Dynamics of Rigid Bodies Merian Book 2005

V.
Rouillard 2003
1
Dynamics Introduction
DYNAMICS OF RIGID BODIES
(Notes based on textbook)
Textbook: Engineering Mechanics DYNAMICS: 5th Ed.
J.L. Meriam & L.G. Kraige
Plane kinematics of rigid bodies
Plane kinetics of rigid bodies
Force, Mass & Acceleration
Work & Energy
Impulse & momentum
Introductory 3-D dynamics of rigid bodies
3-D kinematics of rigid bodies
3-D kinetics of rigid bodies
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Some definitions
KINEMATICS: Study of motion without reference to the forces which cause the motion
KINETICS: deals with the forces acting on a body and the resulting motion
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Some definitions
RIGIDBODY
Rigid body: a body whose changes in shape are negligible compared to the overall dimensions or
positional changes of the body as a whole OR distance between any two points within the body
remain constant under the application of forces. As a consequence, the angle between any two
lines on the rigid body does not change.
Thus a rigid body can be considered as a continuous system of particles, the distance between
any two particles and the angle between any two lines do not change.
Actually all bodies deform under the action of forces (this is considered in the subject of SOLID
MECHANICS).
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Dynamics Plane kinematics of rigid bodies
Plane motion
A rigid body executes plane motion when all parts of the body move in parallel planes.
Motion occurs in the same plane as that of the bodys centre of mass
Body is treated as 2-D (sheet)
Motion confined to pane of sheet
This describes a significant number of rigid body motion encountered in engineering
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Plane motion
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Plane motion Translation
Translation: Body remains parallel no rotation
Rectilinear translation: body moves in parallel straight lines
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Plane motion Translation
Translation: Body remains parallel no rotation
Rectilinear translation: body moves in parallel straight lines
Curvilinear translation: body moves along congruent (identical) curves
During translation the motion of the whole body is completely described by the motion of any
one particle in the body. Therefore, the translation of any rigid body can be described by with
theories for Particle Kinematics
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Plane motion Rotation
Fixed-axis rotation: All particles in body move in circular paths about the same axis of rotation. All
lines Perpendicular to the axis of rotation rotate thru the same angle in the same time.
Therefore, the circular motion of a single particle can be used to describe the rotational motion of
a rigid body.
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Plane motion General plane motion
General plane motion: Combination of translation and rotation.
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Because is constant, the derivative of (1) with respect to time gives:
(2)
i.e. lines 1 and 2 have the same angular velocity.
Plane motion Rotation
1
and
2
are the angularpositions of arbitrary line 1 and 2 respectively.
is the angle between lines 1 and 2.
(1)

2 1
= +
d dt d dt or
2 1 2 1
0 0 / /

= + = +
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Differentiating (1) again gives:
(3)
d / dt d / dt or = + = +
2 2 2 2
2 1 2 1
0 0

All lines on a rigid body in its plane of motion have the same angular
displacement, same angular velocity and the same angular acceleration.
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Relationships of angular motion
The angular velocity and acceleration are the first and second derivative of the angular position
respectively:
Angular velocity:
Angular Acceleration:
or
= = = = d dt v ds dt s /

( /

) ( ) 1
= = = = d dt a dv dt v a /

( /

) ( ) 2
= = = = d dt a d s dt s b
2 2 2 2
2 /

( /

) ( )
Eliminating dt from (1) and (2):
or
d d vdv ads a = = ( ) ( ) 3

(

) ( ) d d sds sds b = = 3
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Relationships of angular motion
For constant angular acceleration, (2a) and (3a) can be integrated directly:
rearranging d dt
or t d dt
t
( ):
( )
2a
4
0
0
0

=
= = +
z z
rearranging d d
or d d
( )
( )
( ) ( )
3a
5
0 0
2
0
2
0
2
0
2
0
2
2

=
=

=
= +
z z
rearranging d dt and substituting for
or t
t
t
t
d t dt
t
( ):
( )
( )
1
6
0
0
0
0 0
2
0 0
2
2
2

=
= = +
= + +
z z
+
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Rotation about a fixed axis
All points, except for those on the axis, move in concentric circles about 0.
v r
a r v r v
a r
n
t
=
= = =
=
2 2
/
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Using vector notation (2-D), the angular velocity may be expressed by the vector as
shown below (right hand rule).
The vector v is obtained by crossing into r as follows:
v r r
r v
= =

( , , )
remember because of the RHR gives

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The acceleration of point A is obtained by differentiating
v r =
which gives:
a v r r
r r
v r
= = +
= +
= +

( )

Summary of vector expressions:
v r
a r
a r
=
=
=
n
t
( )
Sample problems: 5/1, 5/2, 5/3
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Absolute motion
Approach:
use dimensional (geometrical) relationships between points within the rigid body to
calculate the temporal derivatives to obtain velocities and accelerations.
Make sue to be consistent when defining directions (polarity)
If the geometry of the application is easily described, then the absolute motion
approach is useful and straightforward.
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Relative velocity
The vector representation of relative velocities of two particles A and B is written as:
v v v r r r
A A A A
= + = +
B B B B
remember
/ /
( : )
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Relative velocity due to rotation
If we choose two points on the same rigid body, the motion of one point as seen by the other must
be circular as the distance between the two points never changes.
A
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Relative to point B, the rigid body appears to undergo a fixed axis rotation about B with point A
following a circular arc of angle as shown below.
Conversely, if point A was chosen as the reference, point B would have been observed to follow a
circular arc of angle - as shown below.
r r
B A / / A B
=
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Dividing the above by the corresponding time interval t, and applying the limit, we obtain the relative
velocity equation:
Also, the magnitude of the relative velocity is:
Using r to represent the vector r
A/B
,
the velocity vector may be written as:
r r r
A A
= +
B B /
A
v v v
A A
= +
B B /
v r
B A/
=
v r
A/ B
=
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Relative velocity
The relative linear velocity, V
A/B
, is always perpendicular to the line joining the two points.
Always sketch the vector polygon
Use two orthogonal sets of scalar equations or one set of vector equations.
Sample problems: 5/7, 5/8, 5/9, 5/10
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Instantaneous centre of zero velocity
Previously, the velocity of a point on a RB in plane motion was determined by adding the relative
velocity due to rotation about a convenient reference point to the velocity of the reference point.
We now achieve the same result by choosing the reference point such that its velocity is
momentarily zero.
In terms of velocity, the body may be assumed to be in pure rotation about an axis normal to the
plane of motion, which passes through this reference point.
That axis is the Instantaneous axis of zero velocity
The intersection of the axis to the plane of motion is the Instantaneous centre of zero velocity
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Locating the instantaneous centre of zero velocity
The existence of the is evident for all conditions:
If there is a point about which the point A has absolute circular motion (rotation) then this is along a
line normal to the velocity vector V
A
The same applies to point B on the rigid body
The instantaneous centre of zero velocity lies at the intersection of these lines
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If the magnitude of one of the points, say A, is known then the angular velocity can be easily
determined:
= = v r v r
A A B B
/ /
as well as the linear velocity of every point in the body.
Once the instantaneous centre of zero velocity is located, the direction of the instantaneous velocity
is easily established as it must be perpendicular to the line joining the centreand the point in
question.
= = v r v r
A A n n
/ /
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If the velocities of two arbitrary points in the body are parallel, then the centre of zero velocity is
established by direct proportion as shown in (b) and (c) below. It can also be seen that as the
magnitude of the parallel velocities converge, the centreis driven toward infinity until the motion of
the body transforms to pure translation.
Sample problems: 5/11, 5/12
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Relative acceleration
J ust as before, by differentiating the relative velocity equation wrt time, the relative acceleration
equation is obtained:
Relative acceleration due to rotation
Using a similar arrangement as before whereby the relative motion between two points on a rigid
body is circular, it follows that the relative acceleration will consist of a normal component (due to the
change in direction of the relative velocity vector, V
A/B
) and a tangential component (due to the
change in magnitude of the relative velocity vector, V
A/B
) . Therefore:

/ /
v v v a a a
A A A A
= + = +
B B B B
or
a a a a
A A A
( = + +
B B n B t
( ) )
/ /
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The magnitudes of the relative acceleration components are:
In vector notation, the acceleration components are:
Both relative acceleration components are a function of the absolute angular velocity and
absolute angular acceleration.
( ) /
)

/ /
/ /

A A
A A
(
B n B
B t B
v r r
v r
= =
= =
2 2
( ) ( )
)
/
/
a r
a r
A
A
(
B n
B t
=
=

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Unlike velocities, the acceleration vectors a
A
and a
B
are
not generally tangent to the curvilinear paths of A and B.
a a a a a a
A A A A
A A
A A
(
(
= + = + +
= =
= =
B B B B n B t
B n B
B t B
v r r
v r
/ / /
/ /
/ /
( ) )
( ) /
)

2 2
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As for the relative velocity equation, the relative acceleration equation can be solved by three
alternative methods:
Scalar algebra and geometry
Vector algebra
Graphical construction
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Dynamics Plane kinetics of rigid bodies
Semester 1:
Work & Energy
Impulse & momentum
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Kinetics
Kinetics deals with the forces acting on a body and the resulting motion of the body.
The definitions of a 2-D, plane rigid body still apply with the mass centre of the body located on
the plane of motion.
All forces will be projected on the plane of motion.
Three general approaches are used to solve kinetic problems
The force mass acceleration method (Newtons law)
The work energy method
The impulse and momentummethod
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Kinetics
In additions to the two force equations of motion required to solve plane (2-D) particle motion,
plane rigid bodies require a third equation (a moment equation) to describe the rotation of the
body.
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Dynamics Plane kinetics of rigid bodies Force, Mass & Acceleration
Semester 1:
Work & Energy
Impulse & momentum
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Force, mass & acceleration general equations of motion
For a general body in three dimensions, the resultant of the external forces acting on the body
equates to the product of the body mass and the acceleration of its centre of mass:
The resultant moment of the external forces about the centre of mass, G, equals the temporal
rate of change of the angular momentumof the body about its centre of mass:
F = a m
M H
G G
=
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The external forces acting on the body can be replaced by a resultant force and a corresponding
moment acting through the centre of mass
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Recall: the angular momentumof the mass system(body) about its centre of mass, G, is the sum
of the moments of the linear momenta of all particles about G:
where
i
is the position vector relative to G of the partical of mass m
i
.
For the rigid body, the velocity of m
i
relative to G is:
The magnitude of H
g
becomes:
The summation which may also be expressed as
is defined as the mass moment of inertia, I
G
or , of
the body about the z axis through G.
H
G i i i
x m Eqn =
( . . ) 48

=
H
G i i i i
m m = =

2 2
2
z
dm
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We may nowwrite:
H
G
I =
where the mass moment of inertia, , is a property of the body and is proportional to its resistance
to change in rotational velocity due to the radial distribution of mass around the z-axis through the
centre of mass, G. This resistance is called rotational inertia.
Demonstration
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By substituting for H
G
:

G G
I I = = =

Summary of Newtons 2
nd
law (vectorised):
F a = m
G
I =

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Radius of gyration, k
z,
is a measure of the distribution of mass about the axis in question.
I r dm
k I m or I mk
z
z z z z
=
= =
z
2
2
/
k represents the distance fromthe axis at which the mass m of the body would be concentrated to
produce the moment of inertia.
Parallel axis theorem: If the moment of inertia of a body about an axis passing through the centre
of mass, G, is known, the moment of inertia about any parallel axis can be determined as follows:
where d is the distance between the two axes.
In terms of radius of gyration, k:
I I md
z zG
= +
2
k k d
G
2 2 2
= +
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Alternative moment equations.
By applying the familiar principle that the sumof the moments about a point P is equal to the
combined moment about P of their sum:
For a rigid body in plane motion: and the cross product is simply the moment
of about P , or: . Therefore:

p G
H m = +
a
ma H
G
I =
ma mad
p
I mad = +

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Alternatively, the moment equation can be written as:

p p rel p
H m Eqn = +
(

) ( . . ) a 413
For a rigid body in plane motion, if P is fixed to the body then:
If then P becomes the centre of mass G then
``

p p p
I m = +
a
= 0

p G
I = =

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Interconnected bodies: where kinematic motions are related.
F a a a = m
1 1 2 2
+ = m m
p
I I m a d m a d I m ad = + + + = +
1 1 2 2 1 1 1 2 2 2

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Force, mass & acceleration Translation
Recall: By definition, translation of a rigid body excludes rotational motion: every line on the body
always remains parallel to its original position.
Rectilineal translation: All points move in straight lines
Curviliear translation: All points move on identical curved paths.
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Consequently, the angular velocity, , and the angular acceleration, , are zero such that:
For rectilinear translation, if the x axis is made
to correspond with the direction of motion,
then the two components of
the force vector become:
F a M = = =

m and I
G
0
F = a
F = a
x x
y y
m
m
= 0
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For curvilinear translation, if we choose the axes to correspond to the n (normal) and t (tangential)
cordinates, then the two components of the force vector become:
In both cases,
F = a
F = a
n n
t t
m
m

M
G
I = =
0
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Vehicle friction example
Slip
After Hill et al. Tyre-road friction estimation

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Force, mass & acceleration Fixed axis rotation
Recall: For fixed axis rotation all lines of the RB undergo the same angular velocity and the same
angular acceleration ,
For fixed axis rotation, the aceleration components of the mass centre are best expressed with the n-
t (normal and tangent) coordinates such that
a r and a r
n t
= =
2
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The general equations for plane motion may be applied:
F m M I
G
= a

=
And the force equation can be divided into its two scalar components:
F r and F r
n t
= m = m
2

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For fixed-axis rotation, it is convenient to apply the moment equation to the axis of rotation O:
Fromthe kinetic diagram, the moments of the resultants about O becomes:
Applying the parallel axis theorem gives:
When the axis of rotation corresponds to the centre of mass, G, then
leaving
M
o o
I =

M
o t
I m a r = +

I I m r
o
= +
2
M I m r m r I
o o o
= + =
(
2 2
)
a therefore F =

0 0 =
as the remaining resultant of the applied forces.
I
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If we choose a point Q along the line OG, such that the moments about O are equal:
Point Q is called the Centre of Percussion and is the only point through which the resultant of all
forces acting on the body passes. As a concequence, the sumof all moments about Q is always
zero. Also, an impulsive force acting on the body at Q will minimise the reaction at O. Eg: sweet
spot.
M m r r I m r q
I m k
m r m k m r q
r k r q
q
r k
r
r k k then
q
k
r
o G
G G
G
G
G
G o
o
substituting for k radius of gyration about G
Applying the parallel axis theorem
G
= + =
=
+ =
+ =
=
+
+
=
=
=
( )
( )
:

2
2 2
2 2
2 2
2 2 2
2
Demonstration
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Force, mass & acceleration General plane motion
Recall: Rigid body dynamics in general plane motion combine translation and rotation.
Again, the general equations for plane motion may be applied:
F m M I
G
= a

=
Sample problems: 6/5, 6/6, 6/7, 6/8
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Force, mass & acceleration General plane motion
Considerations when solving plane-motion problems:
Choice of coordinate system: Carefully chose between rectangular (x,y), normal-tangential or
polar coordinates such that the acceleration of the centre of mass is easily described.
Choice of moment equation: Careful choice may result in great simplification of the problem:
About the centre of mass
About a point P whose acceleration is known
About the point of rotation whose acceleration is zero
Determine whether the motion of particular elements is constrained or not
Determine the number of unknowns and develop the same number of independant equations
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Dynamics Plane kinetics of rigid bodies: Work & Energy
Semester 1:
Work & Energy
Impulse & momentum
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Work and Energy
In the previous section, the instantaneous relationship between the forces acting on the body and
the resulting acceleration (linear and angular) was established by applying Newtons second law
(F = ma).
Velocities and displacement were obtained by integration wrt time.
In this section, we will study the cummulative effect of the forces acting on the body with respect to
the displacement of the body.
Integration of force as a function of displacement leads to the solution for Work and Energy.
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Work-Energy relationships Forces and Couples
U d =
z
F r
Recall: In general terms the work done by a force F is given by:
U F ds U F ds
t
= =
z z
cos( )
The effective force is done by the force component acting
along the motion of the particle or body:
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Work-Energy relationships Forces and Couples
Work done by couples also need to be evaluated:
When the couple M = Fb acts on a rigid body, the body rotates through an angle d during the
time interval dt and the line AB is displaced to AB.
(Equivalent to translation to AB followed by rotation d about A)
When a pure couple is applied, the translational work done by the forces are cancelled and the
resulting work done is:
dU F b d M d = =
U M d =
z

During a finite rotation, the work done by a couple M
acting in the plane parallel to the plane of rotation is:
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Work-Energy relationships Kinetic Energy
In translation (both rectilinear and curvilinear) the kinetic energy of the entire rigid body is simply
the sumof the kinetic energy of all individual particles which make up the rigid body:
T mv v m
or
T m v
i i
= =
=

1
2
2
1
2
2
1
2
2
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Correspondingly, during fixed-axis rotation, about O,
the kinetic energy is:
T m r m r
i i i i
= =

1
2
2 2
1
2
2 2

sin ( ) , ce m r I moment of inertia then
T I
i i o
o
=
=
2
1
2
2
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For general plane motion, the bodys velocity is a combination of the centre of mass linear
velocity, v and and its angular velocity .
The velocity v
i
of a particle with mass m
i
is composed of the centre of mass velocity v and the
relative velocity
i
v
i

i
v
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Using the same approach as before, we express the kinetic energy of the rigid body as the sumof
the kinetic energy of all its constituant particles m
i
.
We apply the cos rule to resolve the velocity components:
T mv m v v
i i i i i
= = + +

1
2
2
1
2
2 2 2
2 ( cos )
v
i

i
v
Factoring v and we obtain:
T v m m v m
i i i i
i
= + +

1
2
2
1
2
2 2
cos
sin
cos
( )
ce
v m v m y my
Centre of mass
i
i
i
i

= = = 0
Then
T mv I
:
= +
1
2
2
1
2
2
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T mv I = +
1
2
2
1
2
2
Linear + Angular
This expression reveals the individual contribution of the translational velocity v and the rotational
velocity to the total kinetic energy of the rigid body.
If the total velocity is expressed as a function of the instantaneous centre of zero velocity, then
the total kinetic energy is:
T mv I
C
= +
1
2
2
1
2
2
=0
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Work-Energy relationships Potential Energy
In general terms, the total work, U, done on a body consists of:
the kinetic energy, T
the gravitational potential energy, Vg
and the elastic potential energy (also known as strain energy), Ve
The conservation of energy equation applies to any mechanical systemand is written as:
U T V V
g e 1 2
= + +
When rigid bodies are involved, no deformation occurs and the elastic potential energy term
reduces to zero such that:
U T V
g 1 2
= +
U accounts for other type of energy such as friction (unrecoverable energy) and spring forces
(recoverable in reality partially).
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Work-Energy relationships Potential Energy
When solving rigid body problems with the work-energy method, a free-body diagramor an active-
force diagramshould be used.
Also use diagrams to illustrate the initial and final position of the body(ies) for the given interval of
motion
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Work-Energy relationships Power
Recall: Power is the temporal rate of change of work or the rate at which work is done.
Consider a force F acting on a rigid body in plane motion (2-D) the instantateneous power
developed by that force is written as:
P
dU
dt
d
dt
= =

=
F r
F v
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Similarly, when a couple M acts on a body, the power developed by the couple at a given instant is
the temporal rate of change of the work done:
P
dU
dt
d
dt
= =

=
M
M

If the directions of M is the same as that of then the
power is positive and energy is delivered to the body.
Conversely, if the direction of M and are opposite,
power is
ve
and energy is taken out of the body.
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When a force F and a couple M act on a body simultaneously, then the total power is:
P M = + F v
Power can be obtained fromthe rate of change of the total mechanical energy of the body.
For an infinitesimal displacement 1 2, the power is:
dU dT dV dV
g e 1 2
= + +
The total power of the active forces and couples is obtained by dividing throughout by dt:
P
dU
dt
dT
dt
dV
dt
dV
dt
g
e
= = + +
1 2
Since the kinetic energy T can be written as a combination of the rectilinear and angular
kinetic energies, then:
dT
dt
d
dt
m I m I = + = + +
1
2
1
2
2
1
2
v v a v v a
e j
a f

= + = + m I M a v R v
Where R and M are the resultant of all forces and moment about the mass centre,
respectively, acting in the body.
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Semester 1:
Work & Energy
Impulse & momentum
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Dynamics Plane kinetics of rigid bodies: Impulse & Momentum
Impulse & Momentum
Previous lecture:
Focused on work and energy which were obtained by integration the equations of motion with
respect to displacement.
The velocity change was expressed in terms of work done or overall change in mechanical energy
of the body.
This lecture:
The equations of motion will be integrated wrt time
This will generate to the equations for impulse and momentum
These are useful for forces acting over short durations - transients and impacts
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Impulse & Momentum Linear Impulse & Momentum
Recall, for particles, the basic equation of motion is:
F v v
= = = m
d
dt
m G
( )

This is Newtons second lawin terms of momentumG.
The effect of the resultant force F on the linear momentum
of the particle over a finite period of time can be obtained by
integration wrt time:
F v v
z
= = =
t
t
dt m m G G G
1
2
1 2 1 2

Change in
linear
momentum
Linear
impulse
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Alternatively:
Wich states that the final linear momentumof the body
is equal to the initial linear momentumplus the linear
impulse.
G dt G
t
t
1
1
2
2
+ =
z
F
As well as for particles, this equation applies to rigid
bodies where, in plane motion, it may be useful to
express it in scalar form:
G F dt G and G F dt G
x x
t
t
x y y
t
t
y 1
1
2
2 1
1
2
2
+ = + =
z

z
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The linear impulse momentumequation must take into account all external forces acting on the
body.
It is therefore important to construct a complete free-body diagramwhen solving impulse &
momentumproblems
Note: Although work is generated only if the resultant of forces induce motion, impulses occur
whether or not motion (work) is generated by the rigid body.
V. Rouillard 2003
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Impulse & Momentum Angular Impulse & Momentum
As with the linear case, Newtons second lawfor angular motion can be written as a function of
angular momentumabout the bodys centre of mass, H
G
:
M I I
d
dt
H
G G
= = =

Integrating wrt time over a finite period we obtain the angular impulse-momentumequation:
M dt I I H H H
t
t
G G G
z
= = =
1
2
2 1
2 1

Which means that the angular impulse about the centre of mass produced by all forces acting
on the body results in a corresponding change in the bodys angular momentum.
Note: This equation is valid only for angular momentumabout the centre of mass of the rigid
body.
Hint: Be sure to establish a sign convention (ie: ccw+ve) and assign the direction of all
moments and angular momenta. A complete free-body diagramis essential.
V. Rouillard 2003
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Impulse & Momentum Conservation of Momentum
If there is no external impulse (transient force) acting on the body, momentumis conserved.
Example: when two objects collide, the total (combined) momentumafter the collision is equal
the total (combined) momentumbefore the collision.
Recall for linear momentum:
m m
i
i
n
i i
i
n
i
= ( ) ( ) v v
1 2
Where i represents an object in a group of objects.
As usual, for plane (2D) motion, the equation is applied independently for the suitable mutually
perpendicular axes: x,y or n,t.
Similarly, for rigid bodies in plane motion, the angular momentumis also conserved:
I I
i
i
n
i i
i
n
i
= ( ) ( )
1 2
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Impulse & Momentum Impact of rigid bodies
Consider to rigid bodies, A & B, travelling with arbitrary linear and
angular velocities v
A
, v
B
and
A
,
B
respectively.
A
B
P
VA
B
A
VB
We shall assume, reasonably, that, unlike particles, the objects will
impact each other at a point other than their centre of mass.
This will generate moments and result in the spinning of one or both
objects.
We can expect that the impact will cause the linear and angular
velocities of both objects to change to v
A
, v
B
and
A
,
B
.
Potentially, there will be up to six unknowns as the linear velocities will
have components in the mutually perpendicular x and y directions for
plane (2D) motion.
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A
B
P
VA
B
A
VB
VBPx
VAPx
The coefficient of restitution, e, is dependent on the properties of the
materials involved.
We also apply the conservation of momentumprinciple in the linear x
and y directions:
x
y
If we carefully chose the orientation of the x and y axes, the coefficient
of restitution can be determined fromthe velocities in the plane
perpendicular to the line of impact:
e
lative velocity after
lative velocity before
v v
v v
BPx APx
BPx APx
= =

Re
Re
mv mv and mv mv
x x y y
= =
V. Rouillard 2003
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A
B
P
VA
B
A
VB
VBPx
VAPx
This also applies to any arbitrary (convenient) point, in this case, P.
x
y
rA
rB
Similarly, we can apply the conservation of momentumprinciple for the
rotational motion. In general terms, the angular momentumis taken
about the axis of rotation O:
H H
o o
=
H H
P P
=
( )

( )

( )

( )

r v r v
r v r v
A A A A B B B B
A A A A B B B B
m k I m k I
m k I m k I
+ + + =
+ + +

Recall: term for
angular momentum
of particles
In many cases the problemis simplified when one of the bodies is a
particle or is pined about a fixed point.
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Dynamics 3-D Dynamics of Rigid Bodies
Semester 1:
Work & Energy
Impulse & momentum
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Dynamics 3-D Dynamics of Rigid Bodies
Many engineering problemrequire analysis in 3 dimensions.
This adds considerable complexity to the kinematic & kinetic relationships:
A third vectorial component is introduced to linear quantities
Two additional vectorial components are introduced for angular quantities
Vector analysis is essential for solving 3-D problems
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Dynamics 3-D Kinematics of Rigid Bodies
Semester 1:
Work & Energy
Impulse & momentum
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Dynamics 3-D Kinematics of Rigid Bodies: Translation
Recall: For translation motion every line in the body remains parallel to its original position
The motion of any point in the body is described as:
r r r
A B A B
= +
/
As r
A/B
remains costant, its time derivative is zero.
v v
A B
=
All the points in the body have the same velocity and acceleration:
a a
A B
=
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Dynamics 3-D Kinematics of Rigid Bodies: Fixed-Axis Rotation
.
.
Note: For fixed-axis rotation, the direction of the velocity vector, , does not change.
Any point A which is not on the axis of rotation has a circular path in a plane normal
to the axis of rotation and has a velocity:
v h b h b r = + = + =
=
( )
0
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Dynamics 3-D Kinematics of Rigid Bodies: Fixed-Axis Rotation
.
.
The velocity, v, of point A is differentiated wrt time to obtain its acceleration:
a r r = +
( )
a r
t
b = =

a r
n
b = = ( )
2
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Dynamics 3-D Kinematics of Rigid Bodies: Rotation @ Fixed Point
When rotation takes place about a fixed point, the direction of the angular velocity
vector changes.
This requires a more general approach to rotation:
Rotation and Proper Vectors
For finite rotations in 3D the parallelogramlawof addition does not apply and the
vectors may not be treated as proper vectors.
Finite rotations
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When the rotations in 3D are infinitesimal, the paths (short circular arcs) approach
straight lines and they obey the law of vector addition:
.
Infinitesimal rotations
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Instantaneous Axis of Rotation
Example:
Imagine a cylindrical rotor made of clear plastic
impregnated with numerous black dots.
The cylinder rotates about the horizontal shaft which is, in
turn, rotated about a vertical axis.
Both angular velocities are constant.
If the system was photographed at any instant, the
exposure would reveal a line (O n) of well-defined black
dots (A) which, at that instant, have zero velocity. ie: the
velocity components from both rotations will be equal in
magnitude but opposite in direction.
All other dots (P) will appear blurred (streaked in circular
arcs) indicating that their velocity is not zero.
Angular velocity vector
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Body and Space Cones
If a series of photographs were taken, it would reveal
that the location of the instantaneous axis of rotation
changes both in space and relative to the body.
In this example, with time, the instantaneous axis of
rotation follows a circular conical path about the cylinder
axis (Body cone).
As the rotational motions progress, the
instantaneous axis of rotation also follows a
second circular conical path about the vertical axis
(Space cone)
The body cone appears to roll on the space cone.
The angular velocity of the cylinder lies along the
shared plane.
Space & body cones
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Angular Acceleration
Recall: In the case where rotation occurs in a single
plane, the angular acceleration, , is a scalar which
represents a change in magnitude of the angular
velocity.
In 3-D motion, the angular acceleration, , is a vector
which represents a change in magnitude and direction
of the angular velocity.
The tip of the velocity vector, , follows the space
curve, p, and changes both in magnitude and direction,
the angular acceleration, , is a tangent to that curve,
p.
.
V. Rouillard 2003
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.
.
r =
=

Angular Acceleration
When the magnitude of remains constant, is
perpendicular to .
If we let be the angular velocity of the rotation
(precession) of the vector as it follows the space
cone, then:
=
V. Rouillard 2003
90
.
.
If we consider n-n to be the instantaneous axis of rotation, the expressions for the
velocity and acceleration of any point A are given by the same vectorial
expressions as for fixed-axis rotation:
v r =
a r r = +
( )
a r
t
b = =

a r
n
b = = ( )
2
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The only difference between fixed-axis rotation and fixed-point rotation is as follows:
With fixed axis rotation, the angular acceleration = has a single component along the
fixed axis due to the change in the magnitude of
With fixed-point rotation the angular acceleration of any point A has two components:
1. In the direction of due to change in the magnitude of and
2. Perpendicular to due to change in the direction (precesssion) of
Although a point on the rotation axis will have zero velocity, it will
not have zero acceleration due to the change in direction of .
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Dynamics 3-D Kinematics of Rigid Bodies: General Motion
The principles of relative motion are useful when solving
problems in 3-D.
Translating Reference Axes:
We select a convenient point B as the origin of a translating
reference systemx-y-z.
The velocity v and acceleration a of any other point on the body
(A in this case) are given by the relative velocity and relative
acceleration formulae:
These equations, developed for the 2D case, also apply to 3D situations.
In 3-D, observing fromB, the body appears to rotate about B and point A appears to lie on a
spherical surface of which B is the centre.
Therefore, the general motion is the translation of B (thus the body) + the 3-D rotation of the
body about point B.
v v v a a a
A B A/ B A A/ B
= + = + and
B
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The relative motion terms are identical to the velocity and
acceleration expressions developed previously. Therefore the
velocity at A becomes:
Although the reference point B can be chosen arbitrarily, it is ofen
the case that this point coincides with the centre of mass of the
body when solving kinetic problems.
v v v v r
A B A/ B B
= + = +
A B /
And the acceleration at A becomes:
A B A B B A/ B A/ B
( ) + = + = +
/
r r a a a a
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Rotating Reference Axes:
For more general cases, the reference axes need to rotate
and translate.
As before, the origin of the axes of reference x-y-z, B, is
translating. In addition, the references axes are also made
to rotate with an absolute angular velocity while the body
rotates with an angular velocity .

i i j j k k = = =
v v r v
A B rel
= + +
A B /
a a r r v a
A B A B A B rel rel
= + + + +
/ /
( ) 2
V. Rouillard 2003
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Semester 1:
Work & Energy
Impulse & momentum
V. Rouillard 2003
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Dynamics 3-D Kinetics of Rigid Bodies: Inertia
Principal Axes.
The moments and products of inertia can be used to completely characterise the inertial
properties of a 3D body as follows:
I I I
I I I
I I I
xx xy xz
yx yy yz
zx zy zz

F
H
G
G
G
I
K
J
J
J
This matrix is called the inertia tensor (matrix) and has a unique set of values for a body for each
location of the point of origin O.
As the orientation of the axes relative to the body is changed, the values for the moments and
products of inertia will aslo vary.
For a given point of origin there exists a unique orientation of the x,y,z for which the products of inertia
vanish and the inertia matrix reduces to:
I
I
I
xx
yy
zz
0 0
0 0
0 0
F
H
G
G
I
K
J
J
In this case I
xx
, I
yy
and I
zz
are referred to as the principal moments of inertia where two of the
values will be the minimum and maximum moments of inertia for the body.
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Moments and Products of Inertia
Recall: In planar kinetic analysis of rigid bodies, the moment of inertia, I
G
, about an axis
perpendicular to the plane of motion (rotation) thru the centre of mass needed to be calculated.
In 3-D, it is sometimes necessary to calculate six inertial quantities, called the moments and
products of inertia, which describe the distribution of mass of a body relative to a given coordinate
systemwhich has a specific orientation and origin.
x
z
Moment of inertia:
For the body shown, the moment of inertia of the
differential element dm of the body about one of the
three coordinate axes is defined as the product of the
mass and the square of the shortest distance formthe
axis to the element. Eg: about the x axis:
dI r dm y z dm
xx x
= = +
2 2 2
e j
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I
xx
is obtained by integrating over the entire mass of the body :
I r dm y z dm
xx x
m m
= = +
z z
2 2 2
e j
Similarly:
I r dm x z dm
yy y
m m
= = +
z z
2 2 2
e j
As expected, moments of inertia are always positive quantities.
I r dm x y dm
zz z
m m
= = +
z z
2 2 2
e j
x
z
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Products of inertia:
The product of inertia of a differential element dm is defined wrt a pair of ortogonal planes as the
product of the mass of the element and the perpendicular (shortest) distances fromthe planes to
the element. Eg:, wrt the x-z and y-z planes:
dI xy dm
xy
=
dI dI
xy yx
=
Note:
The products of inertia for every combination of planes is
obtained by integrating over the entire mass of the body
and are expressed as:
I I xy dm
I I yz dm
I I xz dm
xy yx
m
yz zy
m
xz zx
m
= =
= =
= =
z
z
z
x
z
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I I xy dm I I yz dm I I xz dm
xy yx
m
yz zy
m
xz zx
m
= = = = = =
z z z
Products of inertia can be negative or zero. If one or both ortogonal planes are planes of
symetry for the body, the product of inertia with respect to these planes will be zero. In such
cases the elements of mass occur in pairs on each side of the plane of symetry. On one side of
the plane the PoI will be negative and on the other positive. Example:
Left: the y-z plane is a plane of symetry; for point O, I
xz
= I
xy
= 0 and I
yz
= +ve.
Right: the x-z and y-z plane are planes of symetry; for point O, I
xz
= I
xy
= I
yz
= 0
x
y
z
x
y
z
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Parallel axis and parallel plane theorems.
Recall: the // axis theoremis used to transfer the moment of inertia of a body about an axis
thru its centre of mass to a parallel axis passing thru another point.
I I m y z
I I m x z
I I m x y
xx x x G G G
yy y y G G G
xx z z G G G
= + +
= + +
= + +

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
2 2
2 2
2 2
If G has the coordinates x
G
, y
G
, z
G
then the // axis
relationships used to calculate the moments of inertia
about x, y and z are given by:
x
z
y
x
z
y
V. Rouillard 2003
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The parallel plane theoremis used to transfer the products of inertia of a body froma set of
three orthogonal planes passing thru the bodys centre of mass to a corresponding set of three
parallel planes passing thru some other point O.
I I mx y
I I my z
I I mz x
xy x y G
G G
yz y z G
G G
zx z x G
G G
= +
= +
= +

( )
( )
( ) x
z
y
x
z
y
Defining the perpendicular distances between the
planes as x
G
, y
G
, z
G
, the parallel plane equations are
given by:
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Dynamics 3-D Kinetics of Rigid Bodies: Angular Momentum
Recall:
The angular momentumof a rigid body about its centre of mass, G, is the sumof the moments about
G of the linear momenta of all elements in the body:
H m
G i i i
=
v
where v
i
is the absolute velocity of mass element m
i
.
For the 3D rigid body:
v v
i i
= +
where x
i
is the relative velocity of mass element m
i
wrt G as
seen fromthe main axes X Y Z.
The angular momentumequation may be written as:
H m
G i i i i i
= +

m v ( )
Since m
i
i
= m
i
mean
= 0 and substituting dm for m
i
and for
i
:
H
G
dm =
z
( )
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When the 3D rigid body rotates about a fixed point, O, with an
angular velocity , the angular momentumabout O
H m
O i i i
=
r v
where v
i
= x r
i
.
When substituting dm for m
i
and r (distance b/w centre of mass and
the fixed point O) for r
i
the angular momentumabout O is:
H
O
dm =
z
r r ( )
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Note that both H
G
and H
O
take the form:
H dm =
z
( )
Expressing H, and in terms of x,y and z components gives:
H H H x y z x y z
x y z x y z
dm i j k i j k i j k i j k + + = + + + + + +
z

b g c h b g

Expanding the cross product, combining the respective i, j and k components and recognising that
the integrals represent the moments and products of inertia, we obtain:
H I I I
H I I I
H I I I
x xx x xy y xz z
y yx x yy y yz z
z zx x zy y zz z
=
= +
= +

H i
j
k
=
+ +
+ +
I I I
I I I
I I I
xx x xy y xz z
yx x yy y yz z
zx x zy y zz z

c h
c h
c h
or
If the orientation of the x,y and z axes were such that they represented the principal axes of
inertia, the products of inertia I
xy
= I
yz
=I
zx
= 0 and the three components of the angular
momentumbecome:
H I H I H I
x xx x y yy y z zz z
= = =
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Angular momentum transfer principle:
The angular momentumof a rigid body can be represented by the
sumof two resultant momenta:
The linear momentumvector G thru the centre of mass
The angular momentumH about the centre of mass
H H G
P G
= + r
The vectors G and H are analogous to a force and a couple
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Dynamics 3-D Kinetics of Rigid Bodies: Kinetic Energy
Recall:
The general expression for kinetic energy:
T m m
i i
= +

1
2
2
1
2
2
v

Translational + Angular
Where v is the velocity of the centre of mass and
i
is the position vector of a representative mass
element of mass m
i
wrt the centre of mass.
The translational termmay be written in terms of linear momentumG as follows:
1
2
2
1
2
1
2
m m v r r v G = =

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In the angular term,

=
Where is the angular velocity of the body. The angular termin the kinetic energy eqn. becomes:
1
2
2
1
2
m m
i i i
( ) ( )

=
Since P x QR = PQ x R then:

=
b g b g b g
i
Factoring out:
1
2
2
1
2
1
2
m m
i i i i G

= =
b g
H
The general expression for kinetic energy becomes:
T
G
= +
1
2
1
2
v G H
V. Rouillard 2003
109
H i j k
G xx x xy y xz z yx x yy y xz z zx x zy y zz z
I I I I I I I I I = + + + +
c h c h c h
Substituting for
The vectorised formfor the kinetic energy becomes:
( ) ( )
= + + + + +
2 2 2
1 1
2 2 xx x yy y zz z xy x y xz x z yz y z
T I I I I I I v G
When the axes coincide with the principal axes of inertia, the kinetic energy reduces to:
( )
= + + +
2 2 2
1 1
2 2 xx x yy y zz z
T I I I v G
When the body rotates about a fixed point O or if there is a point O which momentarily has zero
velocity then:
= + =
1 1 1
2 2 2 O O
T v G H H
=0
V. Rouillard 2003
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Semester 1:
Work & Energy
Impulse & momentum
3-D kinetics of rigid bodies (Groscopic Motion)
V. Rouillard 2003
111
Dynamics 3-D Kinetics of Rigid Bodies: Gyroscopic Motion
Introduction:
Gyroscopic motion occurs whenever the axis about which a body is spinning is rotating about
another axis.
The complete description of this phenomenon is very complex
The phenomenon is significantly simplified when the spinning and precession velocities are
constant.
Applications:
Inertial guidance systems (when gyroscope is mounted in gimbal
rings: The spinning disk is free fromexternal moments and will
maintain its orientation in space.
Gyro-compass: When a suspended mass is introduced, the
earths rotation causes precession such that the rotation of spin
axis stays parallel to the earths axis of rotation (North South)
Gyro-stabiliser: Large gyro mounted in ships to counteract rolling
motion
Gyroscoping motion is important when designing (large) bearings
which undergo forced precession.
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When a couple M (about the x axis) is applied to the rotor
with a spin velocity p, the rotor shaft rotates about the y
axis with the direction as shown!
The rotor shaft does not rotate with M as it would if the
rotor was at rest.
This angular velocity (precession) is small relative to the
spin velocity p.
The direction of rotation of the spin axis (p) the torque axis
(M) and the precession axis () conformwith the right
hand rule.
z
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The rotating vectors of gyroscopic motion can be explained by drawing an analogy with the vectors
used to describe the curvilinear motion of particles.
F
y
Consider a mass particle m with a constant speed v
thru the x-y plane.
When a force F is applied perpendicular to its linear
momentumG, it results in a change in momentumdG
=d(mv)= mdv
dG, hence dv is a vector in the direction of force F
which can be written as:
F G F G = =
or dt d
In the limit (dt 0), tan(d) = d = Fdt/mv or
F=mv(d/dt)
In vector notation:
F v = = m ( ) F ma
n n
V. Rouillard 2003
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Applying the same approach to a rotating body.
For a high spin velocity p and relatively low
precession velocity about y, the angular
momentumis:
M H =

H p = I
zz
As the precession velicity is lowrelative to the spin velocity, its angular momentumcan be
neglected.
The moment M applied perpendicular to the angular momentumvector H causes a change
dH (=dI
zz
p) in the angular momentumvector.
As with the case with a particle, the the change in the angular momentumof a gyroscope is
in the direction of the moment M.
Vectors M, H and dH are analogous to vectors F, G and dG
As the rotation vector p (z axis) is rotated in the direction of M (x axis), it is not suprising to
observe the rotor axis to precess about the y axis (due to the x product of the vectors)
V. Rouillard 2003
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During a time interval dt, the angular momentumvector Ip
has undergone a directional change d.
As before, in the limit, when dt 0, tan(d) = d Thus, in
scalar form:
d
Mdt
p
M
d
p

= =
I
or I
dt
xx
xx
Since d /dt = then:
M p = I
xx
As M, and P are mutually perpendicular vectors, the equation for

gyroscopic motion can be written in vector forms as:
M p = I
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Since the change in angular momentumdH, thus dp is always in the
direction of M, the spin vector p will always tend to re-orientate toward the
torque vector M.
When a rotor is forced to precess, say as in a ship turbine when the ship
is changing direction, or a single propeller aeroplane during take-off, a
gyroscopic couple M will be generated the magnitude and direction of
which will be in accordance with:
Note that M represents the moment resulting fromall forces acting on
the rotor.
M p = I
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119
So far it has been assumed that the precession velocity was small relative to the spin velocity
We will nowstudy howthe magnitude of affects the nomentumrelationships
The precession velocity will be assumed constant.
Since the rotor precesses about the y axis and it has a moment of inertia about this axis, there exists
an additional angular momentumcomponent about the y axis. (This was previously neglected due to
<< p).
H I p and H I
z zz y yy
= =
The two angular momentumcomponents are:
As before, the precession during an interval dt is:
d M dt / H M dt / (Ip)
z
= =
Therefore, the gyroscopic equation is still valid as
long as the precession is steady and the spin axis
is perpendicular to the presession axis.
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Precession non-perpendicular to spin:
When a symetrical top with a large spinning velocity p is supported at O, the spin axis is at an angle
with the vertical axis z about which precession occurs.
The small angular momentumdue to
precession is neglected so that the total
angular momentumis that associated with spin:
The moment about O is due to the gravitational
acceleration acting on the tops centre of mass:
M g )
O
= m r sin(
Due to precession, during an interval dt, the angular
momentumvector H
O
undergoes a change in the
direction of M
O
(toward the x axis)
H p = I
zz
M
H
H = =
d
dt
or d M dt
O
O O
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121
The incremental angle of precession around the z axis is:
Substituting for M
O
= mgrsin() and = d/dt:
=
gr
k p
2
Since I = mk
2
, the precession velocity is
given by:
d
M dt
I p
O
=
sin( )
mgr I p
or
mgr I p
sin( ) sin =
=
a f
Which is independent of the top angle .
This equation is an approximation based on the
assumption that the angular momentumassociated
with precession is negligible compared to that
associated with spin.
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122
Based on this analysis, the top will precess at a constant angle only if the precssion velocity is:
=
gr
k p
2
When this exact condition is not met,
precession becomes unsteady and may
oscillate.
As the spin velocity decreases, the
amplitude of oscillation of tends to
increase.
This oscillation of the spin axis is known as
nutation.

Dynamics of Rigid Bodies Merian Book 2005

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