1

Art and Architecture

in Delhi Sultanate
(1206 - 1526)
By
Irfan Jameel Dar
Student of Islamic Studies
Shah-i-Hamadan Institute o Is|amic Studies
University of Kashmir
Srinagar - 1;uuuo
2
3
Contents
Acknowledgement ........................................................................................... 4
The Delhi Sultanate ......................................................................................... 8
Architecture...................................................................................................... 9
Sculpture and Painting.................................................................................. 15
Music and Dance ........................................................................................... 16
Conclusion...................................................................................................... 17
Bibliography ................................................................................................... 19
4
Acknowledgement
All praises is for Allahf, the lord of the worlds and to Him belong all that
is in the Heavens and the Earth, Indeed He has control over all things. I
seek refugee of Allahffrom the evil of myself and actions. Whomsoever
Allahfguides none can misguide him and whomsoever He leads astray
none can guide him. I bear witness that there is no one worthy of worship
except Allahfand I bear witness that Muhammad nis His servant and
Messenger. I ask Allahfto send His peace, mercy and blessing on the
Final Prophet and Messenger, His familyg, His companionsgand
those who follow their Path of the truth, guidance and Ihsan till the last day.
I would like to thank my parents for providing me with the opportunities
and all facilities on every step of my life in this world. I ask Allahfto have
His mercy and compassion on them forever. I also would like to thank all
my teachers, c|ass-mates and riends or he|ping me and provided a needed
assistance in working on this assignment. I would like to thank all the
people who provided me with books and articles on this topic and helped
me in sequencing this paper. I wish to express my deep sense of gratitude to
all those who shared their priceless and valuable ideas and thoughts with
me regarding this topic.
I am a|so thanku| to |ibrarian o the both the Oepartmenta| |ibrary o Shah-
i-Hamadan Institute o Is|amic Studies and A||ama Iqba| Iibrary or
permitting me to asses to the valuable collection of Book and other material
and helping me directly or indirectly in preparing my paper.
Irfan Jameel Dar
ahmedalirfan@live.com
+;1-;,;o8uuz||
5
Introduction
The Indian sub-continent has always remained a centre of civilization since
the Mesolithic age. Historians believe that there were humans living in the
south Indian region during the Mesolithic and Neolithic ages as indicated
by the Cave paintings. It is believed that during the Megalithic age, the
transition started and people spread in different directions. During the
Bronze Age, we witnessed the emergence of the Indus Valley or Harappan
Civilization in the northern regions of the sub-continent and it developed
the trade relations with the other civilizations of the world like
Mesopotamian and Egyptian civilizations. It was during the middle of the
Iron Age, the Harappan civilization was destroyed either by the natural
calamities or by the foreign dominance i.e., coming of Aryans, which is
disputed. It brought in the new race who settled in India called Aryans. It is
believed they were followers of Vedic religion and after this many dynasties
came into existence in the sub-continent upto A.D. 300s. Many foreign
powers like Central Asians, Chinese, Persians, and Greeks conquered and
ruled India from A.D. 300s to A.D. 500s, which brought in the new
influences and cultures that remain in India till today.
There were good trade and other relations between the Arabs and Indian
even before the advent of the Prophet in Arabian Peninsula. The
seventeenth century historian, al-Farishta says that before the advent of
Islam Indian Brahmans used to travel to and fro by sea to the temples of
Kaaba to administer worship of the Idols there, and there was constant
movement of people between Ceylon, India and the countries of what is
now called West Asia. Islam first came to India with Arab traders as early as
7th century in the south India through the coastal Malabar region. The first
6
Indian mosque, Cheraman Juma Masjid, is thought to have been built in
629 AD by a famous trader and scholar Imam Malik bin Dinar. Many
people in the southern India accepted Islam and most important them was
Mappilas community of Malabar.
In 6
th
century A.D., the pirates attacked an Arabian ship which was carrying
the widows and children of the Arab traders from from Ceylon and looted
it. The incident took place athe the place called Dabul which was ruled by
the ruler of Sindh, Raja Dahir. Governor of Baghdad, Hajjaj bin Yusuf sent
a letter to the Dahir asking him to take action against the incident which he
denied and killed the Muslim messenger. So, Hajjaj appointed his young 17
year old nephew and Son-in-law, Muhammad bin Qasim from Taif to
extend Umayyad control into Sindh. He led his army of 6,000 soldiers to
the far eastern reaches of Persia, Makran. He encountered little resistance
as he made his way into India. When he reached the city of Nerun on the
banks of the Indus River, he was welcomed into the city by the Buddhist
monks that controlled it. Most cities along the Indus thus voluntarily came
under Muslim control, without fighting. In some cases, oppressed Buddhist
minorities reached out to the Muslim armies for protection against Hindu
governors.
The Ruler of Sindh Raja Dahir opposed the Muslim expansion and
mobilized his army against the Muslim army. In 712, the two armies met,
the Muslims were victorious which brought all of Sindh came under
Muslim control. According to the Brahmanabad agreement, the population
of Sindh was not forced to convert to Islam at all and the rights of security
and religious freedom were given to all Hindus and Buddhists as that of Ahl
al-Kitab. Due to his religious tolerance and justice, many cities regularly
greeted him and his armies with people dancing and music. In this way, the
provinces of Sindh were conquered by an Arab army led by Muhammad
bin Qasim and it became the part of the Umayyad Caliphate. Sindh and
7
Punjab was populated by the Arabs and its administration was still
controlled by the locals.
Later on, the intellectual mission was enhanced and Sindh served as the link
through which the Indian Sciences reached to Baghdad during al-Mansurs
period. This movement was further boosted during the rule of Harun al-
Rashid and immense cultural exchange of the intellectualism took place.
The Arab scholars took keen interest in the Indian Sciences particularly in
Medicines and Mathematics. The groups of Indian scholars were
commissioned for translation of these works in Arabic and Arab Scholars
also worked day and night. Surya Siddhanta of Brahmogupta was the first
Indian work translated into Arabic by Ibrahim al-Fazari and Yaqub bin al-
Tariq.
In 11
th
century, Sultan Mahmud of Ghaznis seventeen successive attacks
shacked the roots of the Rajput rule in Northern and Western India. He was
not able to establish his complete grip in India but expanded his empire
only upto the areas including Punjab under his dominion. But His
Successor Muizuddin Muhammad al-Ghori consolidated his empire in the
Indian Soil which bared the fruits in the form of mighty Delhi Sultanate.
From 1191 -1200, He conquered the Rajasthan, Punjab, Delhi and Multan
by crushing the joint army of Prithviraj and Govindraj and established his
capital in Delhi and sent his army upto the regions of Bengal. On returning
back to his capital Ghazna, he deputed Qutbuddin Aibak as the governor
and incharge of the Indian states. After al-Ghori's death, his successor
established the first dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate, known as the Mamluk
Dynasty in 1211 and seized the reins of the empire. Mamluk means "slave"
and referred to the Turkish slave soldiers who became rulers. The territory
under control of the Muslim rulers in Delhi expanded rapidly and
dominated the Indian politics.
8
The Delhi Sultanate
The Delhi Sultanate was established after the conquest of Sultan Muiz-
uddin Muhammad al-Ghuri, when He deputed Qutbuddin Aibak as the
Incharge of the conquered provinces of the Sub-Continent, who later
founded the Mamluk dynasty after the death of Sultan al-Ghuri. The
concept Delhi Sultanate refers to the five short-lived kingdoms or
sultanates of Turkish and Persian (Afghan) origin based rule in India with
Delhi as its capital. Its rule existed between 1206 and 1526, up to the
emergence of the Mughal rule.
The five dynasties were:
- The Mamluk Dynasty (1206-1290).
- The Khilji Dynasty (1290-1320).
- The Tughlaq Dynasty (1320-1414).
- The Sayyid Dynasty (1414-1451).
- The Afghan Lodi Dynasty (1451-1526).
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Architecture
The Turks who conquered India had a genius for architecture. They being a
nation of soldiers not only stabled the power to a single focal point but also
brought all nation and culture of Turanian, as accepted by the historians
like Ferguson and Sir John Marshall. Towards the close of the twelfth
century, India saw the arrival of a totally distinct tradition of Saracenic
architecture. Mosques have been described as the keynote of the Islamic
style. The basic design of a mosque is fairly simple, with an open courtyard
surrounded on four sides by pillared cloisters and a tank in the centre for
Ablution. The tomb was another new edifice introduced by the Muslims in
the Sub-Continent. Muslim Mausoleums were usually located within open
gardens with elaborate gateways and decorated with wall paintings. Its
major characteristics were the use of arch, vault, minarets and dome, and
the application of lime cement.
Scholars have noted the three distinct stages or phases of the evolution of
the Saracenic (Muslim) architecture in India. The initial phase of Saracenic
architecture showed the constraints that local skills placed on exotic
designs. The building of the Quwwatul Islam Mosque in Delhi and Arhai
Din Ka Jhonpra in Ajmer had to erect false arches and avioded true domes.
The Quwwatul Islam Mosque was constructed by the founder of the
Mumluk dynasty, Sultan Qutbuddin Aibak. It was the first mosque of the
Delhi Sultanate on this land and its construction started in 1195 and
completed in 1199. The greatest speciality of this mosque is its great
Maksura and connected Qibla Diwan. It consists of an open quadrangle
enclosed by colonnades of which the western one constitutes the prayer
chamber. In 1230, Sultan Ilutmish expanded the area of the mosque and
later was again expanded by Sultan Alauddin Khilji. At the outer corner of
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the Quwwatul Islam Mosque was built the Muezzins tower, now famous as
the Qutb Minar. Its construction was started by Sultan Aibak and
completed by Sultan Iltutmish in the memory of his teacher and popular
Sufi Saint, Qutbuddin Bukhtiyar Kaki. It was originally 72.5 metres high,
four-storeyed but later Sultan Firoz Tughluq added a fifth storey which
raised its height to 74 metres. Its height, the angular fluting, raised belts
marking its storeys and easy sloping of the tower upwards gave its a
majestic view. It was constructed of red sandstone in totality and its walls
were curved and decorated with the calligraphy of the Quranic verses. Its
construction was the great feat in the Muslim architecture in India and It
stood high imposing the fittingly symbolic of Muslim power, as illustrated
by Sir John Marshall.
In 1200, Sultan Qutbuddin Aibak built Arhai Din Ka Jhonpra at Ajmer
which closely resembles the Quwwatul Islam Mosque but its area is more
spacious than the former. It does not possess beauty as that of the former
but is an extraordinary model of Saracenic architectural style.
The tomb of Sultan Iltutmish is a simple square chamber but with
beautifully decorated walls, from floor to ceiling with the Quranic verses.
The Sultan Ghar is also the square fortress like enclosure, but different than
the Sultan Iltutmishs tomb, of grey marble with round turrets at the four
corners.
The second stage brought in the true arch and dome structures in the
Sultanate architecture. The tomb of Sultan Balban at Delhi and the elegant
Alai Darwaza represents the first true arch and dome respectively. The
structure of the tomb comprising of a square dome chamber, with arched
entrance in each of its sites and a small chamber to the east and the west.
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The presence of the arches built on the scientific principles gives it great
importance.
Sultan Alauddin Khilji was the great love of architecture and built many
architectural monuments in and around Delhi. He built the famous
gateway near the Qutb Minar, Alai Darwaza. It was built on the raise
platform of beautiful carved creepers, with beautiful combination of red
sandstone and marble. Its arches were beautifully engraved with the
Calligraphically Quranic verses and on top of it was the dome of red
sandstone adorned with the bands of Quranic texts. Sultan Alauddin also
wanted to build another minaret known as Alai Minar, higher than the
Qutb Minar but died before its completion. He also constructed a new city,
Siri village, a few kilometres away from Qutb Minar in 1303 and made it his
capital. He constructed a tank near Siri village, which was called Hauz-i-
Alai or Hauz-Khas. It was spread over an area of more than seventy acres of
land and was surrounded by a wall made of stone, mud and lime mixture.
He also constructed Jamaat Khana Mosque near the Dargah of Khawaja
Nizamuddin Awliya in old Delhi. Nasiruddin Mahmud, elder son of Sultan
Iltutmish is also buried there. This mosque is considered as the earliest
example of mosque built wholly in accordance with Muslim ideas.
The city of the Tughluqabad at Delhi was laid out in the first half of the
fourteenth century by Sultan Ghiyasuddin Tughluq. The tomb of the Sultan
Ghiyasuddin Tughluq situated there represents the striking combination of
red sandstone and marble, with battering walls carrying the marble dome.
The mausoleum of Shah Rukn-i-Alam at Multan also represents the same
appearance. Sultan Muhammad Tughluq built another city in Delhi known
as Jahanpanah, which was enclosed by thethick walls. Under Sultan Firoz
Tughluq, the construction took place on large scale in and around the
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Delhi. According to Tarikh-i-Farishta, He constructed 200 cities, 20
palaces, 30 schools, 30 mosques, 100 hospitals, 100 baths, 5 tombs and 150
bridges. Similarly the famous historian, Shams-i-Siraj has also given the
long list of the buildings of Sultan Firoz Tughluq. The important buildings
of Sultan Firoz Tughluqs time include four fortress-cities and the fifth city
of Delhi which contained the Hall of Public Audience and Jamia Mosque.
The Kali Mosque, Begumpuri Mosque, the Khirki Mosque and the Kalan
Mosque are some of the mosques constructed during this period. There are
also some tombs of the Sultans and their Prime-ministers like Tombs of
Sultan Firoz Tughluq, Wazir Khan-i-Jahan Talengani and Kabruddin
Awliya.
The most works commissioned by the Sayyid and Lodi sultans were tombs
(muqbaras). Over a hundred have been found in the neighbourhood of
Delhi alone. Sayyid Sultans, Khidr Khan and Mubarak Shah built the cities
of Khidrabad and Mubarakabad respectively. The two famous tombs of the
Sayyid dynasty are the tomb of Sultan Mubarak Shah at Mubarakpur and
tomb of Sultan Muhammad Shah. Among the mosques of the Lodi dynasty,
Moti ki Masjid built by the Wazir of the Sultan Sikandar Lodi, is considered
as the specimen of the architecture of the Lodis. During the sultanate of
Lodi dynasty, the tombs were of two types octagonal belonged to Royalty
and Square belonged to nobles. All the Lodi sultans are buried in Baag-i-Jud
(present Lodi Garden), which also contain small mosque known as Bara
Gumbad, constructed by Sultan Sikandar Lodi.
In the fifteenth century, the third phase is represented by the development
of a number of the provincial styles, such as Sharqi (Jaunpur), Bengal
(Gaur), Malwa (Mandu), and Gujarat (Ahmedabad). The Gujarat style
incorporated the elements of the indigenous architecture and later
13
influenced the stone work and Mughal architecture. In the peninsula, the
Brahmani architecture led to the provincial styles of Golconda and Bijapur
and the monuments of Gulbarga and Bidar represents this Style. The Jamia
Masjid of Gulbarga is the remarkable for roofing an area of 2,854 square
metres, aided by 63 small domes. Kashmir maintained an independent style
of its own, based essentially on wooden construction, marked by pyramidal
roofing.
Multan was one of the earliest cities which came under the Muslim rule and
its homes some of the earliest and brilliant monuments of the Saracenic
architecture like the mosque of Muhammad bin al-Qasim, Shrines of the
Shah Yusuf Gardizi, Baha-ul Haq, and Shams-i-Tabrizi. The tomb of
Shadna Shahid represents the method of construction and architecture of
that time whileas, the Rukn-i-Alam represents the new spirit of Saracenic
architecture and one of the most splendid memorial ever erected in honour
of the dead.
In Bengal, the buildings were mostly made of bricks and stones were rarely
used. It was highly influenced by the local architectural styles and
decorative designs like curvilinear cornices and lotus. The Adina Mosque
constructed by Sultan Sikandar Shah was ambitious structure covering on a
massive area of 507.5 feet from North to South and 285.5 feet from East to
West. The other noteworthy monuments of the time are the Eklakhi tomb
of Sultan Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah at Pandua; Sath Gumbad Mosque
and Dakhil Darwaza by Barbak Shah; The Lotan Mosque; Firuza Minar at
Guar and Bara Sona Mosque, Chhota Sona Mosque and Qadam Rasul
Mosque.
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The Gujarat style of architecture was considered as the finest and most
beautiful of all the provincial architectures. In the first half of the fifteenth
century, Ahmed Shah founded the city of Ahmedabad and built a mosques
and palaces. The Tin Darwaza was the principle entrance to the outer
courtyard of the palace. The architecture of Gujarat went into the
magnificent phase with the accession of Mahmud Begarha, who founded
new cities like Champanir. He built the Jamia Masjid at Champanir which
is second to none in Gujarat. The Mosque of Rani Sipari and the Mosque of
Sidi Sayyid were the masterpieces of architectural work of the time.
Malwa evolved a distinct style of architecture and the important and
famous monuments of this school were Jamia Masjid of Mandu
constructed by Hushang and later completed by Mahmud Khilji; Mosque of
Dilawar Khan Ghuri; Hindola Mahal; and Jahaz Mahal.
Jaunpur was famous for its fine monuments but unfortunately, many of it
were later destroyed or mutilated by Lodis after its annexation. The famous
monuments of the Jaunpur are Mosque and Fort of Ibrahim Naib Barbak;
Atala Masjid of Ibrahim Shah Sharqi; Jhanjhri Masjid and Lal Darwaza;
Hauz-i-Shamsi, Shamsi Idgah and Jamia Masjid at Badaun by Sultan
Iltutmish; and Chaurasi Gumbad at Kalpi.
Kashmir remained the centre of the distinct style of architecture and its
influence is traced back to Persian craftsmen and architects who
accompanied the great Sufi Scholars, Abdur-Rahman Bulbul Shah and Mir
Sayyid Ali al-Hamadani. The Jamia Masjid at Srinagar was built by Sultan
Sikandar and later expanded by his Son, Sultan Zaynul Aabideen Budshah.
15
Sculpture and Painting
In Saracenic buildings, sculpture lost the crucial position as of the ancient
Indian architecture because of the forbiddance of human or animal figures
in Islam. The Arabic calligraphy and geometrical and floral motifs carved
on the stones served to decorate the buildings in place of sculpture of
human and animal figures. These stone carvings showed a great deal of skill
and reached the level of the true art. The walls of the Qutb Minar witness
this style carving and Quranic calligraphy of great skill.
Muslims attitude towards painting were far less strict than towards
sculpture. There was tradition of the wall painting, especially in the private
buildings, existing among the Muslims outside the India. A recognisable
school developed in Malwa where manuscripts were profusely illustrated:
the precision and accuracy attained in these illustrations is admirable. A
school of miniature painting continued from the previous period in Gujarat
and Rajasthan, whose products are mainly extant in the form of Jain book
illustrations.
16
Music and Dance
According to Baranis Tarikh-i-Firozshahi, the court of Sultan Jalaluddin
Khilji used to have the presence of the women singers like Faqais daughter
and Nusrat Khatun and women dancers like Nusrats daughter and Mihr
Afroz. The young girls were being trained by the Indian courtesans in
Persian and Indian music for the Delhi court in the late thirteenth century.
The court poets like Amir Khusrau used to sing their poet in the company
of the royals and the poetic works were compiled under royal patronage in
the Persian on the rules and terminology of Indian music. A number of new
musical instruments came into existence like Rabab and the classical
treatise, Raag Darpan was translated into Persian during the rule of Sultan
Firoz Tughluq. Ghunyatul Munya is the first composed work with the
citations from the number of the Sanskrit authorities.
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Conclusion
The Turkish conquest of India is one the magnificent feat in annals of
Indian history. It nourished a new order in the land as some historians call
it, Urban Revolution which replaced the myopic caste cities of the
Rajput period and was thrown open to all types of people. The historians
like Sir Jadunath Sarkar believes that it reconnected the India with the
outer Asiatic world but I believe more than that i.e., it connected the Indian
with the whole world as it became the part of the Universal Social and
Ethos i.e., the Muslim Civilization. The social taboos and discrimination
which was halting the unity in the society, was put to end which brought
the lower discriminated sections closer to the rulers.
Another important aspect of it, about which paper talks, is the evolution of
Delhi sultanate which for first time brought India in the limelight of the
Architectural gloom and developed a new rare and magnificent style of
architecture by accommodating both the ancient Indian and Islamic one in
a scientific manner. It brought the concept of calligraphy and the floral
which later developed further and flourished during the Mughal Period.
Being the nation of equipped warriors, they not only showed a new
systemic methods of the war tactics and methods but also brought with
them the whole Turanian civilization as highlighted by the historians like
Fergusson. They brought up the use of coloured Limestone, Sandstones,
Marble and Granite. The System of Minaret and inner decoration of the
monuments with natural designs was also a great feat.
With the establishment of the Delhi sultanate in India, the Islam took deep
roots in the social fabric of the society and Muslims rule prevailed upto the
middle of the 18
th
century. The Muslim rule of five centuries brought up the
18
new face of the India to the world which contain influences of the Muslim
culture and Practices. Even today the vast Muslim population living in with
being a part of it, the world renowned Islamic seminaries and Universities
Religious and Secular and other dimensions owes the credit of that
generation.
This was a simple type of introduction to the glorious past which I tried to
present before you from my limited knowledge and Sources. For those who
are intrested in this study can refer to the following classical works to get
the exact view of the situations and Architecture of the Delhi sultanare -
Abdullahs Tarikh-i-Daudi ed. by S.A.Rashid; Abdul Hamid Lahoris
Badshah Nama; Abdul Haqq Dehelvis Akhbar-ul-Akhiyar; Abdur Razzaqs
Mutla-us-Sadain; Shams Siraj Afifs Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi; Ahmad Yadgars
Tarikh-i-Salatin-i-Afghana; Abdul Hamid Al Kufis Chach Nama and
other.
All thanks and praises for Allah. I ask Allahfto accept this effort of mine in
writing this assignment and forgive my shortcomings, for to err is only human.
19
Bibliography
- Habib, Irfan; Medieval India, National book Trust, New Delhi, 2008.
- Brown, Percy; Indian Architecture (Islamic period), Taraporevala,
Bombay, 1951.
- Chand, Tara; Influence of Islam on Indian Culture, 2nd ed., Indian Press,
Allahabad, 1963.
- Haig, Sir Wolseley (ed.); Cambridge History of India, vol. VIII,
Cambridge University Press, Delhi, 1958.
- Khan, Yusuf Husain; Glimpses of Medieval Indian Culture, Asia
Publishing House, Bombay, 1957.
- Lal, K.S; The Legacy of Muslim Rule in India, Voice of India, New
Delhi, 1992.
- Hodgson, M.; The Venture of Islam, Vol. 2, University of Chicago
Press, Chicago, 1961.