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ys
= c
yc
+ (1 c)
yf
(2)
where:
yc
is the average tensile strength of the cor-
ners based on equation (1),
yf
is the average tensile
yield stress of the flats obtained from tests in the case
of roll-formed sections, or equal to the virgin yield
stress if brake pressed or folding used, and c is the
ratio of corner area to total cross-sectional area.
Design codes: AISI, BS 5950 Part 5, Eurocode 1.3
The AISI (American Iron and Steel Institute) Speci-
fication for the Design of Cold Formed Steel Structural
Members [1] adopted the equations proposed by
Karren [11] and Karren and Winter [5] to take the
effects of cold forming on the yield stress into
account. The British Standard, BS 5950 Part 5 [2] pro-
vides the following equation to compute the increased
yield stress for cold-formed steel sections:
(3)
where: Y
sa
is average yield strength of the cold-
-formed section, Y
s
is virgin material yield strength,
C is the ratio of corner area to total cross-sectional
area, N is the number of 90
o
bends in the section with
an internal radius, t is the sheet thickness, A is the
gross area of the cross-section, and U
s
is virgin mate-
rial ultimate tensile strength.
ENV 1993-1-3: 1996; Eurocode 3 Part 1.3 [3] also
provides an equation to compute the increase in yield
strength which is identical to the equation provided
by the British Standard BS 5950 Part 5.
Effects of cold forming on
the load-carrying capacity
of compression and flexural members
Cold-formed sections can be considered as con-
sisting of flat elements joined using curved elements
at the corners. If a flat element is supported by two
other elements along the longitudinal edges, the
element is considered as a stiffened element and if
the flat element is supported along only one longitu-
dinal edge this is considered as an unstiffened ele-
ment. When a cold-formed member is subjected to a
compressive load, initially the flat elements of the sec-
tion undergo local buckling, characterised by ripples
of short wavelength along the elements of the section.
However, the load can be further increased until the
entire cross-section undergoes changes to its shape.
The load-carrying capacity beyond local buckling is
termed as the post-buckling capacity of the section.
The section finally fails by the formation of local
plastic mechanisms which can suddenly lead to the
collapse of the section without displaying any clear
sign of failure.
Compression members
Compression members can be categorised as
short members (stub columns), moderately slender
columns and slender columns based on their slender-
ness ratio. The buckling capacity of slender columns
(Euler buckling stress) stays below the proportional
limit of the stress-strain curve and hence the strength
increase due to cold working does not make any
significant influence to the buckling capacity. How-
ever, for short and moderately slender columns,
buckling often occurs in the inelastic range. Since the
amount of cold working modifies the shape of the
stress-strain curve, the buckling capacity of short and
moderately slender columns can be improved [6].
Flexural members
The effective width concept has been employed for
computing the load-carrying capacity of flexural mem-
bers in many design codes. The AISI specification
until the 1996 edition [1] provided a more complicated
iterative procedure to calculate the load-carrying
capacity of flexural members. Eurocode 3 Part 1.3 [3]
provides a very similar approach which involves the
calculation of effective width in compression flanges
and compressed portions of webs based on stress
values obtained from the initial position of the neutral
axis. BS 5950 Part 5 provides a much simpler method
of computing the load carrying capacity by computing
the maximum stress developed in the section. Webs
are assumed to be fully effective and the effective
widths of compression flanges and the position of
neutral axis can be calculated from a single proce-
dure.
Considering the strength increase due to cold
forming, there are three possibilities which can be
used in the computation of the load-carrying capacity
of cold-formed sections. The first possibility is to
completely neglect the effect of cold-forming on the
properties and use the virgin material properties.
Second possibility is to include the strength increase
at corners but neglect the increase in the flat ele-
ments. The third possibility is to include the strength
increase at corners and the flat elements.
Conclusions
Various cold-forming techniques and their effects
on material properties of cold-formed steel structural
members were discussed in this paper. The amount of
cold working and hence the changes that take place
in the material properties, largely depends on the
cold forming process that has been employed in the
manufacturing process. Formulae developed to take
the yield strength increase into account in the design
process which have also been adopted into the
current design codes are presented. Design proce-
dure of cold-formed steel compression and flexural
members are discussed with various possibilities
of including yield strength increased due to cold
ROK WYD. LXVII ZESZYT 2/2008 43
forming into design calculations. Taking increased
yield strength into account can substantially improve
the load-carrying capacity of cold-formed structural
sections in particular applications and the chosen
manufacturing (cold forming) method can also in-
fluence the behaviour.
REFERENCES
1. AISI, Specification for the Design of Cold-Formed Steel
Members with Commentary. American Iron and Steel Insti-
tute, Washington DC 2001 Edition, December 2001.
2. BS 5950 Part 5, British standards for structural use of steel
work in buildings: Code of practice for design of cold
formed thin gauge sections. BSI, London 1998.
3. ENV 1993-1-3, Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures, Part
1.3: Supplementary rules for cold formed thin gauge mem-
bers and sheeting. Brussels, Belgium 1996.
4. Kato K.: A Basic Study on Cold-Roll Forming Technique.
Technical Report No. 1, Nippon Kokan 1963, pp. 44 54.
5. Karren K. W., Winter G.: Effects of Cold-Forming on Light-
-Gage Steel Members. Proc. ASCE J. Struct. Div., 93(ST1),
1967, pp. 433 469.
6. Winter G.: Effects of Cold Work on Cold Formed Steel
Members. Thin-Walled Steel Structures Their Design and
Use in Buildings. Symposium at University College of Swan-
sea, School of Engineering, 1967, pp. 119 136.
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Manufacturing Techniques on the Material Properties of
Steel Structural Sections. 20th International Conference on
Computer-Aided Productions Engineering CAPE 2007,
Glasgow UK, pp. 172 177.
8. Macdonald M., Taylor G. T., Rhodes J.: The Effect of
Cold Forming on the Yield Strength of Thin Gauge Steel
Hardness Test Approach. Thin-Walled Structures, Vol. 29,
Nos. 1 4/1997, pp. 243 256.
9. Hlavacek V.: Calculation of the Increase in Yield Strength
due to the Effects of Cold Work of Forming. International
Association for Bridge and Structural Engineering, 11a,
Sept. 1968, pp. 273 284.
10. Rhodes J.: Design of Cold-Formed Steel Members. Elsevier
Applied Science 1991.
11. Karren K. W.: Corner Properties of Cold-Formed Steel
Shapes. Proc. ASCE J. Struct. Div., 93(ST1), 1967, pp.
401 432.