+ce /ig%( =%e' c+**e'( pa&&e&
(%*o+g% (%e-. T%e0 a*e +&e1 i' -a'0 co--o' 1e:ice&9 &+c% a& (%e (+'i'g i'1ica(o* o' a
*a1io. A' a**a'ge-e'( o4 &e:e' LED& i' (%e &%ape o4 a' ?,P ca' <e +&e1 (o 1i&p/a0 a'0
'+-<e* 4*o- . (o 2. T%i& a**a'ge-e'( i& o4(e' +&e1 o' ca/c+/a(o*& a'1 1igi(a/ =a(c%e&.
Lig%(@E-i((i'g Dio1e BLEDC9 1e:ice (%a( e-i(& :i&i</e /ig%( o* i'4*a*e1 *a1ia(io' =%e' a'
e/ec(*ic c+**e'( pa&&e& (%*o+g% i(. LED& a*e -a1e o4 &e-ico'1+c(o*&9 o* e/ec(*ica/
co'1+c(o*&9 -i8e1 =i(% p%o&p%o*&9 &+<&(a'ce& (%a( a<&o*< e/ec(*o-ag'e(ic *a1ia(io' a'1
*e@e-i( i( a& :i&i</e /ig%(. W%e' e/ec(*ica/ c+**e'( pa&&e& (%*o+g% (%e 1io1e (%e
&e-ico'1+c(o* e-i(& i'4*a*e1 *a1ia(io'9 =%ic% (%e p%o&p%o*& i' (%e 1io1e a<&o*< a'1
A+
*ee-i( a& :i&i</e /ig%(. T%e :i&i</e e-i&&io' i& +&e4+/ 4o* i'1ica(o* /a-p& a'1
a/p%a'+-e*ic 1i&p/a0& i' :a*io+& e/ec(*o'ic 1e:ice& a'1 app/ia'ce&. De:ice& &+c% a&
*e-o(e co'(*o/& a'1 ca-e*a& (%a( 4oc+& a+(o-a(ica//0 +&e i'4*a*e1 LED&9 =%ic% e-i(
i'4*a*e1 *a1ia(io' i'&(ea1 o4 :i&i</e /ig%(.

Lig%(@e-i((i'g 1io1e& +&e (%e p*ope*(ie& o4 e/ec(*o/+-i'e&ce'ce9 i' =%ic% ce*(ai'
&+<&(a'ce& e-i( e/ec(*o-ag'e(ic *a1ia(io' =%e' e8ci(e1 <0 (%e 4/o= o4 a' e/ec(*ic c+**e'(9
a'1 4/+o*e&ce'ce9 i' =%ic% &o-e &+<&(a'ce& a<&o*< =a:e/e'g(%& o4 e/ec(*o-ag'e(ic
*a1ia(io' o(%e* (%a' :i&i</e /ig%( a'1 *e@e-i( (%e *a1ia(io' a& :i&i</e /ig%(. W%e' c%a*ge1
pa*(ic/e& &+c% a& e/ec(*o'& pa&& (%*o+g% ce*(ai' &e-ico'1+c(o*&9 (%e0 <oo&( (o %ig%e*
o*<i(& o'e o* -o*e e/ec(*o'& i' &o-e o4 (%e a(o-& i' (%e &e-ico'1+c(o*. W%e' (%e&e
e/ec(*o'& 4a// <ac; (o /o=e* o*<i(&9 (%e a(o- e-i(& i'4*a*e1 *a1ia(io'. W%e' (%i& *a1ia(io'
&(*i;e& a p%o&p%o* a(o-9 e/ec(*o'& i' (%e p%o&p%o* a(o- I+-p (o %ig%e* o*<i(&. T%e
p%o&p%o* a(o- e-i(& :i&i</e /ig%( =%e' (%e e/ec(*o'& 4a// <ac; (o a /o=e* o*<i(.
A)
'%? VOLTA<E RE<ULATOR IC @?A/
LM),>> Se*ie& 3o/(age Reg+/a(o*&
<e"eal Descip#i)"
T%e LM),>> &e*ie& o4 (%*ee (e*-i'a/ *eg+/a(o*& i& a:ai/a</e =i(% &e:e*a/ 4i8e1 o+(p+(
:o/(age& -a;i'g (%e- +&e4+/ i' a =i1e *a'ge o4 app/ica(io'&. O'e o4 (%e&e i& /oca/ o' ca*1
*eg+/a(io'9 e/i-i'a(i'g (%e 1i&(*i<+(io' p*o</e-& a&&ocia(e1 =i(% &i'g/e poi'( *eg+/a(io'.
T%e :o/(age& a:ai/a</e a//o= (%e&e *eg+/a(o*& (o <e +&e1 i' /ogic &0&(e-&9
i'&(*+-e'(a(io'9 !i@Fi9 a'1 o(%e* &o/i1 &(a(e e/ec(*o'ic eH+ip-e'(. A/(%o+g% 1e&ig'e1
p*i-a*i/0 a& 4i8e1 :o/(age *eg+/a(o*&9 (%e&e 1e:ice& ca' <e +&e1 =i(% e8(e*'a/ co-po'e'(&
(o o<(ai' a1I+&(a</e :o/(age& a'1 c+**e'(&.
T%e LM),>> &e*ie& i& a:ai/a</e i' a' a/+-i'+- TO@3 pac;age =%ic% =i// a//o= o:e*
"..A /oa1 c+**e'( i4 a1eH+a(e %ea( &i';i'g i& p*o:i1e1. C+**e'( /i-i(i'g i& i'c/+1e1 (o
/i-i( (%e pea; o+(p+( c+**e'( (o a &a4e :a/+e. Sa4e a*ea p*o(ec(io' 4o* (%e o+(p+( (*a'&i&(o*
i& p*o:i1e1 (o /i-i( i'(e*'a/ po=e* 1i&&ipa(io'. I4 i'(e*'a/ po=e* 1i&&ipa(io' <eco-e& (oo
%ig% 4o* (%e %ea( &i';i'g p*o:i1e19 (%e (%e*-a/ &%+(1o=' ci*c+i( (a;e& o:e* p*e:e'(i'g (%e
IC 4*o- o:e*%ea(i'g.
A3
Co'&i1e*a</e e44o*( =a& e8pa'1e1 (o -a;e (%e LM),>> &e*ie& o4 *eg+/a(o*& ea&0 (o +&e
a'1 -i'i-iKe (%e '+-<e* o4 e8(e*'a/ co-po'e'(&. I( i& 'o( 'ece&&a*0 (o <0pa&& (%e
o+(p+(9 a/(%o+g% (%i& 1oe& i-p*o:e (*a'&ie'( *e&po'&e. I'p+( <0pa&&i'g i& 'ee1e1 o'/0 i4
(%e *eg+/a(o* i& /oca(e1 4a* 4*o- (%e 4i/(e* capaci(o* o4 (%e po=e* &+pp/0. Fo* o+(p+(
:o/(age o(%e* (%a' 39 "23 a'1 "3 (%e LM"") &e*ie& p*o:i1e& a' o+(p+( :o/(age *a'ge
4*o- ".23 (o )3.
Fea#ues
O+(p+( c+**e'( i' e8ce&& o4 "A
I'(e*'a/ (%e*-a/ o:e*/oa1 p*o(ec(io'
No e8(e*'a/ co-po'e'(& *eH+i*e1
O+(p+( (*a'&i&(o* &a4e a*ea p*o(ec(io'
I'(e*'a/ &%o*( ci*c+i( c+**e'( /i-i(
A:ai/a</e i' (%e a/+-i'+- TO@3 pac;age
3o/(age Ra'ge
LM),.C @3
LM),"2C @"23
LM),"C @"3
AA
'%B TRANSFORMER
MUTUAL INDUCTANCE
W%e' c+**e'( 4/o=& (%*o+g% a coi/9 -ag'e(ic 4ie/1 i& i'1+ce1 a*o+'1 (%e coi/. W%e' A.C.
S+pp/0 i& gi:e' (o coi/9 (%e' &i'ce (%e*e i& po&i(i:e a'1 'ega(i:e %a/4 c0c/e& i' a A.C.
c0c/e. So (%e*e -ag'e(ic 4ie/1& a/&o a((ai'& -a8i-+- a'1 -i'i-+- :a/+e&. I4 =e p/ace
a'o(%e* coi/ i' (%e -ag'e(ic 4ie/1& o4 4i*&( coi/ (%e' (%ei* p*o1+ce& a :o/(age i' e8po+'1
coi/. T*a'&4o*-e* =o*;& o' (%a( p*i'cip/e.
Coi/ L" i& co''ec(e1 (o A.C. &o+*ce. T%i& coi/ i& ca//e1 p*i-a*0 coi/. W%e' a/(e*'a(i'g
c+**e'( 4/o=& (%*o+g% (%e coi/ (%e' (%e*e i'1+ce& a a/(e*'a(i'g -ag'e(ic 4ie/1. I' a %a/4
c0c/e (%e 1i*ec(io' o4 c+**e'( (%*o+g% (%e coi/ i& a& &%o=' <0 a**o=9 (%i& c+**e'( -a;e&
A5
No*(% Po/e o4 +ppe* e'1 o4 coi/ L". A& (%e :a/+e o4 c+**e'( i'c*ea&e&9 (%e -ag'e(ic 4ie/1
c+( (%e (+*'& o4 coi/ L2. D+e (o (%i& (%e*e p*o1+ce& a i'1+ce1 E/ec(*o-ag'e(ic 4o*ce Be-4C
a'1 (%+& c+**e'( 4/o=& (%o+g% (%e /oa1 *e&i&(a'ce9 i' (%i& =a0 1+e (o 4/o= o4 (e*-i'a(i'g
c+**e'( i' coi/ L" (%e*e a' a/(e*'a(i'g c+**e'( 4/o=& (%*o+g% coi/ L2 a/&o.
I' (*a'&4o*-e* <o(% coi/& a*e =o+'1e1 i& oppo&i(e 1i*ec(io' (o eac% o(%e*. !e*e c+**e'(
&(a*(& (o 4/o= 4*o- +ppe* e'1 o4 coi/ L". T%i& c+**e'( ca+&e& +ppe* e'1 po&i(i:e. T%e
i'1+ce1 -ag'e(ic 4ie/1 p*o1+ce1 p*o1+ce& c+**e'( i' &eco'1a*0 coi/ L2 a'1 &o (%e*e
:o/(age i'1+ce&. T%e po&i(i:e e'1 o4 i'1+ce&. T%e po&i(i:e e'1 o4 i'1+ce1 :o/(age i'
&eco'1a*0 i& a( +ppe* e'1 o4 &eco'1a*0 a'1 'ega(i:e e'1 i& a( /o=e* e'1 o4 coi/. I' (%a(
(0pe o4 (*a'&4o*-e* (%e &eco'1a*0 :o/(age i' ",. o+( o4 p%a&e =i(% p*i-a*0 :o/(age. T%i&
*e/a(io'&%ip i& ;'o=' a& &ig'a/ i':e*&io'.
A6
A4(e* co-p/e(io' o4 4i*&( %a/4 c0c/e9 (%e c+**e'( 4/o= (%*o+g% coi/ L" &(op& 4o* a -o-e'(
&i'ce a( (%i& (i-e i'p+( i& pa&&i'g (%*o+g% ",.. A& c+**e'( 1ec*ea&e&9 -ag'e(ic 4ie/1& i'
L" <eco-e e/i-i'a(e. La(e* o' c+**e'( (%*o+g% coi/ L" 1ec*ea&e9 (%e*e c+**e'( (%*o+g%
coi/ L" a/&o 1ec*ea&e&. I' 'e8( %a/4 c0c/e (%e c+**e'( (%*o+g% coi/ L" *e:e*&e& i(&
1i*ec(io'. D+e (o (%i& (%e*e p*o1+ce& oppo&i(e po/a*i(0 -ag'e(ic 4ie/1 (%*o+g% a*o+'1 (%e
coi/. Agai' (%i& 4ie/1 c+(& (%e (+*'& o4 coi/ L2 a'1 p*o1+ce1 EMFF i' L2. T%e po/a*i(0 i&
*e:e*&e19 &o po/a*i(0 o4 i'1+ce1 :o/(age i' coi/ L2 i' a/&o *e:e*&e1. I' (%i& =a0 i' (%i& %a/4
c0c/e a/&o (%e*e c+**e'( 4/o=& (%*o+g% (%e &eco'1a*0.
CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION
T%e -o'i(o*i'g o4 &pee1 o4 (%e :e%ic/e& o' (%e %ig%=a0 i& 'ece&&a*0 a'1 (%i& -o1e/
p*e&e'(& a &i-p/e a'1 eco'o-ica/ &o/+(io' (o (%i& p*o</e-. !o=e:e* (%e*e a*e &e:e*a/
a1:a'ce-e'(& (%a( ca' <e -a1e. O'e o4 i( i& (%e +&e o4 -ic*oco'(*o//e*&.
We ca' a/&o +&e a GSM -o1e- (o i'4o*- (%e a1-i'i&(e*i'g a+(%o*i(ie& *ega*1i'g a'0
o:e* &pee1i'g :e%ic/e&. I' (%i& ca&e (%e -o1e- =i// e'a</e (%e &0&(e- (o &e'1 a -e&&age
*ega*1i'g (%e :e%ic/e& i1e'(i(0 (o (%e *eH+i*e1 pe*&o' o' (%e -o<i/e.
A'o(%e* &0&(e- =%ic% i& <ei'g +&e1 p*ac(ica//0 i' (%i& 4ie/1 i& (%e Dopp/e* *a1a*. T%i&
&0&(e- i& <a&e1 o' (%e p%e'o-e'o' o4 Dopp/e* S%i4( (o -ea&+*e (o &pee1 o4 (%e :e%ic/e.

A!
Bi1li)4aph$
BOO; REFERENCES
". Bo0/e&(a1 9 Ro<e*( L. a'1 Na&%e/&;0 Lo+i&9 #lectronic $evices and %ircuit
Theory, Pea*&o' E1+ca(io'9 2..2.
2. Ma'o Mo**i& M.9 $igital $esign ,P*e'(ice !a// I'1ia9 Ne= De/%i9 2..2.
3. Se1*a A1e/ S. a'1 S-i(% Ke''e(% C.9 &icroelectronic 'ystems,O84o*1 #'i:e*&i(0
P*e&&92..$.
5$
:EBSITE REFERENCES
www.geocities.com
www.efymag.com

www.google.com
5#