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CHAPTER 21
Lime, Portland Cement, and Concrete
Introduction to Lime
Lime, Portland Cement, and Concrete
Introduction to Lime
Lime is a cement (binder) and has been used for
thousands of years in masonry mortars to bind the
stone and brick units in walls.
Until the discovery of portland cement, lime-sand
mortar was the only masonry mortar available.
Lime is made from limestone, one of the most
abundant rocks in the earths crust.
Lime is produced by simply heating limestonea
process known as calcining.
Introduction to Lime contd
Calcium oxide is called quicklime.
Quicklime is a caustic substance that corrodes metals and
causes severe damage to human skin.
However, it reacts readily with water to form calcium
hydroxide.
Calcium hydroxide is called hydrated lime, or slaked lime,
because it contains water that is chemically combined with
calcium oxide.
It is a relatively benign material and is the one that is
commonly used in building construction.
Introduction to Lime contd
The calcination of limestone results in quicklime; the
hydration of quicklime produces hydrated lime; and
the carbonation of hydrated lime changes it to
limestone.
These three processes constitute a cycle.
Introduction to Lime contd
Limestone cyclecalcination, hydration
and carbonation.
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Introduction to Lime contd
In addition to its hardening caused by carbonation, lime
experiences another type of hardening.
This is caused by limes reaction with amorphous
(noncrystalline, i.e., glassy) silica, referred to as a pozzolanic
reaction.
Romans found that if lime and volcanic ash were mixed, the
mixture, when used with sand and water, gave a mortar that
set more quickly, was stronger, and was more durable than
lime-sand mortar.
The mixture produces a water-resistant, or hydraulic
cementa cement that does not dissolve in water.
Types of Lime Used in Construction
Lime, Portland Cement, and Concrete
Types of Lime Used in Construction
Limestone occurs in two types:
High-calcium limestone , consisting of approximately 95%
calcium carbonate
Dolomitic-limestone , consisting of approximately 60 to
80% calcium carbonate
Types of Lime Used in Construction
The lime industry produces the following two types of
hydrated lime:
Type N (normal) hydrated lime
Type S (special) hydrated lime
In construction activities, lime is principally used in
Masonry mortar
Plaster and stucco
Soil stabilization
Portland Cement
Lime, Portland Cement, and Concrete
Portland Cement
Portland cement a hydraulic cement
Portland cement is no longer a brand name, but a
generic one; therefore, a large number of
manufacturers produce Portland cement.
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Portland Cement contd
(Manufacturing Process)
An outline of the portland cement manufacturing process.
Portland Cement contd (Types of
Portland Cement)
Portland Cement (Types of Portland
Cement) contd
Type I/II Portland cement. A Portland cement bag (1 ft 3 ) generally weighs 94 lb.
Air-Entrained and White Portland Cement
Lime, Portland Cement, and Concrete
Air-Entrained and White Portland
Cement (Air-Entrainment)
The Portland cement types previously described are the
basic types.
These types are also available with an integrally combined
air-entraining agent.
Air entrainment in concrete, mortar, or plaster increases the
durability of these materials against freezing and thawing.
Air entrainment can be achieved in two ways.
The preferred way is to add an air-entraining chemical to the
mix, referred to as an air-entraining admixture.
The alternative is to use an air-entrained Portland cement.
Air-Entrained and White Portland
Cement (Air-Entrainment) contd
All five basic types of Portland cement are available
as air-entrained Portland cement.
They are identified as Types IA, IIA, IIIA, IVA, and VA.
With an air-entraining admixture, normal Portland
cement (Type I, II, III, IV, or V) is used.
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Air-Entrained and White Portland Cement
contd (White Portland Cement)
The more commonly used Portland cement is gray in
color. For aesthetic reasons, white Portland cement is
preferred, particularly for terrazzo flooring, stucco,
and architectural concrete.
Like the gray cement, white Portland cement is
available in bags, or in bulk.
It is generally produced as Type I or Type III.
These types have the same properties as the gray
Type I and Type III Portland cement, respectively.
Basic Ingredients of Concrete
Lime, Portland Cement, and Concrete
Basic Ingredients of Concrete
Concrete consists of
Aggregate (coarse and fine aggregate) as matrix
or filler
Portland cementwater paste as an adhesive
Any other material used in concrete is called a
concrete admixture
Unlike other structural materials, concrete can be
formed to any desired shape.
Basic Ingredients of Concrete
contd (Sculptural Quality of Concrete)
Basic Ingredients of Concrete
contd (Sculptural Quality of Concrete)
Basic Ingredients of Concrete
contd (Size of Aggregates)
The aggregate in a concrete mix consists of several
sizes.
However, the concrete industry divides the aggregate
into two size groups:
Fine aggregate
Coarse aggregate
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Basic Ingredients of Concrete
(Size of Aggregates) contd
Fine aggregate is generally sand, but more precisely
it is that material of which 95% passes through a No.
4 sieve.
Coarse aggregate is that aggregate of which 95% is
retained on a No. 4 sieve.
It consists of either crushed stone or gravel.
Although the minimum size of coarse aggregate is
limited by the No. 4 sieve, its maximum size is a
function of the smallest dimension of the building
element and the spaces between steel reinforcement.
Basic Ingredients of Concrete
(Size of Aggregates) contd
A typical sieve used for grading of aggregates in concrete laboratories.
Basic Ingredients of Concrete
(Size of Aggregates) contd
(a) Well-graded aggregate. (b) Poorly graded aggregate. The colored areas in these
illustrations represent Portland cement and water paste. Observe that poorly graded
aggregate requires a greater amount of portland cement.
Basic Ingredients of Concrete
(Size of Aggregates) contd
Basic Ingredients of Concrete
(Size of Aggregates) contd
Effect of aggregate size on the amount of cement-water paste. The four mixes shown
here have the same overall volume. Note that as the size of aggregate increases, the
amount of cement-water paste needed for a given volume of concrete decreases.
Because Portland cement is the major cost-contributing ingredient in a mix, concrete
with larger aggregate is generally more economical.
Normal-weight concrete is obtained using normal-
weight aggregate.
These aggregates include crushed limestone, granite,
quartz, and so on.
Lightweight structural concrete is obtained using
lightweight aggregate.
One commonly used lightweight aggregate is
expanded shale
Basic Ingredients of Concrete
contd (Weight of Concrete)
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Basic Ingredients of Concrete
contd (Weight of Aggregates)
Two commonly used aggregates in concretecrushed limestone as normal-weight
aggregate and expanded shale as lightweight aggregate. The quantities shown here
are such that both aggregate piles have the same approximate weight. Expanded
shale, being fired clay, is generally brown in color, similar to that of a fired clay brick.
Water is an important component of concrete.
Portland cement derives its cementing property from
its reaction with water.
Water used in concrete must be clean.
A rule of thumb in the concrete industry is that if the
water is fit for drinking, it is fit for use in concrete.
Basic Ingredients of Concrete
contd (Quality of Water)
Important Properties of Concrete
Lime, Portland Cement, and Concrete
Important Properties of Concrete
Properties of concrete that are of interest to
architects, engineers, and builders may be divided
into the following two categories:
Fresh (plastic-state) concrete properties
Hardened concrete properties
Important Properties of Concrete
contd (Concrete Workability)
A good concrete should be easy to pump (when
required), place, and compact, and it should set within
a reasonable amount of time so that finishing can be
done without delay.
A measure commonly used to describe them
collectively is called workability.
Concrete that is not workable is referred to as a
harsh concrete.
Important Properties of Concrete
(Concrete Workability) contd
To obtain a workable concrete:
The aggregates should be well graded
There should be adequate fine material in the mix
The aggregates should not be too angular in shape
An adequate amount of water is necessary for workability
A commonly used measure of workability is slump.
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Important Properties of Concrete
(Concrete Workability) contd
A slump cone is open at the top and bottom.
Important Properties of Concrete
(Concrete Workability) contd
Measurement of the slump of concrete.
Important Properties of Concrete
contd (Fresh Concrete Properties)
If concrete is not carefully placed in the forms or if it is
compacted excessively, larger aggregates settle down
and smaller ones rise to the top.
The segregation of particles gives a non-homogeneous
concrete, reducing its strength.
It is important, therefore, that concrete be placed in
position carefully and not thrown from a large distance.
Segregation of aggregates is generally accompanied by
bleeding.
Bleeding is the rising of water to the top.
Important Properties of Concrete
contd (Hardened Concrete Properties)
The two most important properties of hardened
concrete are durability and compressive strength.
The first step in determining concretes strength is to
cast test cylinders from the concrete received at the
job site.
The casting of cylinders and the slump test are
generally performed at the same time.
Important Properties of Concrete
(Hardened Concrete Properties) contd
Casting of concrete test cylinders.
Important Properties of Concrete
(Hardened Concrete Properties) contd
Dimensions of a concrete
test cylinder
A concrete test cylinder in position in
the testing machine, ready to be com-
pressed to failure
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Making Concrete
Lime, Portland Cement, and Concrete
Making Concrete
Concrete is made by mixing coarse and fine
aggregates, Portland cement, and water.
A small amount of concrete for a do-it-yourself job
may be made by mixing various ingredients with a
shovel, adding water, and mixing the ingredients
further until all materials have blended.
Alternatively, bags of dry concrete mix (consisting of
premixed aggregates and Portland cement) may be
obtained from a building material store.
A dry concrete mix needs only the addition of water.
Making Concrete contd
If a slightly larger quantity of concrete is required, an
on-site mobile concrete mixer can be used.
However, where even a small degree of control on
the quality of concrete is required, the concrete
should be obtained from a ready-mix plant.
A ready-mix plant is a concrete-manufacturing
facility.
Approximately 95% of all concrete used in
contemporary building construction is obtained from
such a facility.
Making Concrete contd
A transportable mixer for on-site mixing of small quantities of concrete.
Making Concrete contd
An overview of a ready-mix concrete plant. Liquid air may be needed in concrete
mix in warm weather to control its temperature. Ice may be used as an alternative,
depending on availability and cost.
Making Concrete contd
Stockpiles of coarse and fine aggregates in a concrete ready-mix plant. Observe the
separation between different aggregates to ensure correct proportioning of the mix.
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Making Concrete contd
A truck mixer being charged with the mix. The
control room is located adjacent to the charging
station to allow the technician to observe and
control the process. The control room has glazed
openings toward the charging station.
A typical control room in a ready-mix plant.
Placing and Finishing Concrete
Lime, Portland Cement, and Concrete
Placing and Finishing Concrete
Because concrete begins to set within a few hours
after the addition of water to the dry mix, it is a
perishable material.
Therefore, it must be placed in the desired position
soon after being received at the construction site.
Placing and Finishing Concrete
contd
Ready-mix concrete:
Chute
Bucket
Pump
Placing and Finishing Concrete
contd
Concrete being brought into the formwork of a grade beam through an open chute
from the mixer.
Placing and Finishing Concrete
contd
Concrete being filled in the bucket, which is hoisted into position using a crane. The
bucket method of transporting concrete is generally used for small quantities of
concrete, where pumping of concrete is uneconomical. Note that a large quantity of
concrete is required to fill a pump line, which is wasteful if the quantity of concrete to
be placed is small.
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Placing and Finishing Concrete
contd
Pumping of concrete from mixer truck into a pump truck and then to its final destination,
which, in this case, is a slab-on-ground.
Placing and Finishing Concrete
contd
(a) Concrete being transferred from a mixer truck to the hopper of a pump truck. (b)
Details of the pump hopper, which has a wire screen to arrest any undesirable element
in concrete that may clog the pump or the pipeline.
Placing and Finishing Concrete
contd (Concrete Consolidation)
Once the concrete has been placed in the form, it
must be consolidated.
Consolidation is the process of compacting concrete to
ensure that it has no voids and air pockets.
Placing and Finishing Concrete
(Concrete Consolidation) contd
Consolidation of concrete using a power-driven vibrator.
Placing and Finishing Concrete
contd (Finishing the Concrete Surface)
After the concrete has been compacted, its exposed
surfaces are finished while the concrete is still plastic.
The exposed surfaces are those that are not covered
by the formwork.
The finishes include:
Strikeoff (screeding)
Floating (darbying)
Troweling
Placing and Finishing Concrete
(Finishing the Concrete Surface) contd
(a) Striking concrete in a beam with a wood straightedge. (b) Striking concrete in a
slab with a wood straightedge.
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Placing and Finishing Concrete
(Finishing the Concrete Surface) contd
Placing and Finishing Concrete
(Finishing the Concrete Surface) contd
Floating of a small concrete surface with a hand float and a large surface with a long-
handle bull float.
Placing and Finishing Concrete
(Finishing the Concrete Surface) contd
Troweling of concrete with a power-driven troweling machine, which is available in two
different types, as shown. Each machine has metal blades that rotate over the concrete
surface.
Portland Cement and Water Reaction
Lime, Portland Cement, and Concrete
Portland Cement and Water Reaction
Concrete and other mixes made from Portland cement
gain their strength due to the reaction of Portland
cement with water, referred to as the hydration of
Portland cement.
The amount of water required for complete hydration
is about 40% of the weight of Portland cement.
In other words, for complete hydration, the water-
cement ratio (referred to as the w-c ratio) should be
0.40.
Portland Cement and Water Reaction
contd
Often, however, a larger quantity of water is needed
to provide the requisite workability of concrete.
Experiments have indicated that the strength of
concrete is inversely proportional to the w-c ratio.
Therefore, a concrete should contain the minimum
amount of water that gives it the required
workability.
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Portland Cement and Water Reaction
contd (W-C Ratio)
Strength of concrete as a function of the w-c ratio. For a given concrete (type of
aggregate and amount of Portland cement), concretes strength increases as the
amount of water used is reduced.
Portland Cement and Water Reaction
contd (Curing)
The hydration reaction begins as soon as water and
Portland cement come into contact, but the rate at
which this reaction proceeds is extremely slow.
It takes up to 6 months or longer for concrete to gain
its full strength.
However, approximately 80% of concrete strength
develops in 28 days.
Portland Cement and Water Reaction
(Curing) contd
The following methods of field curing are common:
Keeping concrete wet with water
Covering concrete with a plastic sheet
Using curing compounds
Portland Cement and Water Reaction
(Curing) contd
Compressive strength of concrete as a function of its age. Observe that concrete
keeps gaining strength well beyond 28 days. Since we generally use concretes 28-
day strength as the design strength, the additional strength adds to the safety of a
concrete structure.
Portland Cement and Water Reaction
(Curing) contd
Curing of a recently placed concrete slab-on-ground. Notice the blankets, water pipe
and sprinkler.
Hydration of Portland cement is temperature
sensitive.
The rate of hydration increases as the ambient air
temperature increases, and vice versa.
Below 55F, the rate of hydration decreases
significantly.
The use of Type III Portland cement is helpful under
these circumstances.
Portland Cement and Water Reaction
contd (Effect of Temperature)
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Water-Reducing Concrete Admixtures
Lime, Portland Cement, and Concrete
Water-Reducing Concrete Admixtures
Ever since it became known that reducing the water
content in concrete increases its strength, the concrete
industry began to find ways of reducing the amount
of water without decreasing the workability of
concrete.
This finally became possible with the discovery of
chemicals known as plasticizers or, more commonly, as
water-reducing admixtures (WRAs).
High-Strength Concrete
Lime, Portland Cement, and Concrete
High-Strength Concrete
The realization of high concrete strengths means that
concrete competes with steel for the structural frame
of tall buildings.
Concrete advantages:
Inherent fire resistance
Modulus of elasticity of concrete increases with increasing
strength
High-Strength Concrete contd
Progressive increase in concretes strength in the structural frame of buildings.
High-Strength Concrete contd
(Classifications)
The concrete industry has, therefore, divided concrete
into two classifications based on its strength:
Conventional concretecompressive strength <66,000
psi
High-strength concretecompressive strength 6,000 psi
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High-Strength Concrete contd
(Disadvantages)
The cost of concrete increases with increasing strength.
Ultra-high-strength concrete requires a great deal of
quality control at the site, which increases the cost
further.
Quality of aggregates and admixtures
Grading of aggregates
Quantity of portland cement.
Placing
Compacting
Curing
Steel Reinforcement
Lime, Portland Cement, and Concrete
Steel Reinforcement
Concrete is much weaker in tension than in
compression.
Its tensile strength is approximately 10% of its
compressive strength.
Therefore, concrete is generally used in conjunction
with steel reinforcement, which provides the tensile
strength in a concrete member.
The use of plain concreteconcrete without steel
reinforcementis limited to pavements and some
slabs-on-ground.
Steel Reinforcement
contd (Material Bonding)
The bond between steel and concrete is due to the
chemistry of the two materials, which produces a
chemical bond between them.
Additionally, as water from concrete evaporates, it
shrinks and grips the steel bars, making a mechanical
bond.
Steel Reinforcement
contd (Deformations in Rebar)
Steel Reinforcement
contd (Steel Grade)
Rebar are hot rolled from steels of the following yield
strengths:
40,000 psireferred to as grade 40 steel
60,000 psireferred to as grade 60 steel
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Steel Reinforcement
contd (Diameter and Length of Bars)
Eleven different diameters of rebar are available, from 3/8
in. to 2 in.
The diameter of a bar is generally stated in terms of a
number.
In structural calculations, the cross-sectional area of a bar is
more important than the bar diameter.
The diameter of a deformed bar is its nominal diameter.
The nominal diameter is the diameter that gives the same cross-
sectional area as a plain bar.
Steel Reinforcement
(Diameter and Length of Bars) contd
Steel Reinforcement
(Diameter and Length of Bars) contd
Two commonly used identification markings on reinforcing bars.
Steel Reinforcement
contd (Bending of Bars)
Bars generally arrive at a construction site bent to shape and cut to required lengths.
Tags attached to the bundles identify the building component (beam, column, or slab) to
which the bars belong.
Steel Reinforcement
contd (Tying of Bars)
(a) Bars are assembled into cages at construction site, which requires tying the bars
together with a steel wire. Assembled cages are seen in the background. (b) Close-up
of tied bars showing the wire.
Steel Reinforcement
contd (Epoxy-Coated Bars)
Concrete members that are exposed to corrosive
atmospheres require coated bars.
Fusion-bonded, epoxy-coated bars are commonly
used in concrete bridges and parking garages
exposed to deicing salts, which gradually penetrate
through concrete to corrode the bars.
Epoxy-coated bars may also be used in other
corrosive atmospheres.
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Welded Wire Reinforcement (WWR)
Lime, Portland Cement, and Concrete
Welded Wire Reinforcement (WWR)
Welded wire reinforcement (WWR) is a
prefabricated reinforcing steel available in rolls or
mats.
Rolls come in widths of 5 to 7 ft.
Mats come in various dimensions.
They are commonly used in ground-supported slabs
(or pavement) and steel decksupported slabs, where
reinforcement requirements are marginal, that is,
much smaller than those needed for reinforced
concrete suspended slabs.
Welded Wire Reinforcement (WWR)
contd
(a) A stack of welded wire reinforcement (WWR) matts. (b) Close-up of WWR.
Welded Wire Reinforcement (WWR)
contd (Designation of a WWR Roll or Mat)
Both plain and deformed bars are used in a WWR in
steel grades of 40 and 60.
A WWR roll or mat is designated by either W or D,
implying the use of plain wires or deformed wires,
respectively.
Additional designation includes the cross-sectional
areas of wires and their spacing.