Reading Psychology, 31:8292, 2010

Copyright
C
Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
ISSN: 0270-2711 print / 1521-0685 online
DOI: 10.1080/02702710902753996
PROSODYS CONTRIBUTION TO FLUENCY:
AN EXAMINATION OF THE THEORY OF AUTOMATIC
INFORMATION PROCESSING
JULIE E. SCHRAUBEN
Department of Reading and Language Arts, Oakland University,
Rochester, Michigan, USA
LaBerge and Samuels (1974) theory of automatic information processing in
reading offers a model that explains how and where the processing of information
occurs and the degree to which processing of information occurs. These processes
are dependent upon two criteria: accurate word decoding and automatic word
recognition. However, LaBerge and Samuels theory does not account for a com-
prehensive denition of uency that includes accurate word decoding, automatic
word recognition, and prosody. This article will use empirical studies to argue
that prosody is also a dening criterion of uent reading and must be considered
in LaBerge and Samuels theory of automaticity. The author concludes that the
theory of automaticity should be amended to consider the importance of prosody
as an essential element that contributes to uent reading.
LaBerge and Samuels (1974) theory of automatic information
processing has been used for over three decades to explain the
complex task of reading. This theory has prevailed as one of the
most dominant theories in reading because of its ability to explain
how uency develops (Kuhn & Stahl, 2003; National Reading
Panel, 2000; Rasinski & Hoffman, 2003). An underpinning frame-
work for how to achieve uency is provided in the theory of au-
tomaticity; in addition, a theoretical rationale is provided for vari-
ous instructional practices that improve uent reading. The auto-
maticity theory contends that there are two main components of
uent reading: accurate word decoding and automaticity in word recog-
nition. Because working memory is limited in cognitive process-
ing, the successful acquisition of these two components will allow
readers to have memory left for understanding text. Although,
the basic tenets of the automaticity theory have not changed since
Address correspondence to Julie E. Schrauben, Oakland University, Department
of Reading and Language Arts, 220 N. Squirrel Rd., Rochester, MI 48309-4401. E-mail:
jearends@oakland.edu
82
Prosodys Contribution to Fluency 83
1974, the constructs dening uency have evolved and no longer
parallel those presented in LaBerge and Samuels 1974 theory of
automaticity.
Today there is a wide consensus from educational researchers
that the current denition of uency not only incorporates ac-
curate word decoding and automatic word recognition, but in-
corporates use of prosodic features such as stress, pitch, and
suitable phrasing (Allington, 1983; Dowhower, 1991; Hudson,
Lane, & Pullen, 2005; Kuhn, 2005; Kuhn & Stahl, 2003). Re-
cently, Samuels (2006) seemed to admit that reading speed
and proper expression in oral reading are characteristics of u-
ency, but he quickly retracted this idea by describing the pre-
vious acts as simply indicators of uency. Samuels used the
analogous comparison of indicators of uency and temperature
readings on a thermometer: The high temperature on the ther-
mometer is not the disease itself, but only an indicator that a per-
son is sick (p. 9). He asserted that the essence of uency is only
the ability to decode and to comprehend text at the same time.
Although Samuels minimized the importance of reading orally
with expression, or with prosody, as an indicator of uency, it
is clear that reading orally with expression may have some con-
nection to creating uent reading, and this cannot be ignored.
Whether indicator or characteristic, Samuels acknowledges that
reading orally with expression, or prosody, is part of the set of vari-
ables that equate to uency. This article will argue that prosody
or prosodic features do play a role in developing uent reading
and that LaBerge and Samuels (1974) theory of automatic in-
formation processing in reading should carefully reconsider the
inuence that prosodic features have on uent reading. The pur-
pose of this article is to evaluate the automaticity theory and,
by doing so, demonstrate that the theory does not, but should,
take into account the role prosody plays in acquiring uency.
First, the automaticity theory will be reviewed. Next, the evolu-
tion of uency will be discussed to show that prosody is now a
dening feature of uency. Various empirical studies highlighting
repeated readinga direct instructional method derived from
the automaticity theorywill be used to support the notion that
prosody may provide a link to uency and to the ultimate goal of
comprehension.
84 J. E. Schrauben
The Automaticity Theory
LaBerge and Samuels (1974) theory of automatic information
processing in reading describes how visual information is trans-
formed and processed through a series of stages until it is com-
prehended. Information travels from visual, phonological, and
episodic memory until it nally reaches semantic memory. Atten-
tion is at the heart of processing information at each stage be-
cause of the presumption that individuals have a limited amount
of attention available for any cognitive task, including the task of
reading. A shift from nonautomatic to automatic word recogni-
tion also occurs to ensure that readers have enough attention left
for other tasks like comprehension. Automatic word recognition
is dened as quick and effortless identication of words out of
context (Ehri & McCormick, 1998). Readers are able to make the
shift in word recognition by proceeding through (a) the nonaccu-
rate stage where there is difculty in recognizing words; (b) the ac-
curacy stage where words are recognized but attention is required;
to (c) the automatic stage where words are recognized without at-
tention (Samuels, 1997). Ehri and McCormick also described ac-
curacy in decoding as the ability to blend sounds together and
the knowledge of a large bank of high-frequency words. Further-
more, LaBerge and Samuels theory explains how readers can ac-
quire automatic word recognition through successive exposures
to print. As readers are repeatedly exposed to words, they should
be able to recognize words with increasing accuracy and auto-
maticity. The automaticity theory explains how automatic word
recognition leaves more available attention for comprehension.
It also explains how the shift from decoding accurately to de-
coding automatically occurs. However, it does not explain how
prosody contributes to uency and how this relationship affects
comprehension.
The Evolution of Fluency
Allingtons (1983) characterization of uency as the most ne-
glected reading skill has been accurate until recently. Presently,
ensuring that students become uent readers is one of the
major goals of reading instruction (Kuhn & Stahl, 2003;
National Reading Panel, 2000). As attention has focused on the
Prosodys Contribution to Fluency 85
important role of uency in reading, there has been more em-
phasis on dening uent reading and dening the best instruc-
tional practices to develop uent reading. Fluency is now dened
as the ability to read a text quickly, accurately, and with appropri-
ate prosody. There are certain features that allow readers to read
with expression, or with appropriate prosody (Dowhower, 1991;
Schwanenugel, Hamilton, Kuhn, Wisenbaker, & Stahl, 2004;
Zutell & Rasinski, 1991). These features are embedded in oral
language, but are primarily found in written language (Schreiber,
1980, 1991). These features or indicators of prosodic reading in-
clude (a) pitch or intonation, (b) stress or loudness, (c) length
of phrases, (d) appropriateness of phrases, (e) pausal intrusions,
and (f) nal phrase lengthening (Dowhower, 1987; Dowhower,
1991; Schwanenugel et al., 2004). It is reasonable to expect that
because educators and researchers now acknowledge the role of
uency in reading, research on prosodic features is valuable to the
eld of reading and that prosody or prosodic features are worth
investing time and resources to study.
Whalley and Hansen (2006) conducted a study to determine
whether there was a relationship between prosodic skills and read-
ing ability. They questioned: What is the role of prosody in read-
ing development? Specically, prosodic skills at the word level
and phrase level were investigated with 81 fourth graders in Bris-
bane, Australia. The authors found that there is a positive rela-
tionship between childrens prosodic sensitivity and their reading
skills. In fact, Whalley and Hansen found that prosodic sensitivity
contributes to word identication skills beyond the development
of phonological awareness. The authors suggested that prosody
is an aspect of phonology, and this aspect helps readers to rec-
ognize and manipulate sound segments in words. Whalley and
Hansen also found that prosodic skills directly contribute to suc-
cessful reading comprehension. This nding supports other re-
search that has found a relationship between prosodic skills and
comprehension, although the reciprocal nature of the relation-
ship is unknown (Miller & Schwanenugel, 2006; Schwanenugel
et al., 2004).
Miller and Schwanenugel (2006) wanted to determine the
role of prosody in the overall reading process. The relationships
among the prosodic reading of syntactically complex sentences,
reading speed and accuracy, and comprehension were examined.
86 J. E. Schrauben
Spectrographic analyses of 80 third graders and 29 adults read-
ing of a syntactically complex text were compared. The adults
reading helped researchers identify a set of targeted features
from six sentence types. Then, Miller and Schwanenugel com-
pared how children who had quick and accurate reading marked
the same syntactically complex sentences to children whose de-
coding skills were slower and less accurate. The authors found
evidence for the relationship between prosody and reading com-
prehension. This study also highlighted the role of pitch changes,
a prosodic feature, which they concluded may be an important
variable in the prediction of reading comprehension skill.
Prosody may provide an important link between uency and
higher order nonautomatic processes such as comprehension. Re-
searchers still debate where prosody lies in the continuum be-
tween uency and comprehension and whether prosody is a fea-
ture that emerges before or after children are able to process
words uently and automatically. This debate continues because
prosodic skills provide seemingly invisible clues that historically
have been technically difcult to measure. Although the exact
role that prosody plays in the reading process is uncertain, what is
clear is that prosodic skills impact reading and have potential for
reaching the ultimate goal of understanding text. It is evident that
it takes more than just automaticity and accuracy for comprehen-
sion to develop as LaBerge and Samuels (1974) claim, and that
the theory should discuss the contributions of prosody to uent
reading and understanding of text.
Instructional Interventions and Prosody
As the importance of uency has evolved, theorists and educa-
tional researchers have made persuasive arguments based on re-
search that have allowed practitioners to recognize the need for
more direct instruction and the need to implement more uency-
based instructional practices. Educational researchers and practi-
tioners now share a common goal of dening essential elements
of instruction and for using integrated instructional approaches
that allow students to practice the components of uency
accuracy, rate, and prosodyin a meaningful context (Chard,
Vaughn, & Tyler, 2002; Dowhower, 1994; National Reading Panel,
2000). This has led to more focus on what kinds of instructional
Prosodys Contribution to Fluency 87
methods are being used to address the uency needs of students.
One instructional practice that has been used successfully for over
three decades and is one of the best-known methods for improv-
ing uency is the method of repeated reading (Samuels, 1997).
Samuels (1997) and Dahl (1979) developed the method of
repeated reading as an instructional method based on LaBerge
and Samuels (1974) automaticity theory. There are two variations
of repeated reading, which include the unassisted and assisted ap-
proaches. The unassisted method allows a child to read a select
passage or selected passages to him or herself without assistance,
and the assisted method allows the child to read with a uent
model (Young, 1996). In essence, the method emphasizes prac-
tice as a means for readers to work on all areas of uency, includ-
ing accuracy, rate, and prosody (Hudson et al., 2005; Rasinski &
Hoffman, 2003). Although there are variations of the method, in
general, there is a common goal for readers to reread a mean-
ingful passage until it is uid, owing, and facile (Dowhower,
1987, p. 390). The method consists of (a) selecting a 100-word
passage at a students independent reading level, (b) selecting a
criterion rate, and (c) having the student read and reread the
passage until the set criterion rate is met (Samuels, 1997). Ad-
justments can be made to the initial reading rate and to the
difculty of each passage depending on the individual reader.
The method of repeated reading and variations of it have been
used in studies to examine features that promote uency such as
rate, accuracy, and prosody. Prosody has been examined directly,
and one of the best examples of this is Dowhowers landmark
study of the development of prosodic features in childrens oral
reading.
Dowhower (1987) examined the effect of repeated reading
on oral reading prosody in second-grade transitional readers who
read accurately, but in a slow, word-by-word manner. Eighteen
students were randomly assigned to an assisted reading-while-
listening condition or an unassisted repeated reading condition.
Further, Dowhower looked at how rate, accuracy, comprehension,
and prosody transferred across a series of passages. In the assisted
condition students rst listened to readings on tape and then were
encouraged to read with the tape until they were condently read-
ing. In the unassisted condition, students read independently, but
were able to receive assistance on difcult words. Rate, accuracy,
88 J. E. Schrauben
comprehension, the number of rereadings necessary to reach a
100 words per minute (wpm) criterion, and prosody were as-
sessed. Overall, both forms of repeated reading improved rate,
accuracy, and comprehension. These gains also transferred across
a series of passages. Prosodic development also improved in both
conditions, with pausal intrusions decreasing and the length of
phrases increasing signicantly. Although prosodic development
improved in both conditions, the reading-while-listening interven-
tion had a greater effect on prosodic development, with lessen-
ing inappropriate phrases and increasing intonational marking
of phrases. Dowhowers main conclusion was that the method
of repeated reading was effective. More importantly, Dowhowers
study proved that as rate, accuracy, and comprehension improved,
prosodic reading equally improved.
Dowhower (1987) chose to directly measure prosodic fea-
tures of language, and Herman (1985), another prominent re-
searcher, conducted a study measuring the prosodic features
of language. Using spectrographic analysis, Herman electroni-
cally counted the number of speech pauses for eight nonuent
intermediate-grade students reading passages at a moderate level
of difculty. Students read appropriate text using the repeated
reading method until reaching a criterion of 85 wpm. Students
engaged in repeated readings for ve separate stories. Herman hy-
pothesized that repeated readings would improve the rate of read-
ing, the number of speech pauses, and the amount of accuracy.
She also hypothesized that these effects would transfer to new,
unpracticed stories. Herman found that reading rate and appro-
priate pausing, a hallmark feature of prosodic reading, improves
with greater reading uency. Herman also discovered that similar
results transferred in unread material. Overall, the studies from
Herman and Dowhower provide evidence that repeated reading
is effective in helping readers make transitions to uent reading.
As the transition to uent reading occurs, prosodic features may
assist readers in this process. Although the degree in which they
support the process is uncertain, it is clear that the instructional
intervention of repeated reading elicits prosodic features.
Whereas Herman (1985) and Dowhower (1987) focused
on learning about prosodic features in the context of repeated
readings, other studies have found more interest in compar-
ing repeated reading and nonrepetitive reading. Kuhn (2005)
Prosodys Contribution to Fluency 89
focused on the effectiveness of three instructional interven-
tion strategies: repeated reading, wide reading, and listening
only. Specically, she examined these strategies effectiveness by
how they help students make the transition from deliberate de-
coding to uent reading. The relationship between prosodic
reading and automatic and accurate word recognition was also
examined. Kuhn emphasized the practicality of using a method
like repeated reading to help students who struggle with u-
ency. She contended that prosodic or expressive reading of
connected text should have a priority in classrooms so that all
readers, especially less able readers, will experience uency and
gain meaning from text. Six struggling second-grade students
from three second-grade classrooms were randomly assigned to
the various strategies. There was also a control group with two
students from each of the three classrooms for a total of 24 par-
ticipants. Kuhn found that both the repeated and wide-reading
approaches led to improvements in prosody and word recogni-
tion in accuracy and automaticity, but that the wide-reading ap-
proach improved comprehension. She hypothesized that the rea-
son for her ndings were because repeated readings are better at
helping students with some aspects of literacylike prosody and
automaticitywhereas a nonrepetitive approach may be better at
aiding in other areas such as comprehension. Again, this study
showed that regardless of the variation of the repeated reading
strategy used, prosody is a factor that was of interest and provided
value in developing uency in readers.
Conclusion
LaBerge and Samuels (1974) long-standing, multidimensional
theory of automatic information processing has been seminal in
the eld of reading for over 30 years. It has provided valuable in-
sight into how readers develop uency and into how automatic
and accurate word decoding can lead to comprehending text.
Further, repeated readinga direct instructional method derived
from LaBerge and Samuels automaticity theoryhas provided
a coherent instructional approach to improve uency for prac-
titioners. The research reviewed in this article argues that the
theory of automaticity should be expanded to include aspects of
prosody for three signicant reasons.
90 J. E. Schrauben
First, uency is no longer dened as just accurate word de-
coding and automatic word recognition. The essence of uency
has changed and today it is widely regarded as incorporating read-
ing at a sufcient rate, reading accurately, and having prosodic
features of language. Samuels (1997) recognition of prosody as
just an indicator does not mitigate its presence in reading uently.
Prosodic features of language, which are responsible for expres-
sion, are not mentioned in any part of the theory that accounts for
how readers achieve uency. It is reasonable to see why LaBerge
and Samuels did not incorporate it in 1974, but our understand-
ing of uencys role in reading has changed signicantly and for
this reason it should be integrated into the theory.
Second, Samuels (1997) instructional method of repeated
readings has shown to positively promote all components of u-
ency, and if uency consists of prosody, then it again strengthens
support for it to be addressed in the theory of automaticity. There
are now many variations of repeated readings, and the instruc-
tional approach continues to be integrated into daily literacy in-
struction. If researchers and practitioners have validated repeated
readings to work successfully with all students to improve uency,
and there is wide use of this approach in classrooms, then a reeval-
uation of the role of prosody in automaticity theory would seem
to be appropriate.
Lastly, there has been recent research conducted on the role
that prosody plays in linking uency to comprehension. Many the-
orists, educational researchers, and practitioners consider read-
ing comprehension the overarching goal of reading instruction.
Although the nature and degree of the effect that prosody has on
comprehension is uncertain, even if there is only a small degree
of effect of prosody on comprehension, we should probably try to
exploit this benet for readers.
The theory of automatic information processing explains
many important aspects in the complex task of reading. Yet, there
is one piece in the complex puzzle of reading that the theory does
not explain. The missing piece of prosody continues to prove its
relevance and importance in the act of uent reading and un-
derstanding text. Therefore, the theory of automaticity should be
reexamined and should reconsider the intricate role that prosody
plays in the complex task of reading.
Prosodys Contribution to Fluency 91
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