Mining Engineering Education in the 21st Century: Where is it

headed?

Raja V. Ramani
Emeritus Professor of Mining Engineering
Emeritus George H. and Anne B. Deike Chair in Mining Engineering

The Pennsylvania State University
209 Research West, University Park, PA 16802, USA






Abstract

Engineering education has been in much discussion in recent years, particularly the
adequacy of university undergraduate programs to prepare graduates to fulfill the needs
of society in the future. The call to the engineering schools is to instill in students an
urge to create and make universities empowering environments. Mining engineering, in
view of the wild swings in enrollment and job opportunities in the past four decades, has
commanded particular attention due to the smallness of the program when compared to
others in large engineering schools.

On an annual basis, more than 30 billion tons are mined around the globe. Modern
surface and underground mines are marvels of high technology. The industry is
dominated by multi-national corporations, operating worldwide on several commodities.
While the industry has made tremendous progress in technology, mines of the future
would need a blend of revolutionary ideas to go with evolutionary innovations to address
the complex technical and societal problems that confront the industry. To plan, design,
operate and manage mines of the future, a critical need is all kinds of personnel,
particularly highly qualified and trained mining engineers. A challenging task is to define
these qualifications and the means to achieve them in the university.

In this paper, the importance of the mining industry and the career path of mining
engineering graduates are briefly outlined. The current requirements for ABET
accreditation of mining engineering program in the U.S. are presented along with a
discussion of the need to broaden the scope of the undergraduate program. Several
approaches are outlined for enhancing the undergraduate educational experience at the
university. The NAE Grand Challenge Scholars Program is briefly presented with
suggestions for mining engineering curriculum to develop such a program. The
essential elements to the success of the efforts are developing a comprehensive strategy
and ensuring the total commitment from all concerned to the pursuit of that goal.
Introduction

Several articles have been written on the status of mining engineering programs in
universities in the last two decades [Brady, 1997; Galvin and Roxborough, 1998; Karmis,
et al., 2010]. The topics covered include the content and nature of mining education;
the schools of mines and the demands placed on mining engineering programs in large
universities, particularly in research universities; the means to address the declining
enrollment and preserve mining engineering as an option; the means for furthering
international cooperation in mining engineering education; and so forth. The author has
also presented several papers dealing with emerging areas of importance and how they
are addressed in the mining engineering program [Ramani, Bise and Frantz, 1981;
Ramani, 1982; Ramani, 1992]. Contribution of the universities to mining research was
the subject of a recent presentation by the author [Ramani, 2010].

In fact, the role that universities play in preparing engineers for the future, not just any
engineer but all engineers, has been a much discussed subject. The views of that role
are quite varied, depending on the stakeholders, be they the first employers, the
parents, the aspiring students themselves, and the society at large, to name a few. One
must recognize that teaching [knowledge diffusion] and research [knowledge creation]
are the two essential functions of a university. The relationship between the two is
symbiotic and as the saying goes, without research, there is nothing new to teach. The
major product of universities' teaching and research is the "knowledge" workers who are
armed with the tools of the trade and the inquisitiveness to seek better solutions to
vexing and tenacious problems.

The growing complexity of problems, the global nature of these problems, and the need
for greater integration of engineering, physical and social sciences in approaches to
solve these problems have all raised a considerable amount of discussion on the
education of engineers to understand the resulting challenges and develop effective
solutions. The National Academy of Engineering [NAE] in the United States has prepared
two reports on the subject of engineering education which offers several suggestions for
universities for educating the engineer of 2020 [NAE, 2004, 2005]. According to Sullivan
[2006], engineers are packaged as problem solvers rather than creators and innovators
addressing grand challenges --- Yet the goal of engineering is to create innovative
solutions to meet the needs of people. The key word is create, and creativity is
stimulated when design teams include contributors with diverse perspectives and life
experiences." The importance of specific curriculum content of particular disciplines has
come into question due to the changing nature of technology and the rapid advance of
innovation. According to Charles Vest [2008, 2010], President of NAE, "making
universities and engineering schools exciting, creative, adventurous, rigorous,
demanding, and empowering environments is more important than specifying specific
curricular details."

The main subject of this paper is undergraduate degree programs, specifically
undergraduate mining engineering programs, to effectively address the concerns on the
preparedness of the graduates for a lifetime of contributions to the profession and
society. Universities, particularly major research universities, have comprehensive
teaching, research, and service programs and have become the anchor tenants of
"research parks," leading to greater and accelerated transformation of innovation to
technology development, economic progress, community growth and global
competitiveness. In most countries, there is recognition that a strong higher education
system and the support of such a system are essential ingredients for generating
knowledge, knowledge workers, scientific breakthroughs and industrial progress and
ultimately, for improving quality of life.


Importance of Mining

Intelligent understanding of the natural resources and their exploration, extraction,
utilization and conservation has been the principal reason for the advances in both the
progress in the carrying capacity of the human race and the quality of its progress
through the ages. In fact, the major markers in the timeline of human history are
identified by the mining commodity that ushered the advances in human civilization such
as stone, copper, bronze, iron, and coal ages to name a few.

Excepting for the radiant energy from the Sun, all the materials that are needed for
sustaining all life on earth come from the resources that are in the air, water and land.
Further, those materials that are being explored and extracted occur rather close to the
surface of the Earth. Among the earth resources, the mineral resources are one of the
most important and mining and processing of these resources is an essential human
activity. The special characteristics of mineral deposits - rare, nonrenewable, and fixed
locations - continue to pose significant challenges to the development of policies and
practices for their continued discovery and development to meet the increased demands
from projected population increases and increased aspirations for improved quality of
life. At the present time, over 30 billion tons of solid materials are mined each year
worldwide, over 80% by surface mining. About 20% of this material, over 6 billion tons,
is coal. Underground mining has reached depths of nearly 4000 meters and surface
mining, nearly 1200 meters.

The planning, engineering and operating requirements of these mines - massive earth
fragmentation, materials handling and processing facilities, or mega rock factories -
demand excellence in specific knowledge domains and their application to situations
fraught with great uncertainty in geologic environment, ore grades, in-situ rock
properties, and scaling effects. Through improved planning and operating, the
occurrences of deaths and disasters, and injuries and illnesses, in mines have been
significantly decreased. Yet, it must be realized that these are never far away as reports
from around the world continue to show. Economic and cultural catastrophes that
followed post-mining in many mining districts have been avoided in recent years, again
through improved planning and designing. Increased societal expectations for higher
standards of living and better environmental stewardship of the natural resources have
placed increased demands on the mining industry to perform even better these
measures of performance. According to a National Research Council panel, there are
substantial research and development opportunities in surface and underground mining
[NAE, 2002]. Among the specific areas identified are truly continuous mining,
automation and control systems, data-processing and visualization systems with real-
time data processing and in-situ mining.

The challenge of modern mining is to achieve optimum utilization of a depleting
resource/reserve without causing any unacceptable disturbance to the environment. The
challenge to the modern mining educator is to prepare scientists, engineers, and
managers for this reality.


Career Path of Mining Industry

The career path of engineers, particularly mining engineers, has traditionally been from
junior engineers to managers in industry. The time span from engineering degree to
management position is frequently accelerated and compressed when compared to
those of, for example, from medical, law and architecture degrees to full-fledged
doctors, lawyers and architects. The required blend of scientific, engineering,
technological and management education to become members of management is not
fully achieved in the university undergraduate program.

Mining graduates at different times in their careers find themselves working in
underground mines, surface mines, in small, large or multi-national companies, in
government agencies concerned with health and safety, mining research, environment,
and taxation, and in consulting organizations. Though not as extensive, mining
engineers do find employment in mining equipment manufacturing firms, usually as
application engineers and in banks lending funds to mining projects. During their
working lives, they may be assigned to tasks which require advanced knowledge in
some specific area such as ground control and rock mechanics, ventilation and fluid
flow, mine valuation and evaluation and associated areas of risk analysis and investment
evaluation, to name a few. An undergraduate program may provide the introductory
knowledge. Often, such knowledge must be reinforced with additional knowledge to
develop the in-depth background required to address these assignments.

As underground and surface mines go deeper into the bowels of the earth, the demand
for specialists in specific mining disciplines increases. Entering graduate programs in
mining engineering is an option that is not much exercised by graduating mining
engineers. According to Karmis et al. [2010], global minerals education has been in a
crisis for almost three decades both at the undergraduate and graduate levels due to
problems of recruitment and retention and the absence of research funding.


Mining Engineering Education

There are very few engineering disciplines at a university that are identified with a
specific industry as closely as mining engineering with the mining industry. In terms of
career paths, it is not unusual for mining engineering students to enter the industry and
spend their entire working life in the industry. There is a strong bond between the new
entrants and the older miners, and many practical aspects are learned through this
association. However, the knowledge base of a miner must be quite broad. In fact,
Agricola [1556] talks about the "many arts and sciences about which a miner should not
be ignorant" and gets rather very specific about them [Hoover and Hoover, 1950]:

First there is Philosophy, that he may discern the origin, cause and nature of
subterranean things ---. Secondly, there is Medicine, that he may be able to
look after his diggers and other workmen ---. Thirdly follows Astronomy, ---
judge the direction of veins. Fourthly, there is the science of Surveying --- to
determine the limits and boundaries in these workings, especially in depth.
Fifthly, his knowledge of Arithmetical Sciences --- calculate the cost to be
incurred in the machinery and the working of the mine. Sixthly, his learning
must comprise Architecture --- construct various machines and timber work
required underground or that he may be able to explain the method of the
construction to others. Next, he must have knowledge of Drawing, that he
can draw plans of his machinery. Lastly, there is the Law, --- that he may
claim his own rights, --- give others his opinion on legal matters, ---that he
may not take another man's property --- and that he may fulfil his obligations
to others according to the law."

Agricolas list, developed almost 500 years ago, is amazingly comprehensive as it
identifies topics that address more general health and safety, economic, and legal issues
as well as more specific mineral exploration, development, and extraction issues. The
requirements for an undergraduate program in mining engineering are much more
specific in terms of knowledge content in physical, engineering, and social sciences and
in general and mining engineering. There are several other considerations that are
essential to develop a well-rounded individual.

In the U.S., accreditation of an undergraduate program in engineering by ABET Inc. is
an indication that the program has met the various criteria that have been specified,
criteria that have been developed by the peers in the professional societies identified
with the various engineering disciplines. Among these are demonstration by the
students of the program outcomes in a number of specific areas; meeting the curriculum
requirements for a specific engineering discipline; having adequate faculty, facilities, and
institutional support; and applicable program criteria. It is worthwhile to emphasize that
accreditation is voluntary and is requested by the institution.

The current ABET program criteria [2010-11] for mining and similarly named
engineering programs [ABET, 2010] specify that the program must demonstrate that
graduates must have

the ability to apply mathematics through differential equations, calculus-based
physics, general chemistry, and probability and statistics as applied to mining
engineering problems applications;
fundamental knowledge in the geological sciences including characterization of
mineral deposits, physical geology, structural or engineering geology, and
mineral and rock identification and properties;
proficiency in statics, dynamics, strength of materials, fluid mechanics,
thermodynamics, and electrical circuits;
proficiency in engineering topics related to both surface and underground
mining, including: mining methods, planning and design, ground control and rock
mechanics, health and safety, environmental issues, and ventilation;
proficiency in additional engineering topics such as rock fragmentation, materials
handling, mineral or coal processing, mine surveying, and valuation and
resource/reserve estimation as appropriate to the program objectives.

The laboratory experience must lead to proficiency in geologic concepts, rock
mechanics, mine ventilation and other topics appropriate to the program objectives.

Evidence must be provided that the program faculty understand professional
engineering practice and maintain currency in their respective professional areas.
Program faculty must have responsibility and authority to define, revise, implement, and
achieve program objectives.

The Society for Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration [SME] is the lead institution that
works with ABET Inc. in this accreditation effort. At the present time, there are 15
mining engineering programs in the United States that are accredited by ABET. Mining
engineering program at a U.S. university is rigorous, demanding and specific in
curricular details. The degree requirements for the Penn State mining engineering
program can be found at http://www.eme.psu.edu/mng/degree.html.

There is no specification by ABET of either required courses or a time limit to meet the
requirements. In general, the requirement for graduation varies from 120 to 128 credit
hours, usually covered in about eight semesters. The time for completing the degree
requirements varies with individual students, depending on the student's participation in
such activities as participation in co-op/work study programs, taking additional courses
or opting for research experiences, or even transferring from other programs. In fact,
about 25% of the students graduate in eight semesters or less and an additional 60%
graduate in 9-10 semesters. It is clear that the mining engineering program at a U.S.
university is rigorous, demanding, and specific in curricular details.

As a result of working with engineers and professors from several other countries, the
author feels that the situation in mining schools around the world may not be much
different. It is however evident that there are areas of specialization that programs
emphasize due to regional and local conditions and needs. Some even have separate
degree programs in underground mining, surface mining, mining machinery, mine
environmental engineering, and so on.

In view of what has already been said about the career progression from engineering
degree to manager and the need for greater education and training in several other
aspects, one must look at developing this background in the university. In general, it
has been recommended that the 4-year undergraduate degree be considered "pre-
engineering," or "engineer-in-training" degree and the 2-year master's degree be
considered as the engineering "professional" degree [NAE, 2005]. Several universities
offer a combined 5-year B.S.-M.S. degree program to enable the student to get in-depth
in some areas. ABET also has provisions to accredit master's degree programs.

Another interesting model is presented by the options available in selected
undergraduate engineering programs even though the basic degree is in a specific field
of engineering. For example, in one university, there are several options in civil
engineering, each option emphasizing a particular concentration of courses in addition to
the core courses in civil. Some of the options are structures, geotechnical, materials,
water resources and transportation. At Penn State, where industrial engineering was
first offered as a distinct degree, there are three options - manufacturing engineering,
engineering information systems, and service systems engineering. Electrical
engineering options at UCLA include electrical engineering, computer engineering, and
biomedical engineering. In 2010, MIT launched a flexible engineering program in
response to emerging changes in the engineering professions. According to the write-up
about the program, engineering today is characterized by increasing globalization,
multidisciplinary practice and connectivity with fields traditionally considered to be
outside of engineering." The programs origin is traced to a similar program in existence
at MIT since 1934 in the mechanical engineering department. Clearly, mining
engineering programs can explore options in selected areas such as rock mechanics and
mine structures; mine systems engineering; and mine health, safety and environment
while still maintaining a core mining degree.

An engineer with adequate work experience in engineering tasks can take and pass an
examination to be certified as a "professional engineer." This certification carries with it
certain legal authority and responsibility and accords instant recognition to the holder as
a "professional" [Ramani, 2005, 2009]. Universities and programs must encourage the
undergraduates to take the Engineer-in-Training [EIT] and the Professional Engineer
[PE] examinations at the earliest possible opportunity.


Innovative Program Approaches

An important aspect of university education is to ensure that there is an appropriate
balance between career-oriented education and general education, the so-called depth
and breadth of education. This is also one of the requirements of ABET. The former
prepares the college graduate for the first or even the second job and provides the
footing necessary to launch the lifetime contributions to society. The latter - the breadth
of education - is one that prepares the university graduate to adapt to the advances in
technology and social conditions. This ability to anticipate and adapt to changes are the
prime requirements for the succeeding jobs. It is the latter that would provide the
opportunity to broaden the learning beyond engineering to humanities and social
sciences, current issues, and emerging trends and to grow and contribute to the larger
society.

In an era of increasing knowledge, technology and issues, and demands for decreasing
the student credit hours for degree programs, finding the appropriate balance between
the depth and the breadth components is challenging. Clearly, innovative approaches
are necessary to ensure that breadth components are covered to the extent necessary
to understand, appreciate, analyze and contribute to the solution of the issues of the
future. Further, if the undergraduate experience has to be made exciting, creative,
adventurous and empowering, then much more needs to be done. Some universities
have programs, often available to students with superior academic performance, which
allow more flexibility in working across the curriculums. Occasionally, students
themselves decide to take an extra semester or two and broaden their background in
closely allied subjects as well as in business and management subjects. The provision of
dual-degree programs [engineering-business, engineering-sciences, and engineering-
liberal arts] has proven to be advantageous in terms of both broadening the college
experience and preparing for a greater choice in career paths during later years.

During the university experience, the student must be exposed to what can be expected
in the real world. Laboratory facilities, equipment and instrumentation must be modern.
Computational facilities and access to software used in the industry must be excellent.
Assignments as a part of course work must be challenging, integrating group/team
learning as well as promoting independent and personal learning. Teaching and learning
strategies must be appropriate to the materials being taught. Design problems must be
substantial, requiring use of all resources including the World Wide Web. While a senior
design project is an important component, enhancing its quality and content as well as
providing undergraduate research and thesis writing experiences can be rewarding.

Student membership in professional societies and attendance at the technical meetings
of the societies must be supported so as to facilitate interaction with professionals,
learning about professional activities, and meeting students from other institutions.
These are some of the best ways to take education and experiences outside the
traditional classroom.

Developing a strong relationship with the industry and professional societies is a must.
Traditionally, industry provides scholarships, summer jobs, and co-op opportunities, the
last two being very important for mining engineering programs. Academic programs
generally have industry advisory groups which meet generally on a yearly basis to
evaluate and provide advice on programs. Ways to enhance student interaction with
industry leaders in a more formal manner - real investment of time and intellect -
include formal lectures in courses, seminars on important technological and
management issues, and sponsorship and supervision of design projects. The professors
must also be actively involved with industry through research projects and work on
complex industrial design problems, making the connection between classroom teaching
and academic exercises with industrial practice.

In general, universities must develop stronger links with the two-year colleges and high
schools to ensure that entrants to the university are better prepared for their new phase
of academic learning. This is particularly important for disciplines like mining
engineering which is neither glamorous nor popular or for that matter, very well known
as a choice at the high schools. Activities that will promote such links can be inviting
faculty and students to visit the campus and the program, making presentations to the
students and faculty, and offering to train faculty and students at these institutions.

Whatever the forces that led a number of mining schools in Europe to join hands and
offer an outstanding international learning experience, it is an example worth emulating
by mining programs in other countries, even if necessary with semesters in other
universities in the same country. This exposure to international or other national
institutions is more relevant to the mining industry which provides human resources to
companies that work across the globe. What better way than to spend a couple of
semesters abroad and learn about the diversity in natural conditions and societal norms
as well as get educated in relevant subjects? This will also enable and enhance the
development of communication skills, greater independent learning and maybe new
language skills.

In addition to the need for curriculum issues, in several countries, the numbers of
mining engineering programs and funds available for mining research have been
declining. In particular in the U.S., the number of accredited programs has been
declining over the years. This trend, along with declining support for mining-specific
research, has endangered graduate programs and new faculty development. Innovative
approaches to address this shortage of mining/mineral engineering faculty are of critical
importance.

A comprehensive approach and total commitment of all concerned - the programs,
colleges, the university, industrial affiliates, etc. - are necessary to enhance the
undergraduate experience. All aspects - curriculum, laboratory work, interdisciplinary
approaches, teaching and learning strategies, faculty development, industry
involvement, international/multi-university involvement, interaction with high schools
students and teachers, program evaluation, etc. must be planned, introduced,
integrated and evaluated for superior results.



NAE Grand Challenge Scholars Program

One of the most recent and exciting programs for developing undergraduate programs
with special emphasis to serve in coming decades as leaders is found in the Grand
Challenges that were announced by the National Academy of Engineering in 2008 [NAE,
2008]. An NAE panel appointed in 2006 came up with 14 engineering challenges, which
fall into the four themes of sustainability, health, reducing vulnerability, and joy of living
that are essential for humanity to flourish. These fourteen challenges are:
1. Make solar energy affordable
2. Provide energy from fusion
3. Develop carbon sequestration methods
4. Manage the nitrogen cycle
5. Provide access to clean water
6. Restore and improve urban infrastructure
7. Advance health informatics
8. Engineer better medicines
9. Reverse-engineer the brain
10. Prevent nuclear terror
11. Secure cyberspace
12. Enhance virtual reality
13. Advance personalized learning
14. Engineer the tools for scientific discovery
According to the NAE president Charles Vest, "meeting these challenges would be 'game
changing.' Success with any one of them could dramatically improve life for everyone."
Several of these have relevance to mining engineering, as the ability to supply the
material needs of many of these challenges will be quite challenging. Developing earth
science and engineering curriculums that would respond to the four drivers of the Grand
Challenges is also of major concern.
A direct consequence of this Grand Challenges [GC] report was the announcement of
the NAE Grand Challenges Scholars Program [GCSP], a combined curricular and extra-
curricular program with five components that are designed to prepare students to be the
generation that solves the grand challenges facing society in this century. These five
components are [NAE, 2009]:
1. Research experience. Project or independent research related to a Grand
Challenge.
2. Interdisciplinary curriculum we call Engineering+. Preparing engineering
students to work at the overlap with public policy, business, law, ethics, human
behavior, risk as well as medicine and the sciences. Examples that span these
disciplines with a coherent theme are Energy and the Environment,
Sustainability, Uncertainty and Optimization, etc.
3. Entrepreneurship. Preparing students to translate invention to innovation; to
develop market ventures that scale to global solutions in the public interest.
4. Global dimension. Developing the students global perspective necessary to
address challenges that are inherently global as well as to lead innovation in a
global economy.
5. Service learning. Developing and deepening students social consciousness and
their motivation to bring their technical expertise to bear on societal problems.
Programs such as Engineers Without Borders, or Engineering World Health may
be adapted to satisfy this component and/or component 3.
At the present time, over 30 institutions have initiated GCSP in their institutions. With an
anticipated inflow of 20 to 30 students per institution and more institutions joining the
program, thousands of GCSP scholars are expected in the coming years. The guidelines
for universities to apply for starting a GCSP program at the universities on line can be
found on the NAE Grand Challenge Scholars website [NAE, 2009]. The proposal from the
Arizona State University [ASU, 2009] can serve as an example as to how to integrate
existing facilities with new initiatives to develop an exciting opportunity for
undergraduate students in engineering. Several of the programs have identified
agricultural, bio and bio-medical, computer, energy, environmental, and systems
engineering programs co-operating with management, life sciences, and social sciences
programs for developing GCSP in their institutions.
Clearly, all undergraduate programs can benefit from exploring the means by which
undergraduate engineering education can be made more of an enriching experience. For
mining engineering programs, fruitful linkages can be developed with civil engineering,
chemical engineering, energy engineering, environmental engineering, management
systems engineering, petroleum engineering, geography, geology, economics, finance,
cost accounting, and agriculture and forestry to name a few to develop a Earth
Resources Engineering GCSP.


Conclusions

The progress of human civilization from the Bronze Age to the Information Age took
over 5000 years. The Information Age looks rather old now, despite being only about
three to four decades in existence, as the Age of Insight is already maturing with the
amazing ability to see and image activities at any scale. Predicting future technologies or
social expectations is not only not easy but risky as well. Much of the developments in
the last twenty years - the things that are widely available today at an affordable price -
were not even there. These developments - cell phone, smart phone, digital camera,
world wide web [1990], broad band Internet [1996], laptops, GPS, Google library,
Facebook, DNA profiling, genetic sequencing, etc. to name a few - have changed the
way we work, live, and play. Advances in remote sensing, data transmission, and nano-
technologies are mind boggling as are advances in integrating biology with information
sciences. The hand-held devices of today pack-in more capabilities than the mainframe
computers of four decades ago. Robotics, intelligent machines, and autonomous
systems are beginning to make significant headway in a number of areas. If there is one
thing that is constant, that is change, rapid change. Therefore, educating engineers
today for a lifetime of contributions to society must really aim at developing their
knowledge and skills towards "creating innovative solutions to meet the needs of
people."

What is the relevance of all this to mining engineering education? Where is mining
engineering education headed? The answers to these questions really are with the
current leaders of mining engineering programs at the universities. Several programs
have already incorporated some of the approaches outlined in this paper. Resource
constraints are forcing others to do more with less and develop innovative
accommodations with other programs in the university. Unless these are planned, the
results can be less than optimal.

Fortunately, several of the proposals outlined here are aided by the knowledge and
experience on the advances in technology of the kids entering college today. These are
impressive and offer a challenge to the universities to build up from these new elevated
platforms of abilities of students and technology. University curriculums and more
importantly, university professors must be able to incorporate this advanced background
of its entrants in their course content and teaching and research exercises, respectively.
The tools, techniques, and methods for imparting education have changed to such an
extent that classroom and teacher have no longer the same traditional identifications.
Further, a lot of learning can take place outside of the classroom and in social and work
place settings. In fact, engineers must be educated and trained recognizing that the
university is only an intermediate station on a path of continuous lifelong learning to
meet the societal requirements by creating new solutions, new services, and new
products for emerging issues and problems. It is then we would have made the
universities "exciting, creative, adventurous, and empowering environments" as well.
Government, industry and universities must work together to ensure that adequate
resources are set aside to create educational initiatives that will make happen a
seamless transfer of individuals from pre-university to university to industry.


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