TEORA TEMAS

CENTRALES
DESCRIPCIN
FUNDAMENTAL
CONTRIBUCIN RESULTADO DE LA
CRIANZA
Psychodyna
mic (Freud)
Idul is biologically
determined and the
primitive personality
encompass sing all
instinctual impulses:
sexual, aggressive, and
those interested in body
satisfaction. It works on
the principle of
pleasure, that seek to
feel pleasure and avoid
pain. Idul is irrational,
impulsive and is not
affected by social
restrictions. For
newborns all mental
processes are
processes ID.
The ego develops with
child in an attempt to
accommodate to the
requirements of the
external world. The ego
operates on the
principle of reality, that
gratification needs are
deferred until the
appropriate time and
place. For example, the
child learns that hunger
will be satisfied only
when someone will be
available to prepare
food. By developing this
structure child learns to
take into account the
constraints and
restrictions surrounding
world. The ego tries to
achieve balance
between irrational
impulses of self and
external realities.
Superego is
approximately
equivalent to self-
consciousness and
appears in 4-6 years.
Superego is the
internal framework of
the individual, what is
"just" and "unjust" as
they are represented
by the existing
sanctions and moral
inhibitions culture.
Any violation of the
standards high, often
unrealistic, resulting in
guilt and anxiety.
Oral Stage - The first stage takes place
in the first year of life, the main source
of pleasure to have the child's mouth.
The child finds great pleasure in oral
activities such as sucking and grasping
mouth, importantly, after Freud, in
defining the type of personality that
develops. At first the infant is the main
pleasure of sucking and sipping, known
as phase oral optimism. Later in this
stage, the main pleasure is achieved by
grasping and chewing mouth, oral-
sadistic stage. If the previous step is
considered more satisfactory, after
Freud, the child becomes dependent,
passive, extremely gullible, sociable,
fluent and relaxed. If the baby comes
but the main pleasure of biting and
chewing, then becomes independent,
verbally or physically aggressive,
resentful, ambitious and impatient.
Anal stage - The second stage occurs
from one to three years. During this
stage, libido, sexual impulse and
energy of the individual focuses on the
anus and the child finds great pleasure
in the act of defecation. This is the age
at which the child will be accustomed to
potty and Freud believes that this skill
could influence later personality. If the
child's parents are too severe, the child
may become anal-retentive, making
them a pleasure to hold stool potty
instead of requiring immediately. In this
case, it will become as an adult an
egotistical, greedy, stubborn, refractory
obsessive. On the other hand, if during
using the potty it looks very nice, could
become anal-expelled, and as an adult
would be extremely generous and
bountiful.
phallic stage
Phallic stage, from three to six years,
there is child sexual identification. This
stage was the most studied by classical
psychoanalysis. For the first time, the
genitals become the main erogenous
zones, but not in relation to
reproduction, but in the manner
specified infantile sexuality, seeking
only to obtain pleasure. During this
stage, Freud assumed that boys begin
to deal with what he called the Oedipus
complex. It gives him troubling child
conflicts that must be resolved by
identifying children with same-sex
parent. The phallic stage the boy gets a
sexual affinity for the mother. Because
of this, he receives his father as a rival
to be removed.
Latency - the fourth stage is known as
lag time and place of six to puberty. The
main characteristics of this period are
determined by the decline of infant
sexuality, reducing sexual activity. Now
appear essential feelings to human as
the cultural and moral being: shame
and disgust. This decline is bound to
end Oedipus complex. Freud
considered libido disseminate
throughout the body instead focus on a
particular area. Also, at this stage
repressions are intensifying.
genital stage
Genital Stage- when the child reaches
puberty, libido focuses on young adult
genitalia and attention is now focused
on the opposite sex. This stage brings
the final transformation of human
sexuality. While infantile sexuality is
predominantly autoerotic, adult
sexuality is predominantly objective. It
goes from arousal to sexual activity
specific erogenous zones, genital-
oriented reproduction.
Freud's
psychoanalytic vision
of the child's cognitive
development has had
a profound effect on
psychological thinking
since its emergence
in the early part of the
twentieth century.
The first five years of
life have a lasting
effect on the
development of his
personality.
"I can not imagine a
s t r o n g e r n e e d i n
childhood as the need of
pat er nal pr ot ect i on"
Sigmund Freud
The role of the father,
the paternal function
exercise, is to establish
a balance between the
l a w r e q u i r e d
(restrictions) and child
desire. However, the
father as representative
of aut hor i t y has a
special role in formation
of moral conscience, the
superego of the child.
T h e p a r e n t - c h i l d
relationship, the father's
role in child education
and adult formation is
fundamental. Freudian
opinion it the father is
who determines "social
organi zati ons, moral
limits ".
A fatherless society is a
s o c i e t y w i t h o u t
l andmarks" t hat t he
society where role of the
father is very diminished
i s a soci et y adr i f t .
Children who have not
l i mi ts or restri cti ons
imposed by the father,
they will not learn to
bear the frustration, and
being frustrate before
t h e y b e c o m e
a g g r e s s i v e . T h e
essential role of paternal
authority is to secure
a n d a c c o u n t a b l e .
Empowering the child is
given the opportunity to
earn confidence.
Theory of
psychosocial
development
Neofreudienii focused
mainly on the
development of the
ego, which they
considered an area
neglected by Freud.
Erikson, like Freud,
believed that the
individual is faced
with a series of
conflicts that must be
resolved in order to
develop a healthy
personality. But
Erikson's theory
conflicts are not
centered on individual
body parts but on
relationships with
other members of
society.
Erikson emphasised
the eight stages in his
theory, at each stage,
the individual is faced
with another conflict.
However, it requires
initial conflict
resolution, to ensure
the individual's ability
to master the
subsequent process
can be seen as a
progress step by step.
Conflict trust-mistrust (birth to
about a year and a half): the
child must establish basic
attitude to the world around him.
Conflict of self-doubt
(between 11/2 to 3 years).
New physical challenges that
it faces it can sustain
confidence or feel they can
simply incapable.
The conflict between
initiative and guilt (3 to 6
years). Because the child is
required to take increasingly
more responsibility for his life,
he can get to develop a
strong sense of initiative or
get to feel guilty for not
properly fulfill their
responsibilities.
Conflict diligently-
inferiority (6-12 years), as he
has to face to many new
challenges. The child can
strive to overcome or to gain
a feeling characteristic of
incapacity.
Conflict identification, role
confusion (20-40 years). The
multitude of new social roles
and membership in different
social groups involve
developing a sense of self
integrator, so the child is
overwhelmed by the multitude
of roles they must play.
Finding satisfactory answers
involves the integration of a
wide range of perceptions
about self-contradictory and
self-perceptions of others into
a coherent structure.
Conflict creative - stagnation
(40-65 years).
The last stage occurs in old
age (65 years), the individual
must accept the reality of
approaching death that
involves conflict to welcome
integrity or despair.
We can see from
Erikson's theory that
ego development
continues throughout
life and every age
faces its own set of
problems and
conflicts.
If at this stage benefits
from satisfaction and
comfort, this will help to
develop a more confident.
If care is not consistent,
resulting distrust of those
who depend on the child,
then all individuals.
Conflict of self-doubt
Encouragement from
parents at this stage, the
child develops a sense of
safety and confidence
absolutely necessary in
future problem situations
they may encounter in the
future (the next stage).
If, however, parents balk
at all the kids, especially
the ridicule of facts, such
as when children are in
bed and are sometimes
the apostrophe like "are
not you ashamed, you're a
big boy and do in bed?
he/she begins to be
ashamed of their actions,
but will lose confidence in
their decisions.
The conflict between
initiative and guilt (3 to 6
years).
In this period of life,
children begin to explore
new things, to discover
their motor skills to interact
more with others, begin to
take the initiative more
often imitating adult
activities, frequently
violate the prohibitions
imposed by parents, which
penalized minutes or
more. In these situations
the role of parents is very
important and that they will
be supportive, and
consistent disciplinary
same time, children will
learn in time that not all
things are allowed, without
feeling guilty and at the
same time, will continue to
explore without being
ashamed of what they do
and taking responsibility
will lead to developing a
sense of initiative.
Also, parents should show
understanding of specific
sexual curiosity at this
age.
Improper educational
intervention the child
develops a theme of
excessive punishment, it
will be considered in the
future that any personal
initiative is wrong, if
certain actions were not
completed properly, will
develop a sense of guilt.
Conflict diligently-
inferiority (6-12 years)
At this stage, the child
acquires knowledge and
skills, especially through
education, culture specific
part. With the start of
school, social comparison
occurs first. Thus, an
appropriate approach from
parents and teachers
develop a sense of
competence, or
conversely, by impropriety,
will develop a sense of
inferiority. The most
common mistake parents
is to compare permanent
depending on whether the
child has done their
homework if got worse
results as the neighbor or
friend Costel etc.
Conflict identification -
role confusion (20-40
years)
Strong pressures from
parents or society can
cause disorientation and
despair of the adolescent.
These conduct to physical
or mental alienation of
normal environments and
in extreme cases the role
of diffusion, the young
may adopt a negative
identity. Unlike boys, girls
develop differently on
identity development,
these showing tendency of
postponing identity
development to finding life
partner who has an
important role in
determining their status.
Piaget's
theory of
cognitive
development
Piaget considered
intelligence as a form
of development
through interaction
with the environment.
The child is active,
continuously acts on
its environment,
observing the effect of
his action. When the
child is thinking
performs mental
operations. An
operation is a set of
actions that have an
effect on the
environment. As the
child begins to master
new skills, they
appear in his thinking
processes as
cognitive structures
called schemas.
Piaget believes that
the thought has arisen
as a result of
unexpected events.
By this, he meant that
when we are able to
appeal to existing
schemes without any
problem, we do not
think too much about
the event in progress.
New usage would be
outside of what Piaget
called the domain of
our existing schemas
opportunity, so must
change both normal
behavior and
schemes.
Sensorimotor stage (0-2
years). At this stage the child
experiences the world through
perception and physical activity
immediately without thinking as
adults know. Thinking the child is
dominated by the "here and
now". For example, by the age
of 8 months no child has the
concept of object permanence.
Until then, everything is out of
sight is out of his mind, that the
child will not try to look for a
visible object which is placed
above out of sight.
Pre-operational stage (2-7
years). During pre-operational
stage can be seen most clearly
the differences between
children's thinking and thinking
adults. This is the period in
which they develop language
and Piaget considered that the
use of language by the child
demonstrates a gradual
reduction of egocentrism. At
first, the child presents an
egocentric speech with a low
awareness of the needs of the
listener, but gradually becomes
aware that using language for
communication, and it must
adjust to an interaction instead
express simply thoughts. During
this period the child develops
centring ability to adopt the
viewpoint of another person.
Stage of concrete operations
(7-11 years). Since this period
the child is not as egocentric,
being able to see objects and
events from the point of view of
others. During this period, the
child begins to be thinking like of
the adult, but the child still has
difficulties in handling purely
abstract notions, because they
link them to the real world to
understand. Children in this
period are characterised by an
extraordinary desire to gather
information about the world: they
often gather considerable lists of
facts or data about a topic of
interest.
Formal operations stage (from
11 years to maturity). This stage
marks the emergence of the
ability to think abstractly without
having to rely on concrete
objects or events. He can now
manipulate abstract logic,
develop hypotheses (theories)
about the world, they tests as a
scientist and to use abstract
thinking. The child is able to
solve a problem mentally by
systemic evaluation of several
sentences and at the same time,
analyse their interacting. Piaget
believes that this is the highest
form of thought and argued that,
in this moment, the child can
expand their knowledge, without
being hindered by egocentrism
or other such restrictions.
Most psychologists
agree that Piaget was
the most influential
psychologist of the
twentieth century in
developmental
psychology area.
An important aspect
of Piaget's theory of
cognitive
development is linking
the child's reasoning
ability with morality.
Morality is considering
how the child
appreciates what is
right and what is
wrong, is an important
part of his
socialisation. Each
society has its own
ideas about
acceptable types of
behaviour, and
children are taught to
observe the rules of
their society.
Piaget believes that
there is a connection
between the cognitive
reasoning of a child
and his sense of what
is right or wrong. In
part, the process of
right learning involves
understanding correct
from mistakes, when
and why they are
required. After Piaget,
during pre-operational
children rarely
understand that rules
are created by a
group for the good of
the group as a whole.
For children rules
seems that are
imposed by an
authority. When the
child is about eight
years old, begins to
take account of the
intention with which it
was done wrong, and
punishment is
appropriate for the
severity.
The main task of the
pre-operational period is
to prepare the child for
future periods and, for
this purpose, the child
learns all the time
becoming more
environmental. A
characteristic of this
period, Piaget observed,
is the tendency to overly
generalize rules they
taught. Only the
application of the
different ways children
learn to use it.
Kohlberg's
theory of
moral
development
Another version
structuralist moral
development was
advanced by
Kohlberg in 1963. He
was interested in
investigating ways in
which people come to
resolve moral
dilemmas and studied
moral development of
children and adults
offering a range of
moral issues. In each
of these appear
dilemma: if he should
do something good
for someone or to
obey the rules of
society. From the
results, based on
arguments that
people use when
trying to make a
decision, Kohlberg
developed a theory
that appear three
main stages of moral
development, each
having two distinct
levels.
The first stage is the premoral
in which the individual believes
in some simple ideas for their
instrumental value. At the first
level, belief in moral ideas aimed
only to avoid punishment, and
on the second level, this belief is
maintained to ensure individual
sympathy of others.
The second period is that of
conventional morality, the
individual is primarily concerned
with social compliance. At the
first level of this stage, the
individual seeks approval of the
general social and moral
conform others to acquire it. At
the second level, the individual
begins to vigorously support
"law and order" because
compliance with the laws and
rules of society is, in itself,
morally correct.
The third period is the
period known as
autonomous morality. At
this stage, the individual
develops a personal moral
code, instead of automatically
accepting the codes set by
others. At the initial stage, the
individual accepts the rules of
society because he feels they
are taken democratically, for
the good of all. At the second
level, people set their moral
codes and principles
reflecting the problems and
developing their own ideas.
Thus, they may come to
disagree with some rules of
society, if they consider
morally wrong.
Kohlberg's studies
and Elfenbe in 1975
showed that many
children of ten years
is still at the first level
of moral development
and that many adults
never reach the final
levels. Kohlberg
argued that the
development of
cognitive structures
influence us much not
only the level of
thought, but how we
behave in the world.
He believed that a
good way to help
people develop moral
thinking is listening to
the views of others
who are in a higher
stage of moral
development.
This is important for
parents who want to
help their children's
moral development,
because if I say simply,
children what is right
and what is wrong,
without explaining why
they can get to
encourage the child to
remain at the level of
development that we
have already achieved.
Education should be
divided into two: one
intellectual and the other
practical. Half the time
should be provided
intellectual pursuits and
the other half allocated
to necessities of life and
thus maintains a
balance between the
intellectual and the
practical side.
Attachment
theory
(Bowlby)
Research conducted
on attachment in
children were strongly
influenced by Freud's
psychoanalytic theory,
which emphasised the
importance of the
mother-child
relationship. Bowlby
(1969) and other
researched influenced
by psychoanalytic
theory believed that
attachment
relationship that
develops between
mother and child
leads to interpersonal
relationships form the
basis of all later. In
the first year of life the
child develops basic
security and
attachment to parents
or others caring for
him.
Attachment term was
introduced by John
Bowlby (1959) to
describe the
emotional connection
and lasting between
individuals, often
between mother and
child. An attachment
to someone means to
be absolutely willing
to seek proximity and
contact person and,
above all, when the
situation is uncertain.
Secure attachment - child
trusts that parents will be
available, responsive and will
assist if difficult situations may
arise or would be afraid. With
this conviction, the child has the
courage to explore the world.
This model is developed and
maintained by parents being
available early attention to
child's signals and able to offer
tranquility and comfort whenever
it needs it.
Anxious attachment - the child
is unsafe that parents will be
available, responsive and ready
to offer help when asked.
Because of the uncertainty, the
child goes through anxiety / fear
of separation and tends to be
bullied in the manifestation of
behaviour in its environment.
This model is maintained by
parents who sometimes are
available, ready to help their
child, and sometimes not.
Beatings or threats of
abandonment are used in
raising and educating children.
This can result in the child
experiencing feelings of
uncertainty can become chronic
over time. This attachment can
be seen in the type of child
"lover" who sacrifice their own
needs to meet those of adults.
Avoiding anxious attachment -
the child does not trust that
parents will react positively and
be ready to offer help. Child
expects rejection from parents
and tries to do without the love
and help of others. He strives to
become emotionally
independent. This type of
attachment is seen in the
parent-child relationship where
the child became independent
prematurely.
Main and Solomon (1986)
found that a small number of
children do not have a
coherent strategy to deal with
the stress caused by a
"foreign situation" and
introduced the term
disorganised and
disoriented attachment. The
behaviour of these children is
totally confused and
disorganised, it is
characterised by movements
and incomplete reactions
sometimes are wary of a
stranger, sometimes to the
mother.
Assessment of the
child attachment
scheme at the age of
one year is highly
predictive of the
child's behaviour in
kindergarten. Children
who at age 4-5 years
show a secure
attachment
relationship with their
mother will be
cooperating loved by
others in the
community, filled with
energy, skill and
resources. Children
with anxious
attachment
relationship, avoidant,
will manifest hostile
behavior, antisocial,
will be isolated
emotionally and seek
too much attention.
Children with insecure
attachment will be
excessively stressed,
tense, impulsive,
feelings of
helplessness, easily
frustrated and will
demand attention
from bystanders.
Recent research has
highlighted the
importance of
attachments that form
between the child and
other adults, especially
the father. Regarding
the role of the father ,
Parke shows that there
is a difference between
reactions than mothers
and fathers to their
children (Parke and
O'Leary, 1976).
Kotelchuck (1976 )
demonstrated that
children's grief is the
same to a foreign
person if the parents are
not in the room. Lamb
(1977) found little
difference between the
signs of attachment
when children were
playing alone with a
parent first and then the
other. However, when
both parents were
present, most children
showed a stronger
attachment to the
mother .
On the analysis of how
parents playing with
children, Lamb (1977 )
found that, typically,
fathers have played
tough against children
as they played mothers,
they were standing so
close children and they
spoke in a language
more advanced.
Mothers tended to
interact with children in
a gentle, quiet tone .
L e a r n i n g
Theory
Basal law in learning
theory explores the
relationship between
stimuli and response
to it. Some responses
a r e a u t o m a t i c ,
r ef l exes ( such as
bl i nki ng a br i ght
s t i mu l u s ) . Mo s t
r e s p o n s e s a r e
learned, based on this
learning theory, which
holds that life is a
continuous process of
learning, conditioning.
Co n d i t i o n i n g o r
conditioned learning
takes place in two
directions:
Classical Conditioning: is
learning by association. The
one who made the connection
b e t we e n s t i mu l u s a n d
r esponse i s neur ol ogi st
Pavlov. Doing research on the
process of salivation in dogs,
observed that they were
d r o o l i n g n o t o n l y t h e
appearance but also food and
other nonspecific stimuli (if
lighted lit while bringing food
after a while the dog saliva
ignition lights only).
Operant conditioning -
t h e mo s t i mp o r t a n t
r epr esent at i ve of t hi s
theory is F. Skinner . He
agrees with the theory of
learning by association, but
said that a more important
role it has conditioned
learning . The acceptance
of this theory a reward
system can be used in
teaching the dog to develop
behaviours that are not in
the usual repertoire of a
dog (dogs that detect drugs
or dogs used in catching
thieves). Once learned this
behaviour will be repeated
even though the dog is not
rewarded. In conditional
l e a r n i n g h a s g r e a t
importance reward. If the
appear ance of a new
behaviour is reinforced
chances to repeat this
behaviour often are higher.
Strengthening is achieved
by rewarding (to a child's
posi ti ve behavi our and
learning strengthens the
possibility of repeating it) .
This system characterises
positive reward. If you want
a particular behaviour does
not occur (eg. infant crying
not get what he wants) then
the reward will be negative
by ignorance (the net of the
frequency of bad behavior
until his disappearance )
Sci enti fi c study of
human behavior can
change and modify
behavior, discovering
how the child can be
helped to acquire
certain skills. Here are
j ust some of t he
aspects of this theory
that helped and help
in currently doctors,
p s y c h o l o g i s t s ,
educat ors i n t hei r
w o r k r e c o v e r y ,
healing. The limits of
this approach consists
i n i gnori ng human
d e v e l o p m e n t
sensibility, denying
the existence of the
unconscious (limited
u n d e r s t a n d i n g
b e h a v i o r a n d
especially pathology),
in that the research
the most important is
based on the study of
animals.
Ps y c h o l o g i s t s h a v e
researched and concluded
that the initial interaction of
parent-child play a crucial
role in a child's future
ability to communicate
affectively. Children and
parents interact through
various nonverbal signals
that are considered to
underlie the subsequent
social contacts (smiling,
c r y i n g , i m i t a t i o n ,
alternating eye contact).
The main method in social
learning is imitation, which
allows children to "catch"
behav i or s equenc es
quickly and efficiently.
A process that takes place
over a longer period of
time than imitation is the
i dent i f i cat i on pr ocess
w h i c h i m p l i e s t h e
existence of role models.
Other researchers have
investigated how positive
fortifying such as praise or
e n c o u r a g e me n t c a n
i nf l uence l ear ni ng by
imitation.
The types of punishment
used by parents can affect
a child's opportunities to
d e v e l o p a s t r o n g
consciousness of life.
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