Spark Plugs Technical Paper

A spark plug by definition is a device that carries (or leads) a high

voltage into a combustion chamber and converts it into a spark (by
jumping a gap) to ignite any available air-fuel mixture. The ideal air-fuel
mixture for an internal combustion engine is considered to be 1.!"1. The
reason that 1.!"1 is considered the ideal air-fuel mixture is that tests have
proven that at this ratio #$%s& '#%s and ($x are at their lo)est levels. At
the point of explosion& under average operating conditions& the maximum
combustion chamber of the internal combustion engine reaches *&+,, to
&-,, degrees .ahrenheit and pressures of !,, pounds per s/uare inch.
#onditions )hich create the variables include (but are not limited to)
sudden temperature changes or by sudden pressure changes that are
brought to bear by high temperature of burned gases or lo) temperature of
the incoming air-fuel mixture. The spark plugs are subjected to typical
firing conditions that heat the 0nose% of the spark plug in the firing chamber
to bet)een 1&1,, and 1&!,, degrees .ahrenheit and suddenly cooled by
intake air-fuel mixture. 2ndustry standards re/uire testing of a spark plug to
1, pounds per s/uare inch& )hereas (34 5park 6lugs pass tests to 71,
pounds per s/uare inch in internal combustion engines. 2n higher
compression engines the spark gap traditionally is lo)ered as the
compression ratio increases. The secondary re/uirement (grossly
overlooked) is that the spark plug is the major path by )hich heat being
generated by the ignition of air-fuel leaves the firing chamber.
The center electrode is commonly made up of a nickel alloy88 )ith
chrome& manganese and silicone added. 2t is press formed )ith a nickel tip
)elded onto a pure copper core for thermal conductivity. 9ore recent (34
5park 6lugs center electrodes have platinum laser-)elded onto a nickel
alloy center electrode. (34%s ne)est exotic center electrode has iridium
laser-)elded onto a nickel alloy center electrode to offer longevity and
lo)ered resistance to carrying the voltage necessary to jump the gap
bet)een the center electrode and some form of ground ()hether it be the
shell itself (for surface-gapped plugs) or standard ground straps )elded
onto the shell). .or endurance& (34 offers racing spark plugs that have
iridium-tipped center electrodes )ith platinum alloy or iridium alloy ground
electrodes.
The insulator is made of high purity alumina (Al7$*) that is fired at
approximately 7&:,, degrees .ahrenheit. This is necessary to )ithstand the
extreme conditions the 0nose% of the insulator is exposed )ithin the firing
chamber plus contain the high secondary voltages necessary to jump the
gap thereby firing the plug under high cylinder pressures.
The metal shell can be formed by either cold forming (rolling) and
machined or by cutting and machining from a solid hexagon bar. The
ground electrode is )elded in position and the entire finished product is
surface plated.
5ome spark plugs may be designed to have t)o& three or four
ground electrodes. 2t must be emphasi;ed as this point that according to
the la) of physics& the spark occurs at the point of least resistance.
9ultiple ground electrodes do ($T indicate that there is more than one
spark at a time to ignite the air-fuel mixture. 9ultiple ground electrodes are
designed to reduce the possibility of the ground electrode heating to the
point of potential pre-ignition. 9ultiple ground electrode designs also have
a tendency of eroding (opening the preset gap) at a higher rate than normal
(due to the firing taking place from the very tip of the ground to the center
electrode). Therefore& in a standard ignition system& multiple ground
electrode designs are created to allo) the spark to occur unobstructed
directly in the air-fuel mixture& but in no )ay should be construed as
allo)ing multiple sparks to occur.
'eat range by definition is the range in )hich the spark plug )orks
)ell thermally. 2f the firing end temperature of a spark plug drops belo) its
0self-cleaning temperature%& carbon )ill accumulate on the firing end&
causing the voltage supplied by the ignition system to 0leak a)ay% and ($
spark )ill occur at the gap. (34 5park 6lugs offers a heat range <7= for the
hottest heat range up to a <17= for the coldest heat range. That is& the lo)er
the number& the hotter the (34 plug. The higher the number& the colder the
plug is considered in overall heat range.
2n a simple demonstration& the distance the heat must travel from the
0firing end% to the shell (for heat dissipation through the engine head and
air or )ater jacket) is shorter in a 0colder% plug thereby allo)ing the tip to
cool at a faster rate. This design conse/uently is considered a <cold plug=.
The other side of the spectrum& the heat travels a longer distance& forcing
the 0firing end% to retain the temperature for a longer period of time thereby
making it a 0hotter% plug. 6rojected-tip ceramic plugs (those that have the
ceramic extending beyond the limits of the metal shell) perform a similar
alternate function of becoming a 0hotter% heat range.
At the opposing end of the spectrum& )hen the 0firing end%
temperature exceeds the pre-ignition temperature& the air-fuel mixture
(typically 1.!"1) in the combustion chamber )ill be pre-ignited& resulting in
loss of po)er& overheating& or piston damage from )hat is commonly
kno)n as 0pinging%. The ideal firing heat range at the 0firing end% of the
center electrode is a )ell-maintained 1&*7- degrees .ahrenheit (or self-
cleaning temperature). 5hould the 0firing end% go above the 1&+,, degrees
.ahrenheit temperature& pre-ignition occurs. 5hould the 0firing end% drop
belo) +-, degrees .ahrenheit& this is considered the fouling region and
carbon can be built up )ith unburned fuel. Therefore& the spark plug being
selected for a particular application should be in the +-, degree .ahrenheit
to 1&+,, degree .ahrenheit operating range )ith the goal to maintain the
self-cleaning range of 1&*-, degrees .ahrenheit.
>here extreme conditions exist (up)ards to 1&,,,? @69 for some
t)o-cycle ATA%s& motorcycles or )ater craft and racing engines that
generate in excess of -,, to 1&,,, '6) heat range issues are particularly
important to prevent permanent damage to the engine. $f course& the
average engine of today can sustain a certain amount of abuse& but over
time may result in permanent damage as )ell.
The spark plug structural factors that determine heat range are "
3as volume being determined by space formed bet)een the metal
shell and the insulator nose at the firing end.
5urface area andBor length of insulator nose at the firing end.
Thermal conductivity of the materials for the insulator& center
electrode and more importantly the overall design.
The total structure of the center electrode.
The relative position of the insulator tip to the shell end.
(umber of ground electrodes present.
The spark plug operational factors affecting temperature are "
The internal combustion engine%s air-fuel ratio.
The overall compression ratio of the engine.
The internal combustion engine ignition timing.
The octane of the fuel.
The engine @69 and overall load.
The spark plug operational factors affecting the re/uired voltage of
the internal combustion engine are"
The re/uired voltage (to jump the gap thereby firing the plug)
decreases )ith the increase in richness of the airBfuel ratio.
The re/uired voltage (to jump the gap thereby firing the plug)
increases proportionally to the increase of (cylinder) pressure.
2gnition timing definitely affects the re/uired voltage ()hether the
timing is advanced or retarded). As the compression pressure at top
dead center (T.C.#.) reaches the maximum& the re/uired voltage
reaches the maximum as )ell. The re/uired voltage lo)ers in
relationship to the advance of the ignition timing since the
compression pressure lo)ers and the spark plug temperature rises.
.uel types and mixtures )ill affect re/uired voltage.
The spark plug gap (and resulting temperature) affects the re/uired
voltage.
The polarity of the available secondary voltage )ill affect the
re/uired voltage. The re/uired voltage is lo)er )ith minus polarity
than )ith positive polarity.
>hen making a visual analysis of the spark plug the follo)ing may be
considered in the cause and effect issue"
#auses of overheating"
$ver advanced ignition timing.
2nsufficient cooling and lubricating )ithin the engine.
Too lean air-fuel mixture.
Too hot of a spark plug heat range.
2nsufficient tor/ue of the spark plug gasket.
Dxcessive deposits of unburned fuel in combustion chamber.
Too lo) octane fuel.
#ontinuous driving under too heavy load for engine application.
#auses of oil and carbon fouling" 888
2mproper use or abuse of choke.
#ontinuous lo)-speed driving. 8888
Too rich air-fuel mixture.
Too cold spark plug heat range.
Eo)ered compression pressure and engine oil entering combustion
chamber.
$ver retarded ignition timing.
$verall deterioration of system.
6re-delivery fouling (consistent )ith continuous lo)-speed driving.
Footnotes:
88 (ickel alloy has a melting point of 7&7,, to 7&,, degrees .ahrenheit
continuous.
888 #ommon deposits include carbon& lead& bromine& calcium& sulfur&
barium& ;inc& iron& silicon or aluminum.
8888 2f engine is operated at constant lo) speeds& a larger surface area at
the ceramic tip improves the self-cleaning characteristics of the spark plug.