Emmanuel C. Onwuzolum - The Ritual Theatricality of Igbo Masks and Masquerades

THE RITUAL-THEATRICALITY OF
IGBO MASKS AND MASQUERADES

by
EMMANUEL CHIDI ONWUZOLUM
B.Sc. (Hons.), U n i v e r s i t y o f N i g e r i a , Nsukka, 1973
A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT
OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE
THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES
(Department o f A n t h r o p o l o g y and S o c i o l o g y )
We a c c e p t t h i s t h e s i s as c o n f o r m i n g
t o the r e q u i r e d s t a n d a r d
THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA
August, 1977.
c") Emmanuel Chidi Onwuzolum, 1977
OF MASTER OF ARTS
i n
In p r e s e n t i n g t h i s t h e s i s i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l me n t o f the r equi r ement s f o r
an advanced degree at t he U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Col umbi a, I agr ee t hat
t he L i b r a r y s h a l l make i t f r e e l y a v a i l a b l e f o r r ef er enc e and s t udy.
I f u r t h e r agr ee t ha t per mi s s i on f o r e x t e n s i v e c opyi ng o f t h i s t h e s i s
f o r s c h o l a r l y pur pos es may be g r a nt ed by the Head of my Department or
by h i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s . I t i s under s t ood t hat c opyi ng or p u b l i c a t i o n
o f t h i s t h e s i s f o r f i n a n c i a l g ai n s h a l l not be al l owed wi t hout my
wr i t t e n p e r mi s s i o n .
E.C. ONWUZOLUM
Department of ANTHROPOLOGY AND SOCIOLOGY
The Un i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h Col umbi a
2075 Wesbrook Place
Vancouver, Canada
V6T 1W5
Date August, 1977,
i i
DEDICATED
TO
Ugo, C h i z o r , Margaret Onwuzolum
and t o
a l l the o t h e r members o f my f a m i l y
"People w i l l not l o o k f o r w a r d t o p r o s p e r i t y who never
l o o k backwards t o t h e i r a n c e s t o r s .
To be a t t r a c t e d t o the s u b d i v i s i o n , t o l o v e t h e l i t t l e
p l a t o o n we belong t o i n s o c i e t y , i s the f i r s t p r i n c i p l e , t h e
germ as i t were, o f p u b l i c a f f e c t i o n " .
Edmund Burke, 1790.
"Masks may be d e s c r i b e d as symbols o r f o c i f o r the
s p i r i t u a l f o r c e s t h a t loaned t h e i r a u t h o r i t y t o the e d i c t s
and a r t s t h a t emanated from the masks.
F u r t h e r , t h e masks were r e c o g n i z e d as symbols by the
i n i t i a t e d , t h a t i s , by t h o s e p o s s e s s e d o f the s e c r e t o r semi-
s e c r e t knowledge t h a t t h e s e were a f t e r a l l , o b j e c t s o f wood,
c a r v e d f o r a p r i c e by known a r t i s a n s and which, between
a p p e a r a n c e s , had t o be s t o r e d and p r o t e c t e d from the e f f e c t s
o f c l i m a t e and i n s e c t s . Y e t , even t h e i n i t i a t e d b e l i e v e d t h a t
t h e s e o b j e c t s c a r r i e d w i t h them, o r w i t h i n them, a v e r y r e a l
s p i r i t u a l power, which i n a sense, i n v e s t e d t h e wearer and
t h e costume, as w e l l as t h e mask, d u r i n g i t s r i t u a l
appearance.
I s h o u l d l i k e t o add, p a r e n t h e t i c a l l y , t h a t so much i s
t h i s the c a s e , t h a t t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f an i s o l a t e d mask i n
a museum c o n s t i t u t e s a g r o s s m i s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , not o n l y o f
the s o c i a l v a l u e s i n h e r e n t i n the complex comprised o f mask,
costume, and dance, music and o t h e r r e l a t e d t r a i t s , but o f
the a e s t h e t i c component o f the mask i n i t s o r i g i n a l c o n t e x t
Roy S i e b e r , 1962.
i v
ABSTRACT
T h i s t h e s i s i s p a r t o f a l a r g e r p r o j e c t t h a t i n c l u d e d an e x h i b i t i o n
a t the Museum o f A n t h r o p o l o g y e n t i t l e d "The World o f S p i r i t s " ( J u l y 5 -
August 31, 1977), which s e r v e d as an i n t r o d u c t i o n t o Igbo masks and mas-
querades as embodying some o f the most profound and r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s o f
the Igbo people o f S o u t h e a s t e r n N i g e r i a . The e x h i b i t demonstrated t h a t
u n d e r l y i n g the v i s u a l d i v e r s i t y o f Igbo a r t i s a u n i t y o f Igbo c o n c e p t i o n s
o f the s u p e r n a t u r a l . Accompanying the e x h i b i t i o n were s l i d e p r e s e n t a t i o n s
and a l i v e performance, A l l o f the components o f the p r o j e c t , i n c l u d i n g
t h i s t h e s i s , a r e r e l a t e d attempts t o p r e s e n t Igbo masks, i . e . m a t e r i a l
o b j e c t s n o r m a l l y found i n museums, w i t h i n an a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l
c o n t e x t which t a k e s the museum v i s i t o r o r the r e a d e r beyond the o b j e c t s
themselves i n t o t h e i r meaning i n terms o f Igbo c u l t u r e . The p r o j e c t i s
thus a d e m o n s t r a t i o n o f the n e c e s s a r y r e l a t i o n s h i p between the p r a c t i c e
o f museology and the d i s c i p l i n e o f a n t h r o p o l o g y . Such a r e l a t i o n s h i p i s
a b i l a t e r a l one, i n which not o n l y do e t h n o g r a p h i c d a t a and the t h e o r -
e t i c a l frameworks o f e t h n o l o g y extend a museum's p r e s e n t a t i o n and i n t e r -
p r e t a t i o n o f o b j e c t s , but the a t t e n t i o n o f a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s i s d i r e c t e d
towards o b j e c t s as s i g n i f i c a n t f o c i f o r s t u d y .
More s p e c i f i c a l l y , the t h e s i s p r o v i d e s the i n d i s p e n s a b l e e t h n o l o g i c a l
background upon which the e x h i b i t was based. I t i n c l u d e s o r i g i n a l ethno-
g r a p h i c m a t e r i a l s on i n i t i a t i o n , masks, and masquerades a t Ozubulu,
d e r i v e d from the a u t h o r ' s p a r t i c i p a n t o b s e r v a t i o n o f both i n i t i a t i o n and
the Ozoebunna masquerade. T h i s m a t e r i a l i s augmented w i t h p u b l i s h e d
r e c o r d s from the A f i k p o and Awka a r e a s o f Igboland t o h i g h l i g h t the
n e c e s s a r y c o n n e c t i o n between i n i t i a t i o n and masquerade, Then, u s i n g
c o n c e p t u a l f o r m u l a t i o n s o f E.R. Leach on r i t u a . l , M i r c e a E l i a d e on s a c r e d
t i m e , and Elmer R i c e on t h e a t r e , Igbo masquerade i s examined i n terms
o f the c o n c e p t o f r i t u a l t h e a t r e . While r i t u a l g i v e s power and meaning
t o the mask, the masquerade performance i s a t h e a t r i c a l e x p e r i e n c e
which i n v o l v e s t h e i n i t i a t e s o f the mmuo s o c i e t y as a c t o r s and the
o t h e r members o f the Igbo community as a u d i e n c e , The e n t e r t a i n m e n t
f e a t u r e o f masquerades has not p r e v i o u s l y r e c e i v e d due a t t e n t i o n i n the
a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l l i t e r a t u r e , p r o b a b l y because a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s a r e n o t
n o r m a l l y p a r t i c i p a n t s i n them.
T h i s p r o j e c t on Igbo masquerade i s a p r e s e n t a t i o n o f A f r i c a n
a e s t h e t i c s and c u l t u r e by an A f r i c a n . The number o f such s t u d i e s a r e
growing as i t becomes i n c r e a s i n g l y e v i d e n t t h a t A f r i c a n s c h o l a r s must
pay g r e a t e r a t t e n t i o n t o s t u d y i n g t h e i r t r a d i t i o n a l c u l t u r a l i n s t i t u t i o n s
so as t o u t i l i z e p e r t i n e n t a s p e c t s o f such s t u d i e s f o r development and
p l a n n i n g , not o n l y i n museology but i n o t h e r a r e a s o f contemporary
1 i f e as w e l l .
v i
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ABSTRACT
1 V
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
i x
A NOTE ON ORTHOGRAPHY
x
CHAPTERS
I INTRODUCTION TO THE PROBLEM OF THE MASK 1
R a t i o n a l e f o r Research and Data 10
O r g a n i z a t i o n o f the T h e s i s 15
Notes and R e f e r e n c e s 17
II THE WORLD OF SPIRITS 18
D e t a i l s o f the Masks Used i n the E x h i b i t 29
I I I THE IGBOS 40
The Geography o f Igboland 40
The H i s t o r y o f the Igbos 42
A Survey o f T r a d i t i o n a l Igbo S o c i e t y 46
O c c u p a t i o n 47
Igbo P o l i t i c a l System 48
Igbo K i n s h i p Network 53
R e l i g i o n 56
IV ETHNOGRAPHIC DETAILS OF IGBO MASKS AND MASQUERADE.
PERFORMANCE 70
The S e t t i n g 70
The Concept o f the Mask 73
The Making o f Masks 82
I n i t i a t i o n i n t o the Mmuo 87
Commentary 99
S o c i a l I m p l i c a t i o n o f I n i t i a t i o n 101
vii
Chapters Page
V MASKS AS RITUAL THEATRETHEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS 109
Igbo Masquerade as T h e a t r e 111
Igbo Masquerade as R i t u a l 121
Igbo Masquerade as R i t u a l - T h e a t r e 128
VI, CONCLUSION 130
BIBLIOGRAPHY 137
v i i i
ILLUSTRATIONS
Page
FIGURES
I Map o f Igboland
4 0 A
II Semantic S t r u c t u r e o f Chi 59
I I I Semantic S t r u c t u r e o f NSO 64
IV R e l i g i o u s Symbol o f S e l f , Role and C o l l e c t i v i t y 67
V P l a c e o f the Masquerade i n Igbo Cosmology 68
VI R i t u a l S e p a r a t i o n 123
PLATES
I An o v e r v i e w o f g a l l e r y space showing t h e masks as t h e y
were d i s p l a y e d i n the c a s e s 19
II Two o f the theme statements used i n the e x h i b i t 20
I I I T h e . t h i r d e x h i b i t s t a t e m e n t . The photograph shows new
i n i t i a t e s i n t o the s e c r e t s o c i e t y a t A f i k p o 21
IV Two o f t h e p r i n c i p a l e x h i b i t photographs d e m o n s t r a t i n g the
r i t u a l t h e a t r i c a l i t y o f Igbo masquerades. A i s t h e r i t u a l
p r e p a r a t i o n . B i s performance b e f o r e an a u d i e n c e 22
V D e t a i l s o f Case 63. 23
VI D e t a i l s o f Case 64 24
VII D e t a i l s o f Case 65 24
V I I I Ozoebunnu from Ozubulu 26
IX L i v e performance o f the Igbo agbogho masquerade a t the
G r e a t H a l l o f t h e Museum on J u l y 17, 1977, 75
X The i j e l e masquerade 118
ix
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
My Master's p r o j e c t , t o a l a r g e d e g r e e , i s a c o l l a b o r a t i v e e f f o r t ,
and belongs not t o me a l o n e , but t o v a r i o u s o t h e r s . To t h e s e , I owe
much.
I wish t o e x p r e s s my g r a t i t u d e t o Dr. Simon O t t e n b e r g , Dr. A l l a n
Sawyer, and Mr, Frank S t a r k w e a t h e r f o r l e n d i n g the masks used i n t h i s
s t u d y and which were used t o i n s t a l l the e x h i b i t "The World o f S p i r i t s ,
Igbo Masks from N i g e r i a " . In the same l i g h t , I thank Dr. M i c h a e l Ames
and a l l t h e s t a f f o f the U.B.C. Museum o f A n t h r o p o l o g y f o r p r o v i d i n g the
f a c i l i t i e s n e c e s s a r y f o r the e x h i b i t , which, i n a way, made t h i s t h e s i s
p o s s i b l e ,
I a l s o wish t o thank t h e members o f my graduate committee, Dr. M.
H a l p i n , Dr. C S , Belshaw and Dr. A.R. Sawyer, f o r t h e i r h e l p , encourage-
ment and guidance t h r o u g h o u t the f o r m u l a t i o n o f t h i s s t u d y .
Thanks a r e a l s o due t o a l l t h o s e , my f r i e n d s , who have taken i n t e r e s t
i n my work, p a r t i c u l a r l y Dr. C o l i n Smith, D i r e c t o r o f I n t e r n a t i o n a l House,
f o r p r o v i d i n g f o r the t y p i n g o f t h i s t h e s i s .
F i n a l l y , I wish t o p l a c e on r e c o r d my g r e a t e s t i n d e b t e d n e s s and
deepest a p p r e c i a t i o n , which go t o P r o f e s s o r M a r j o r i e H a l p i n , w i t h o u t
whose d i r e c t i o n and mature c r i t i c i s m t h i s s t u d y c o u l d h a r d l y have been
done.
Emmanuel C. Onwuzolum
Vancouver, B.C.
August, 1977.
X
A NOTE ON ORTHOGRAPHY
One o f the d i f f i c u l t i e s which had b e s e t Igbo s t u d i e s i s t h e e x i s -
t e n c e o f two a l t e r n a t i v e s p e l l i n g s o f "Ibo" and " I g b o " a problem which
the i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s o f even Igbo s c h o l a r s themselves had done n o t h i n g
t o h e l p . P r i o r t o the l a t e 1960's, "Ibo" was almost u n i v e r s a l l y used
both a t home and i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y . A l t h o u g h a h a n d f u l o f l i n g u i s t s and
a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d used t h e t e c h n i c a l l y more c o r r e c t
"Igbo", o t h e r s opted f o r Ibo on t h e grounds t h a t academic usage o f the
word s h o u l d d i f f e r as T i t t l e as p o s s i b l e . And, h a v i n g once opted f o r
Ibo, they n a t u r a l l y r e t a i n e d i t on the grounds o f c o n s i s t e n c y .
We a r e now i n the 1970's and i t i s v e r y c l e a r t h a t t h i n g s have,
changed. The overwhelming m a j o r i t y o f the Igbos have always p r e f e r r e d
the form "Igbo", which they r e g a r d as i n d i g e n o u s , i n c o n t r a d i s t i n c t i o n
t o the i n a c c u r a t e "Ibo" o f c o l o n i a l d a y s , which was a c o r r u p t i o n o f Igbo
so t h a t the "white man" c o u l d pronounce i t e a s i l y . T h e r e f o r e , Ibo i s
A n g l i c i z e d Igbo. In t h i s w r i t i n g (and even i n my d i s c u s s i o n s ) , I have
always m a i n t a i n e d and used the c o r r e c t term, Igbo. T h i s i s l o g i c a l l y
on the grounds t h a t p e o p l e s h o u l d always be r e f e r r e d t o by the name
w i t h which t h e y p r e f e r t o d e s c r i b e t h e m s e l v e s .
In the t r a n s c r i p t i o n o f Igbo words and phrases i n the t e x t , I have
always f o l l o w e d t h i s p r i n c i p l e . Where f o l l o w i n g a w r i t t e n sound, I have
c o p i e d the o r t h o g r a p h y o f my s o u r c e e x a c t l y ; hence some r e f e r e n c e t o Ibo
i n s t e a d o f Igbo. But the two s h o u l d be u n d e r s t o o d t o mean the same and
r e f e r t o t h e same p e o p l e .
1
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION TO THE PROBLEM OF THE MASK
Except i n v e r y i s o l a t e d c a s e s o r a r e a s , e.g. t h e i s l a n d s o f
P o l y n e s i a and the c o n t i n e n t o f A u s t r a l i a ^ , t h e r e i s h a r d l y a major
p a r t o f t h e w o r l d i n which masks a r e absent o r i m p o r t a n t . I am u s i n g
t h e word "mask" a t t h i s p o i n t i n t h e g e n e r a l sense o f a c o v e r i n g f o r
the f a c e . P r e h i s t o r i c e v i d e n c e s u g g e s t i v e o f masking goes back t o the
p a i n t i n g s o f the P a l e o l i t h i c , and a l o n g t r a i n o f l a t e r a r c h a e o l o g i c a l
and h i s t o r i c forms l e a d up t o t h e l a t e s t models a v a i l a b l e from costume
s u p p l i e r s and n o v e l t y shops. In a good s i z e d mask c o l l e c t i o n from
a l m o s t any c u l t u r e a r e a , one may r e c o g n i z e a h o s t o f s p i r i t s and o t h e r
s u p e r n a t u r a l b e i n g s , a n i m a l s and b i r d s , monstrous c r e a t u r e s o f i m a g i n e r y
forms, and even i n a n i m a t e o b j e c t s , as w e l l as many more o r l e s s human
f a c e s . Not a l l masks, however, a r e d e s i g n e d w i t h r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a l i n t e n t .
There a r e forms which a r e p u r e l y a b s t r a c t and d e c o r a t i v e i n d e s i g n .
Examples o f many o f such c o u l d be found among t h e Igbos o f N i g e r i a and
some o f t h e s e w i l l be d e s c r i b e d l a t e r on a t a p p r o p r i a t e p o r t i o n s o f
t h e t h e s i s .
The m a t e r i a l s which have gone i n t o the making o f masks i n v a r i o u s
p a r t s o f the w o r l d have i n c l u d e d a l m o s t e v e r y s u b s t a n c e c o n c e i v a b l y
u s a b l e f o r such a purpose, i n c l u d i n g even human s k u l l s . A common b a s i c
m a t e r i a l has been wood, o f t e n augmented by bark c l o t h o r some o t h e r
l o c a l f i b r e o r t e x t i l e . When dark o r b r i g h t p a i n t s , v a r i e g a t e d f e a t h e r s ,
ornamental l e a v e s , c o w r i e s h e l l s , and many o t h e r items a r e added, an
2
a s t o n i s h i n g v a r i e t y o f e f f e c t s i s produced. The Northwest Coast mask
c o l l e c t i o n i n t h e Museum o f A n t h r o p o l o g y a t t h i s U n i v e r s i t y bears
e l o q u e n t t e s t i m o n y t o t h i s .
While masks have a v a r i e t y o f uses and f u n c t i o n s as w e l l , i n many
p a r t s o f the w o r l d the masked f i g u r e i s a f r e q u e n t p a r t i c i p a n t i n the
r i t u a l l i f e o f t h e s e many p e o p l e s . He has h i s p l a c e i n many c u r i n g
c e r e m o n i e s , r i t u a l s o f d i v i n a t i o n , s a c r i f i c i a l r i t e s , r e l i g i o u s p r o -
c e s s i o n s and s a c r e d dances. Among the most common s e t t i n g s f o r such
d i s g u i s e s a r e e x c l u s i v e " s e c r e t " a s s o c i a t i o n s and c u l t groups. With
numerous f u n c t i o n s , such groups range from the North American Ku Klux
Klan and I r o q u o i s f a l s e f a c e companies t o t h e poro s o c i e t i e s o f L i b e r i a ,
t h e egungun o f t h e Yorubas, e k i n e s o c i e t i e s o f t h e Ijaws and the mmuo
s e c r e t s o c i e t y o f the Igbos (the l a s t t h r e e o f the above a r e from
N i g e r i a ) . These i n c l u d e a l s o the men's s e c r e t s o c i e t y groups common i n
M e l a n e s i a . In such c o n t e x t s , masks u s u a l l y a r e not o n l y c o n c e a l e r s o f
i d e n t i t y but a l s o symbols o f s t a t u s o r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f the s u p e r -
n a t u r a l b e i n g s o r both. Boas (1931:181) wrote c o n c e r n i n g t h i s :
"The use o f the mask i s found among a g r e a t number o f p e o p l e s .
The o r i g i n o f the custom i s by no means c l e a r i n a l l c a s e s ,
but a few t y p i c a l forms o f t h e i r uses may e a s i l y be d i s -
t i n g u i s h e d . They a r e i n t e n d e d t o d e c e i v e s p i r i t s as t o the
i d e n t i t y o f t h e wearer, and may thus p r o t e c t him a g a i n s t
a t t a c k , o r the mask may r e p r e s e n t a s p i r i t which i s p e r s o n a l i z e d
by the wearer, who i n t h i s way f r i g h t e n s away s u p e r n a t u r a l
enemies. S t i l l o t h e r s a r e commemorative, t h e wearer p e r s o n i -
f y i n g a deceased f r i e n d . Masks a r e a l s o found i n t h e a t r i c a l
performances i l l u s t r a t i n g m y t h i c a l i n c i d e n t s . Such v a r i a t i o n s
o f uses s u g g e s t the i m p o s s i b i l i t y o f a s i n g l e o r i g i n o f the
custom".
Wherever t h e y come from i n time and space, and whatever t h e i r shape
o r component m a t e r i a l s , masks have l o n g been r e c o g n i z e d as c a s t i n g a
s p e l l which i s p e c u l i a r l y t h e i r own. Even i n museum d i s p l a y o r i n
3
i l l u s t r a t i o n s i n books which p r e s e n t them as s t a t i c o r l i f e l e s s works
o f a r t , masks have a s p e c i a l appeal which i s d i f f i c u l t t o d e s c r i b e .
The f e e l i n g i s o f t e n e x p r e s s e d t h a t t h e s e o b j e c t s a r e endowed w i t h a
s i n g u l a r l y s u p e r n a t u r a l o r p r e t e r n a t u r a l q u a l i t y . The b e h o l d e r o f the
mask i s moved t o a t t r i b u t e a l i f e o f i t s own t o the o b j e c t . The f e e l i n g
i n e v i t a b l y a r i s e s t h a t a masked p e r f o r m e r has somehow undergone a meta-
morphosis and assumed, i n l i v i n g form, the q u a l i t i e s o f h i s d i s g u i s e .
The w a t c h i n g a u d i e n c e , perhaps knowing t h a t what i t sees i s a person
w e a r i n g something t h a t he can t a k e o f f a g a i n , n e v e r t h e l e s s i s c a p t u r e d
by t h e i l l u s i o n , o r i s u n a b l e t o escape from the b e l i e f t h a t the mask
somehow belongs t o the p e r f o r m i n g f i g u r e and e x p r e s s e s i t s n a t u r e , r a t h e r
than t h a t o f t h e human i n s i d e . Benda (1945:1), a modern mask-maker,
has d e s c r i b e d the p e c u l i a r q u a l i t i e s o f the p r o d u c t o f h i s a r t i n the
f o l l o w i n g way:
"A mask i s a w e i r d , p e r f i d i o u s and s i n g u l a r l y p e r p l e x i n g
o b j e c t . I t has a p l a c e q u i t e a p a r t among t h i n g s made by
human hands. Looking a t i t , even we who p r i d e o u r s e l v e s on
our r e a l i s m and s o p h i s t i c a t i o n , a r e s e i z e d by a s t r a n g e
f e e l i n g o f u n c e r t a i n t y whether p e r a d v e n t u r e i t i s not a l i v e ,
When the mask i s put on and e n a c t e d by someone, t h i s uncanny
q u a l i t y and m y s t i f i c a t i o n i t c r e a t e s a r e i n t e n s i f i e d " .
S i m i l a r b e l i e f s a r e found i n many p l a c e s and a r e e x p r e s s e d i n
the r e l i g i o n s o f many p e o p l e s . For examples, t h i s b e l i e f i s v e r y
s t r o n g among the seven m i l l i o n Igbos o f S o u t h e a s t e r n N i g e r i a . The
Igbos as a p e o p l e p o s s e s s an a n c i e n t and d i s t i n c t i v e c u l t u r a l t r a d i t i o n
and speak a common language. T r a d i t i o n a l l y , f a r m e r s , t r a d e r s , and
f i s h e r m e n , numerous Igbo a r e now moving i n t o l a r g e modern c i t i e s and
p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n "the d e v e l o p i n g " g l o b a l c u l t u r e and economy. S t i l l ,
many v i t a l elements o f the Igbo way o f l i f e p e r s i s t , most n o t a b l y t h e i r
4
r e l i g i o u s p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n i n i t i a t i o n and mask and masquerades, which
o v e r a hundred y e a r s o f B r i t i s h c o l o n i a l r u l e and C h r i s t i a n m i s s i o n a r i e s
c o u l d not d e s t r o y . The Igbos b e l i e v e and p a r t i c i p a t e i n masks and
masquerades--a r i t u a l t h e a t r e which embodies some o f t h e most p r o f o u n d
and d e e p l y - f e l t r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s o f the p e o p l e . I have s t u d i e d masks
from many Igbo communities and i n t h e e x h i b i t "The World o f S p i r i t s " a t
t h e Museum o f A n t h r o p o l o g y ( J u l y 4 - August 31, 1977), which i s the
f i r s t element o f my Master's p r o j e c t , I t r i e d t o show the v i s u a l d i v e r s i t y
o f Igbo a r t , w h i l e a t the same time d e m o n s t r a t i n g t h e u n d e r l y i n g u n i t y
o f t h e i r r e l i g i o u s c o n c e p t i o n s o f t h e unseen w o r l d t h r o u g h t h e i n s t i t u t i o n
o f t h e mmuo--"masquerades". T h i s unseen w o r l d i s one o f a n c e s t o r s ,
the unborn, t h e dead, and the s p i r i t s which the r i t u a l s o f masquerade
b r i n g t o e x i s t e n t i a l r e a l i t y through masks, costume, m u s i c , song, and
dance.
Whenever I had t h e p r i v i l e g e o f i n t e r v i e w i n g a masked d a n c e r a f t e r
h i s performance d u r i n g my r e s e a r c h on Igbo masks, I was t o l d t h a t the
d a n c e r f e l t h i m s e l f undergo some s o r t o f t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . He u s u a l l y f e l t
and a c t e d as i f he were a n o t h e r b e i n g and not h i s u s u a l s e l f . I
o b s e r v e d i t not o n l y among Igbos, but a l s o among some Yorubas o f
N i g e r i a . The b e l i e f i s t h a t the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n e n a b l e s the dancer t o
move and a c t a c c o r d i n g t o the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a s s o c i a t e d by t r a d i t i o n
t o the p a r t i c u l a r mask. Thus, i n t h e Yoruba Adamuorisa masquerade p l a y ,
Esu E l i g b a would p e r f o r m s a c r i f i c e s i n t h e p u b l i c i n h i s r o l e as the
r i t u a l c l e a n s e r , o f the community. In t h e Ijaw e k i n e p l a y , Nimiaa Poku
("know n o t h i n g " ) a c t e d a moronic c h a r a c t e r . S i m i l a r l y , i n the Awuka
p l a y o f t h e Igbos, Onukwu ( " f o o l " or "funny") a c t e d i n a f u n n y , f o o l i s h
5
way t o make p e o p l e laugh"
3
. T h i s i s a l s o n o t i c e a b l e i n the A f i k p o
okumkpa p l a y .
Such b e l i e f s l i e a t t h e c o r e o f t h e mystery which i s g e n e r a l l y
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h masks. They a r e due p r o b a b l y i n p a r t t o t h e f a c t t h a t
men everywhere .know each o t h e r by the f a c e s and o t h e r p e r s o n a l t r a i t s .
In a p e r s o n ' s f a c e , one r e a d s t h e s i g n s o f h i s i d e n t i t y , h i s moods, h i s
a t t i t u d e towards o t h e r s , and something o f h i s p e r s o n a l i t y ; o r so we would
l i k e t o t h i n k a t any r a t e . People everywhere a r e d e e p l y dependent on
t h e s e s i g n s i n most o f t h e i r r e l a t i o n s w i t h o t h e r men. I t i s perhaps
not s u r p r i s i n g , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t a mask s h o u l d go a l o n g way toward
l e n d i n g a new i d e n t i t y and c h a r a c t e r even t o a f a m i l i a r f a c e . The
i l l u s i o n i s i n c r e a s e d , o f c o u r s e , i f the masker i s a p r o f e s s i o n a l p e r f o r m e r
o r someone e l s e not w e l l known t o t h o s e who watch him, o r i f , as among
the Igbos, he i s c o m p l e t e l y d i s g u i s e d from h i s a u d i e n c e i n some c o m b i n a t i o n
o f mask and b o d i l y costumes.
These fundamental b e l i e f s a r e u s u a l l y h e i g h t e n e d s t i l l f u r t h e r by
v a r i o u s ways i n . w h i c h t r a d i t i o n o f m y s t i f i c a t i o n s u r r o u n d i n g masking
and mummery i s p e r p e t u a t e d . Among t h e Igbos, the a u d i e n c e i s never
a l l o w e d t o see t h e masked p e r f o r m e r t a k e o f f h i s mask; nor do even
modern masked a c t o r s o f the Western t h e a t r e , f o r t h a t m a t t e r , u s u a l l y
remove t h e i r d i s g u i s e s i n p u b l i c . However, i t s h o u l d be noted t h a t , i n
some c u l t u r e s , e.g. New B r i t a i n , the masked dancer s t o p s f o r a w h i l e
and removes h i s mask i n f r o n t o f h i s a u d i e n c e , puts i t on a g a i n , and
c o n t i n u e s h i s p e r f o r m a n c e
4
. More commonly i n A f r i c a , as i n New G u i n e a ,
t h e u n i n i t i a t e d a r e t o l d t h a t t h e f i g u r e s a r e s p i r i t s ; and t h o s e not
a d m i t t e d t o t h e m y s t e r i e s (Igbo women, f o r i n s t a n c e ) , a r e never a l l o w e d
6
t o see t h e mask b e i n g put on o r b e i n g t a k e n o f f . T h e r e f o r e , i n one
way o r a n o t h e r , t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f the masked f i g u r e t o the o r d i n a r y
men i s u s u a l l y hidden from t h e p u b l i c gaze, and thus the m y s t e r i o u s
d i s t i n c t i o n between the two i s p r e s e r v e d . A l s o , t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f
the mask i t s e l f and the way i n which i t i s f a s t e n e d o r worn on t h e head
i s u s u a l l y more o r l e s s p r i v a t e knowledge, r e s t r i c t e d t o t h o s e who make
and wear masks.
The importance o f t h e s e props o f mystery can a l s o be: seen i n the
f a c t t h a t the r e v e l a t i o n o f t h e i r t r u e n a t u r e t o members o f p r i v i l e g e d
groups u s u a l l y i n v o l v e s some degree o f r i t u a l i z a t i o n . P u b e r t y r i t e s
among many p e o p l e s i n v o l v e the a c q u i s i t i o n o f such knowledge. R e v e l a t i o n
o f t h i s k i n d i s a p p r o p r i a t e l y d e s c r i b e d as i n i t i a t i o n , i . e . "customary
unmasking", which i n Igbo i s known as Ima mmuo o r i b a na mmuo ("knowing
the s p i r i t o r e n t e r i n g the s p i r i t " ) . Masks r e t a i n t h e i r e f f e c t i v e n e s s
even a f t e r such r e v e l a t i o n , because i n i t i a t i o n i s t r a d i t i o n a l l y a l l o w e d
t o happen o n l y i n s p e c i a l l y p r e s c r i b e d s o c i a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s such as
growing out o f c h i l d h o o d and becoming a member o f a s p e c i a l e s o t e r i c
group. F u r t h e r e x p l a n a t i o n s w i l l be g i v e n l a t e r i n t h e t h e s i s .
I t i s commonly s t a t e d o r i m p l i e d t h a t t h e c o n t r a s t i n g r e s p o n s e s t o
masks d i f f e r e n t i a t e the " p r i m i t i v e " from the " c i v i l i z e d " w o r l d . The
r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t the mask i s o n l y a mask and t h e r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t a
masked f i g u r e i s but a human b e i n g i n d i s g u i s e a r e i d e n t i f i e d w i t h the
s o p h i s t i c a t i o n o f a s e c u l a r o r t e c h n o l o g i c a l l y advanced s o c i e t y . I t i s
s a i d t h a t n o n - l i t e r a t e p e o p l e s b e l i e v e t h a t t h e i r masked f i g u r e s a c t u a l l y
a r e non-human b e i n g s , and t h a t t h e p r i m i t i v e masker i s c o n v i n c e d t h a t he
l i t e r a l l y becomes whatever h i s d i s g u i s e s s i g n i f y . T h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
o f masking has been p a r t i c u l a r l y emphasized and d e v e l o p e d by s c h o l a r s
7
i n t e r e s t e d i n d e m o n s t r a t i n g t h a t t h e m e n t a l i t y o f n o n - l i t e r a t e p e o p l e s
5
s e t s them s h a r p l y a p a r t from l i t e r a t e s o c i e t y . S i m i l a r views have
been e x p r e s s e d by some a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s i n d i s c u s s i o n s o f v a r i o u s
c u l t u r a l phenomena a s s o c i a t e d w i t h masks, such as s e c r e t s o c i e t i e s
and " p r i m i t i v e drama". Some o f such a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s a r e Webster (1932:
7 6 ) , L i p s (1949:269), R o e d r i g e r (1961:158-9), e t c . W r i t e r s p r i m a r i l y
c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e a e s t h e t i c a s p e c t s o f masks a l s o o f t e n a s c r i b e t o
both a n c i e n t and n o n - l i t e r a t e p e o p l e s , the same d i s t i n c t i v e r e s p o n s e s
t o t h e mask. One c o u l d r e f e r , f o r i n s t a n c e , t o t h e works o f R i l e y
(1955:18) and B r e t o n (1960).
While t h i s has g e n e r a l l y been t h e dominant view i n d i s c u s s i o n s o f
masks, i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o p o i n t out t h a t t h i s i s wrong. In f a c t , the
a s c r i p t i o n o f such l i t e r a l and u n i f o r m b e l i e f s t o a l l maskers and
t h e i r a u d i e n c e o u t s i d e Western s o c i e t y can be c h a l l e n g e d as e t h n o c e n t r i s m
o r even r a c i s m . F u r t h e r , as was noted e a r l i e r , masks have d i f f e r e n t
o r i g i n s and f u n c t i o n s i n d i f f e r e n t s o c i e t i e s .
Even a r e c e n t attempt..by a h i s t o r i a n t o i n t e r p r e t masks as mani-
f e s t a t i o n s o f u n i v e r s a l p l a y element i n human n a t u r e concedes much t o
t h e dominant view by a s s o c i a t i n g t h i s element " p r i m a r i l y w i t h c h i l d r e n
and p r i m i t i v e p e o p l e s " . ( H u i z i n g a , 1949:26). S i m i l a r l y , a contemporary
s t u d e n t o f mythology i n t e r p r e t s masks as a prime e x p r e s s i o n o f the
s p i r i t o f "as i f . " o r " m a k e - b e l i e v e " , but he a l s o s t r e s s e s l i t e r a l
i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and f i n d s i t s c l e a r e s t e x p r e s s i o n i n " c h i l d h o o d and
p r i m i t i v e l i f e " . ( C a m p b e l l , 1959:21). To c h a l l e n g e t h e s e v e r y wrong
assumptions i s one o f the s t r o n g e s t and most p r e s s i n g r e a s o n s f o r under-
t a k i n g t h i s s t u d y o f masks.
8
There i s , o f c o u r s e , ample e v i d e n c e t h a t among numerous p e o p l e s
the u n i n i t i a t e d a r e encouraged t o b e l i e v e t h a t masked f i g u r e s a r e more
than mere humans i n d i s g u i s e . I t seems p r o b a b l e , e s p e c i a l l y where
masking i s c o n n e c t e d w i t h b e l i e f s i n the s u p e r n a t u r a l , as among t h e
Igbos, t h a t such l i t e r a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s a r e g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d . Yet by
no means do a l l masking t r a d i t i o n s i n v o l v e a b e l i e f i n p o s s e s s i o n by
s u p e r n a t u r a l b e i n g s . I t cannot be assumed t h a t i n e v e r y s o c i e t y which
makes masks, t h e u n i n i t i a t e d a r e t a u g h t o r f o r c e d t o a c c e p t i m p e r s o n a t i o n
l i t e r a l l y , nor i s i t c e r t a i n t h a t such t e a c h i n g s a r e always a c c e p t e d w i t h
f u l l s e r i o u s n e s s o r w i t h o u t q u a l i f i c a t i o n . Thus, i t i s known among
t h e Igbos t h a t women may know, but p r e t e n d i g n o r a n c e , o f t h e f a c t t h a t
the mask i s a man i n d i s g u i s e . I s t a n d t o be quoted on t h i s . I t i s
p o s s i b l e t h a t v a r i o u s more o r l e s s s u b t l e and complex c o m b i n a t i o n s o f
b e l i e f s and s k e p t i c i s m s c h a r a c t e r i z e d i f f e r e n t p e o p l e s o r even d i f f e r e n t
groups w i t h i n p a r t i c u l a r s o c i e t i e s .
Moreover, among t h e Igbos t h e r e a r e masks w i t h no r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a l
i n t e n t o r v a l u e and some such masks appear a t performances t h a t cannot
be r e g a r d e d as s e r i o u s . There i s , f o r example, t h e Igbo u l a g a mask
performed by y o u t h s between t h e ages o f t e n and f i f t e e n with.no s e r i o u s
o v e r t o n e s ^ . There a r e c e l e b r a t i o n s o f t h e Ngwa o f Southern o r Owerri
Igbo i n which both men and women c o l o u r f u l l y a t t i r e d , dance t o g e t h e r
8
w i t h t h e i r masks w i t h o u t any f e a r . F u r t h e r , i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o d e s c r i b e
w i t h c e r t a i n t y and c l a r i t y , the p r e c i s e q u a l i t y o f p e r c e p t i o n s and
b e l i e f s s h a r e d by p e o p l e w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e s e m a t t e r s . However, I
d i d not f i n d anyone among t h e Igbos who d i d not somehow i m p l y t h a t they
knew t h a t the mask i s a man i n d i s g u i s e .
9
T r u e , s e c r e c y and mystery surrounds masks, as has been shown and
w i l l c o n t i n u e t o be shown, but s i m p l e d e l u s i o n s as t o t h e i r n a t u r e
c o u l d not be d i s c o v e r e d . D e s p i t e t h e f a c t t h a t masking has many s a c r e d
a s s o c i a t i o n s f o r t h e Igbos (as w i t h o t h e r p e o p l e s ) , and i s o r g a n i z e d
i n the form o f a men's s e c r e t s o c i e t y , mmuoy i t i s my c o n t e n t i o n t h a t
i t i s e s s e n t i a l l y a r i t u a l , f e s t i v e , and t h e a t r i c a l a c t i v i t y o r d e v i c e
whose p r i m a r y aim i s t o c r e a t e r e l i g i o u s p a g e a n t r y and e n t e r t a i n m e n t f o r
Igbo v i l l a g e r s .
In h i s s t u d y o f masks among the M e l a n e s i a n s , V a l e n t i n e (1961:6)
a r r i v e d a t a c o n c l u s i o n which I c o n s i d e r a p p r o p r i a t e t o the p r e s e n t
d i s c u s s i o n . He n o t e d :
"Thus i t seems p r o b a b l e t h a t c o n t r a s t i n g ways o f v i e w i n g
o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e mask and t h e masker do n o t n e a t l y
d i v i d e the n o n - l i t e r a t e w o r l d and modern s o c i e t y . Perhaps
t h e a t t i t u d e o f men i n e x o t i c s o c i e t i e s a r e not always so
d i f f e r e n t from our r e s p o n s e s t o our own forms o f maskery and
mummery. U n q u a l i f i e d r e a l i s m h a r d l y d e s c r i b e s a d e q u a t e l y a l l
o f our own r e a c t i o n t o masked p e r f o r m a n c e s . Indeed, i t i s
our v e r y a c c e p t a n c e o f i l l u s i o n and s u r r e n d e r t o a sense o f
mystery t h a t g i v e masks the p e c u l i a r appeal and e f f e c t i v e n e s s
which few among us would deny t h e y have. T h i s remains t r u e
i n s p i t e o f t h e f a c t t h a t we a l s o have r e a l i s t i c r e s p o n s e s
t o maskery as w e l l . I t may w e l l be t h a t some such s p e c i a l
a t t i t u d e , compounded o f p a r t i a l l y c o n t r a d i c t o r y r e a c t i o n s
i s a l s o a key t o the p l a c e o f masks i n c u l t u r e s v e r y d i f f e r e n t
from our own".
I t i s i n d e e d because o f t h i s , t h a t one must i n s i s t t h a t t h e impor-
t a n c e o f t h e mask (seen from t h e p o i n t o f view o f t h e Igbos but perhaps
a p p l i c a b l e t o o t h e r c u l t u r e s ) , s h o u l d t h e r e f o r e be examined and u n d e r s t o o d ,
not o n l y because i t t r a n s c e n d s mere mundane n o t i o n s ( t h e r e b y c o n j u r i n g
up the p r e s e n c e and hence awe o f t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l ) , but a l s o because i t
was and s t i l l i s a form o f t h e a t r e which I w i l l c a l l r i t u a l t h e a t r e .
I t i s a drama i n which t h o s e t h a t have been i n i t i a t e d i n t o the mmuo
10
s o c i e t y p e r f o r m as a c t o r s w h i l e the o t h e r members o f t h e community
watch as a c t i v e and p a r t i c i p a t i n g a u d i e n c e and s p e c t a t o r s . I t must
a l s o be s t r e s s e d , f u r t h e r , t h a t w i t h o u t t h i s a u d i e n c e , a masked p e r f o r -
mance o r p l a y would be m e a n i n g l e s s .
A g r e a t d e a l has been s a i d and w r i t t e n about t r a d i t i o n a l A f r i c a n
a e s t h e t i c forms. For t h e g r a p h i c and p l a s t i c a r t s a l o n e , a h b i b l i o g r a p h y
p u b l i s h e d o v e r t e n y e a r s ago by G a s k i n (1965) l i s t s more than f i v e
thousand i t e m s . Somewhat s m a l l e r q u a n t i t i e s o f m a t e r i a l s have been
p u b l i s h e d on A f r i c a n f o l k w a y s , and much l e s s i n the f i e l d o f music.
A c c o r d i n g t o O t t e n b e r g (1971) " d e s p i t e t h i s v a s t l i t e r a t u r e , t h e r e i s
v e r y l i t t l e t h a t g i v e s the A f r i c a n ' s c o n c e p t i o n o f h i s a r t , u s i n g t h e
word b r o a d l y t o i n c l u d e a l l a f t forms". T h i s i s t r u e because most o f
t h e work on A f r i c a (and Igbos a r e no e x c e p t i o n ) has been from t h e o u t -
s i d e r ' s p o i n t o f view, b a s i c a l l y t h a t o f t h e Western i n v e s t i g a t o r s and
s c h o l a r s . We owe a d e b t o f g r a t i t u d e t o t h e s e b o l d s c h o l a r s who i n t h e i r
own way c o n t r i b u t e d t o knowledge about t h e a r t and p e o p l e s o f the "dark
c o n t i n e n t " . However, such s t u d i e s have n o t been e n t i r e l y w i t h o u t
b i a s e s from which a l l k i n d s o f m i s l e a d i n g i n f e r e n c e s have been made.
The time i s now r i p e f o r A f r i c a n s t o w r i t e about t h e i r own art;,
e s p e c i a l l y i n c u l t u r a l c o n t e x t s . T h i s i s what I am a t t e m p t i n g t o a c h i e v e
i n t h i s s t u d y o f Igbo masks and masquerades.
RATIONALE FOR RESEARCH AND DATA
The o b j e c t i v e o f t h i s s t u d y i s t o c o n t r i b u t e a n o t h e r d i m e n s i o n t o
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the u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the w i d e s p r e a d c u l t u r a l phenomenon o f masking.
The t h e s i s w i l l a d d r e s s i t s e l f t o t h e c e n t r a l problem o f p r o v i d i n g an
a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l a n a l y s i s f o r t h e i n s t i t u t i o n o f masquerading, w h i c h ,
as was p o i n t e d o u t , Western a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s have found e x t r e m e l y
d i f f i c u l t t o e x p l a i n , Western s c h o l a r s i n t e r e s t e d i n t h i s f i e l d c o n s i d e r
the mask as a p i e c e o f wood, b u t m a s k e r s c o n s i d e r i t as a l i v i n g
f o r c e a r e a l i t y . The paradox i s t h a t the p i e c e o f wood has become
r e a l . I s h a l l t h e r e f o r e be d e v o t i n g t h i s s t u d y t o e x p l o r i n g the problem
o f i l l u s i o n and r e a l i t y i n the s p e c i f i c e t h n o g r a p h i c c o n t e x t o f the
Igbos. I s h a l l t r y t o p r o v i d e adequate e x p l a n a t i o n s and answers t o
the i s s u e o f what t r a n s p i r e s when t h e Igbos engage i n masked r i t u a l
p l a y s o r as T u r n e r (1975) would l i k e t o i n t e r p r e t i t , t h e s y m b o l i c
t r a n s f o r m a t i o n t h a t o c c u r s i n the s o c i a l drama t h a t i s masquerade p e r -
formance.
Data w i t h which I w i l l attempt t o p r o v i d e some answers t o t h e
q u e s t i o n s r a i s e d e a r l i e r a r e d e r i v e d from t h e f o l l o w i n g s o u r c e s .
(1) A c o l l e c t i o n o f Igbo masks which I have assembled and e x h i b i t e d
a t the Museum o f A n t h r o p o l o g y . Documentation o f t h e s e masks w i l l be
found i n Chapter II o f t h i s t h e s i s . Indeed, t h i s t h e s i s i s p r i m a r i l y
an a d d i t i o n a l s o u r c e o f i n f o r m a t i o n t o t h i s major e x h i b i t e n t i t l e d "The
World o f S p i r i t s " . The c o l l e c t i o n o f masks c o v e r as many Igbo v a r i e t i e s
as were p o s s i b l e t o c o l l e c t w i t h i n t h e P a c i f i c Northwest i n the time
a v a i l a b l e t o me, and w i l l be supplemented by photographs taken as p a r t
o f my r e s e a r c h i n t o the f a c t s and f u n c t i o n o f masquerades among t h e
Igbos.
(2) I w i l l a l s o r e l y v e r y h e a v i l y on my p e r s o n a l e t h n o g r a p h i c
12
e x p e r i e n c e as a p a r t i c i p a n t o b s e r v e r i n Igbo c u l t u r e g e n e r a l l y , and the
mmuo ("masquerade") s o c i e t y i n p a r t i c u l a r , I was born and r a i s e d i n
Igbo c o u n t r y (Ozubulu, t o be p r e c i s e ) , and t h r o u g h the i n f l u e n c e o f my
f a m i l y ( i . e , p a r e n t s and a g n a t e s ) , I d i d p a r t i c i p a t e a c t i v e l y i n Igbo
c u l t u r e , In my c h i l d h o o d , h i s t o r y and morals were t a u g h t t h r o u g h
t a l e s and p r o v e r b s . C h i l d r e n o f t h e same age grade and t h o s e o f h i g h e r
o r lower age s e t s i n f l u e n c e d each o t h e r t h r o u g h a c t i v i t i e s l i k e
w r e s t l i n g , games, e t e . The mores o f t h e s o c i e t y were t a u g h t t o c h i l d r e n
t h r o u g h examples and d i r e c t approach by p a r e n t s and e l d e r s . I was
e s p e c i a l l y w e l l - t r a i n e d because I s p e n t a l o t o f my time w i t h my l a t e
g r a n d f a t h e r who h e l d a h i g h c i v i c and l e a d e r s h i p p o s i t i o n i n the v i l l a g e
as d i - O k p a l a ("the f i r s t b o r n " ) . I was i n i t i a t e d i n t o the Ozubulu mmuo
("masquerade") s o c i e t y i n December 1963 and I have e v e r s i n c e p a r -
t i c i p a t e d as a f u l l - f l e d g e d member i n t h e i r r i t u a l p l a y s .
I s t u d i e d a n t h r o p o l o g y and g r a d u a t e d i n 1973 from the U n i v e r s i t y
o f N i g e r i a , Nsukka. At t h a t i n s t i t u t i o n , I s t u d i e d and a c q u i r e d
r e s e a r c h t e c h n i q u e s which became h e l p f u l t o me i n l a t e r y e a r s as a
c u r a t o r i n the N a t i o n a l Museum, Lagos, N i g e r i a . I c a r r i e d out r e s e a r c h
as p a r t o f my f u n c t i o n s and I p u b l i s h e d "The Museum and the P u b l i c "
(1975), and " R e o r g a n i z i n g t h e Museum S e r v i c e i n N i g e r i a " (1974). The
f o r m e r o f t h e s e two a r t i c l e s i s a v a i l a b l e on r e q u e s t from the D i r e c t o r
o f t h e N i g e r i a n Museum i n Lagos, I then began t o s t u d y masks because
my p r o f e s s i o n a l i n t e r e s t was a r o u s e d as a r e s u l t o f t h e many mask p i e c e s
a v a i l a b l e i n the Lagos Museum. I was a l l o w e d t o engage i n t h e s e s t u d i e s
from September 1975 t o August 1976, I s p e n t t h i s one y e a r p e r i o d i n
Igbo c o u n t r y , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n Ozubulu, where I took p a r t i n and o b s e r v e d
13
i n d e t a i l i n i t i a t i o n , and t h e Ozoebunu masquerade p e r f o r m a n c e . I a l s o
s p e n t t i m e i n Awka where I s t u d i e d and o b s e r v e d t h e I j e l e masquerade,
I have not y e t p u b l i s h e d on t h i s s u b j e c t , However, I c o n s i d e r my
s t u d y unique i n the sense t h a t I am not aware o f a n o t h e r Igbo i n i t i a t e
who has had the r a r e o p p o r t u n i t y o f g o i n g back as a p r o f e s s i o n a l a n t h r o -
p o l o g i s t t o s t u d y the i n s t i t u t i o n o f masquerades and w r i t e about i t .
(3) A l t h o u g h l i t e r a t u r e d e a l i n g w i t h t h e Igbo c u l t u r e and s o c i a l
l i f e has been s u r p r i s i n g l y meager, y e t t h e r e a r e a few Western a u t h o r s
who have done some p i o n e e r i n g work i n the a r e a o f A f r i c a n a r t s and
have i n c l u d e d the s u b j e c t o f masks, Some o f them a r e Segy (1953 and
1975), Jones (1971), W i l l e t (1971), Wingert (1974), Underwood (1952),
S i e b e r (1962), and F r a z e r (1966). S t a r k w e a t h e r (1966) and C o l e (1970)
wrote documentaries t o accompany t h e i r e x h i b i t s o f Igbo a r t . I must
say t h a t t h e i r e f f o r t s have been p r a i s e w o r t h y , a l t h o u g h most o f t h e i r
c o n t r i b u t i o n , as i n d e e d t h o s e o f the o t h e r s above, have been p u r e l y
d e s c r i p t i v e .
R e c e n t l y , and f o r t u n a t e l y , O t t e n b e r g (1975) has w r i t t e n a c l a s s i c
on Igbo masks, His emphasis was on t h e A f i k p o Igbos, but what he
d e s c r i b e d c o u l d be a p p l i e d t o - t h e o t h e r Igbos, He d i d b e g i n t o examine
masks i n terms o f t h e a t r e , f o c u s s i n g s p e c i f i c a l l y on the r e l a t i o n s h i p
between the a c t o r s (masks) and the a u d i e n c e ( t h e community). O t t e n b e r g
(1973:32) wrote o f t h i s as f o l l o w s :
"Yet the a u d i e n c e a t masquerades a t A f i k p o and i n o t h e r
p a r t s o f A f r i c a i s o f t e n q u i t e a c t i v e and e x p r e s s i v e . . .
A f u l l u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the performance r e q u i r e s v e r y c l o s e
o b s e r v a t i o n o f t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e a u d i e n c e as w e l l as
p l a y e r s , f o r i n a sense t h e y a r e a c t i n g , and a r e i n v o l v e d ,
i n s e n s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h one a n o t h e r " .
14
The t h e s i s w i l l t h e o r e t i c a l l y answer and extend f u r t h e r the frame-
work used by O t t e n b e r g n a m e l y , l o o k i n g a t t h e mask as t h e a t r e .
F u r t h e r , I i n t e n d t o use Leach's (1963) f o r m u l a t i o n o f s y m b o l i c r e p -
r e s e n t a t i o n o f time and r i t u a l s e p a r a t i o n , a Durkheimian i d e a , t o
demonstrate t h a t t h i s t h e a t r e , t h a t i s masquerade, h e l p s t o e l e v a t e o r
remove the r u r a l Igbos from the s e c u l a r o r e v e r y d a y l i f e on the farms
t o a n o t h e r p l a n e o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s i n which an attempt i s made t o r e s o l v e
t h e q u e s t i o n o f r e a l i t y .
By combining (1) and (3) above, i t i s my hope t h a t I w i l l be a b l e
t o demonstrate t h a t the mask i s a n e c e s s i t y f o r the Igbos as a medium
o f r e l a x a t i o n and, most i m p o r t a n t , f o r r e - e n a c t i n g t h o s e s o c i a l f o r c e s
t h a t a r e n e c e s s a r y f o r s o c i e t y ' s c o n t i n u i t y and s o l i d a r i t y . T h i s i s a
f i r s t s t e p towards c o n t r i b u t i n g t h e o r e t i c a l l y towards an a c c e p t a b l e
u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the w i d e s p r e a d c u l t u r a l phenomenon o f mask. I t i s
a l s o a c o n t r i b u t i o n towards the r e b i r t h o f t r a d i t i o n a l A f r i c a n drama
and t h e a t r e . I t i s not g e n e r a l l y r e a l i z e d by o u t s i d e r s t h a t the forms
o f drama i n A f r i c a most commonly r e c o g n i z e d today a r e a two extremes
o f a continuum: t h e t r a d i t i o n a l l y i n d i g e n o u s and t h e b l a t a n t l y c o l o n i a l .
The f i r s t i s found i n e l a b o r a t e and complex r i t u a l , both l i t u r g i c a l
and t h e a t r i c a l , S i n c e a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s have been the r e p o r t e r s o f t h e s e
e v e n t s , they have s t r e s s e d the s o c i a l purposes o f such a c t i v i t i e s ,
b e i n g p r o f e s s i o n a l l y i n d i f f e r e n t t o the d r a m a t i c elements o f p u b l i c
p e r f o r m a n c e . In f a c t , t h e s e o c c a s i o n s o f f e r a form o f communal t h e a t r e -
i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h a p a r t i c i p a t i n g a u d i e n c e , and much more remains t o be
s a i d about t h e i r d e l i b e r a t e d r a m a t i c e f f e c t s .
The o t h e r well-known t h e a t r e e x i s t s i n U n i v e r s i t i e s . In Anglophone
/
15
A f r i c a , t h e s e were f o r m e r l y the p r o d u c t i o n s o f the c l a s s i c B r i t i s h
r e p e r t o i r e from Shakespeare t o Shaw. In the c o l o n i a l days, t h i s p l a y e d
down the t r a d i t i o n a l t h e a t r e which was seen as e v i l and p r i m i t i v e .
Today the a d m i r a t i o n f o r t h e s e Western p r o d u c t i o n s i s b e g i n n i n g t o
d i m i n i s h because some independent A f r i c a n c o u n t r i e s a r e b e g i n n i n g t o
r e j e c t the i n h e r i t e d c o l o n i a l a r r o g a n c e t h a t had a f f i r m e d the imported
a r t t o be more e l e g a n t and c i v i l i z e d than t h e d e n i g r a t e d r e s i d u e o f
n a t i v e c u l t u r e . I t i s s t u d i e s , such as t h i s one, t h a t w i l l h e l p
a c h i e v e t h i s i m p o r t a n t g o a l , and p r e s e r v e our h e r i t a g e .
ORGANIZATION OF THE THESIS
The t h e s i s i t s e l f i s o r g a n i z e d i n s i x c h a p t e r s . C h a p t e r I i s an
i n t r o d u c t i o n t o the problem o f the mask. I t s e t s f o r t h the c e n t r a l
problem' o f s t u d y and d a t a a v a i l a b l e f o r the t h e s i s .
Chapter II d e s c r i b e s the e x h i b i t "The World o f S p i r i t s " and p r o v i d e s
d e t a i l e d i n f o r m a t i o n on the d i s p l a y e d masks.
Chapter I I I g i v e s the g e o g r a p h i c a l , h i s t o r i c a l and s o c i o - c u l t u r a l
background o f the Igbos, as a p e o p l e . I t i s my c o n v i c t i o n t h a t an
u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the Igbos t h e m s e l v e s , w i l l h e l p us g a i n a b e t t e r i n s i g h t
i n t o t h e i r masquerade c e r e m o n i e s . P a r t i c u l a r l y , I i n t e n d t o f o c u s g r e a t
a t t e n t i o n on t h e p h i l o s o p h y and r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s o f the Igbos s i n c e t h e s e
w i l l answer so many q u e s t i o n s t h a t might a r i s e i n l a t e r p a r t s o f the t h e s i s .
Chapter IV g i v e s an e t h n o g r a p h i c d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e masks, i n i t i a t i o n
16
i n t o the mmuo ("masquerade") s o c i e t y , and a u d i e n c e r e a c t i o n i n g e n e r a l .
I w i l l t r y t o e s t a b l i s h the f a c t and f u n c t i o n o f t h e mask, b a s i n g my
i d e a s on t h e d a t a a v a i l a b l e t o me, I hope a l s o t o r e l y on my e x p e r i -
ences as a p a r t i c i p a n t o b s e r v e r .
Chapter V w i l l f o c u s on masks and a u d i e n c e i n a t h e o r e t i c a l
framework s u g g e s t e d by O t t e n b e r g ' s work, namely, d e v e l o p i n g "the r i t u a l
t h e a t r e c o n c e p t " o f Igbo masks and masquerades. T h i s c h a p t e r w i l l
examine n o t o n l y the r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e masked p e r f o r m e r s ( i . e .
a c t o r s ) and the a u d i e n c e ( i . e . the community), but w i l l a l s o use Leach's
a n d E l i a d e ' s framework t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e i n i t i a t e s ' and e n t i r e community's
e x p e r i e n c e b e f o r e , d u r i n g and a f t e r the r i t u a l t h e a t r e .
There w i l l then come a b r i e f C h a p t e r VI i n which I s t a t e my c o n -
c l u s i o n s .
*
17
CHAPTER I
Notes and R e f e r e n c e s
1. I c r e d i t t h i s statement t o V a l e n t i n e who t h i n k s t h a t what o b t a i n s
i n t h o s e p a r t s o f the w o r l d i s not masking but body p a i n t i n g ,
c f V a l e n t i n e ; 1961:1.
2. I b i d . For f u r t h e r d e s c r i p t i v e l i t e r a t u r e one c o u l d c o n s u l t Adam,
1949; Benda, 1945; Boas, 1927; B r e t o n , 1960; Douglas and d'Harnon-
c o u r t , 1941; G i r t h , 1936; G r e g o r , 1937; L e w i s , 1922; L i n t o n and
W i n g e r t , 1946; Meyer, 1889; Meyer and P a r k i n s o n , 1895; Nevermann,
1933; R i l e y , 1955; R o e d r i g e r , 1961; Underwood, 1952; and W i s s l e r ,
1938.
3. Because t h e masquerade i s t h e a t r i c a l d r a m a t i z a t i o n o f c u l t u r a l
myths, the masked dancer o r p e r f o r m e r must a c t i n the manner
p r e s c r i b e d by custom as b e l o n g i n g t o the c h a r a c t e r o f h i s d i s g u i s e .
4. c f Masks and Men Among the K i l e n g e , Western New B r i t a i n . 16 mm
c o l o u r sound f i l m by A d r i a n A, Gerbrands. 1970.
5. One i m m e d i a t e l y r e c a l l s statements such as t h i s one made by Levy-
B r u h l : "To put on a mask, w i t h t h e s e p e o p l e , i s n o t , as i t i s
w i t h us, a mere d i s g u i s e " . B r u h l , 1935:123-4. A l s o B r u h l , 1923.
6. c f Lowie (1940:434), where he notes t h a t masks used by o t h e r
B r a z i l i a n t r i b e s t o impersonate s p i r i t s and t e r r i f y the u n i n i t i a t e d
a r e used by the C a n e l l a p u r e l y f o r amusement.
7. U l a g a masks o b t a i n among t h e C e n t r a l and N o r t h e r n Igbos. For a n o t h e r
example o f such masks, see O t t e n b e r g (1975), where he d e s c r i b e s
A f i k p o c h i l d r e n ' s mba mask.
8. c f Amankulor, "The F i r s t All-Ngwa C u l t u r a l F e s t i v a l " i n A f r i c a n A r t s .
January 1977, V o l . X, No. 2.
18
CHAPTER II
THE WORLD OF SPIRITS
T h i s i s the t i t l e I gave t o t h e e x h i b i t o f Igbo masks which I
o r g a n i z e d and p r e s e n t e d a t the U.B.C. Museum o f A n t h r o p o l o g y . I t was
a major p a r t o f my Master's p r o j e c t i n a n t h r o p o l o g y (museology) and
s e r v e d as an i n t r o d u c t i o n t o the s t u d y o f masks. I t l a s t e d from J u l y 5
t o August 29, 1977. In t h i s e x h i b i t as w e l l as the t h e s i s , I p r e s e n t e d
Igbo mask as r i t u a l t h e a t r e . T h i s c o n c e p t was a c h i e v e d t h r o u g h t h e use
o f a p p r o p r i a t e theme s t a t e m e n t s and photographs (see p l a t e s I , I I , and
I I I ) .
The theme s t a t e m e n t s speak f o r t h e m s e l v e s . The two photographs
which accompanied t h e s e s t a t e m e n t s were i n t e n d e d t o demonstrate t h e
r i t u a l t h e a t r i c a l i t y o f Igbo masquerades. A i s t h e r i t u a l p r e p a r a t i o n
f o r masquerade, w h i l e B demonstrates t h e a t r i c a l i t y by showing masked
p e r f o r m e r s ( a c t o r s ) and t h e i r a u d i e n c e (community). See p l a t e IV.
The d i s p l a y was c o n t a i n e d i n t h r e e c a s e s - - 6 3 , 64 and 65. Case 63
( p l a t e V) which i s the l o n g e s t , c o n t a i n e d the Okpa costume from Amaseri
near A f i k p o , t w e l v e A f i k p o f a c e masks, and f i v e ikenga f i g u r i n e s .
A f i k p o i s S o u t h e a s t e r n Igbo. I used t e x t i l e s and r a f f i a from the
Museum as a p p r o p r i a t e backgrounds f o r both the A f i k p o masks and t h e
i k e n g a f i g u r i n e s .
Case 64 ( p l a t e VI) c o n t a i n e d one Okpolumpi o r Nwampi mask and
f o u r Odogu o r Okpoka masks. These masks a r e from Ozubulu. In c a s e 65
( p l a t e V I I ) were d i s p l a y e d f i v e agbogho masks from Enugu, N o r t h e r n Igbo.
19
P l a t e I. An o v e r v i e w o f g a l l e r y space showing the masks as they were
d i s p l a y e d i n the c a s e s . Photographs o f the e x h i b i t were taken by
Jean H a m i l t o n , U.B.C. Museum o f A n t h r o p o l o g y .
T H E WO R L D OF SPI RI TS
Igbo Masquerade
The seven million Igbo people of southeastern Nigeria possess an ancient and
distinctive cultural tradition and speak a common language. Traditionally,
farmers, traders, and fishermen, numerous Igbo are now moving into large
modern cities and participating in the developing global culture and economy.
Still, many vital elements of the Igbo way persist, most notably their
religious participation in initiation and masquerade, which over a hundred years
of British rule and Christian missionaries could not destroy. This exhibition
is an introduction to Igbo masks and masquerade a ritual theatre which
embodies some of the most profound and deeply felt religious beliefs of the
people. The exhibition features masks from the Northern, Central and South-
eastern Igbo and shows the visual diversity of Igbo art, while demonstrating as well
the underlying unity of their religious conceptions of the unseen world. This
is a world of ancestors, the unborn, and the spirits, which the rituals of
masquerade bring to experiential reality through mask, costume, music, song
and dance.
' Igbo Masks >
Whi l e masks are the aspect of masquer ade mos t c o mmo n l y f ound i n museums, t hey
are mer el y carved pi eces of wo o d whi c h have been separated f r om the sounds,
costumes, and r i tual setti ng whi c h c ompl et e t hei r meani ng and exi stence i n
I gbol and. A mask i n an ex hi bi t is a pi ece of art; a mask i n its t r adi t i onal
setti ng is a bei ng. Whi l e i t is human men wh o act ual l y carve and wear t he
masks, t hey are onl y the agents t hr ough whi c h the bei ngs represented by the
mask c o me t empor ar i l y f r om the wo r l d beyond i nt o the wo r l d of here and now. Thus,
the masks y ou see here on ex hi bi t are mer el y l i fel ess objects, but t hey are
cl ues t o the mor e power f ul and endur i ng bei ngs t hey bot h represent and
rei ncarnate in t hr ee- di mens i onal phys i cal f or m.
In or der to use y o ur i magi nat i on t o par t i ci pat e i n the exper i ence of maski ng,
y ou are asked to cons i der how the mask transforms the man who wears it:
it hi des his own face and i dent i t y
i t frees h i m f r o m t he rul es of c o n d u c t wh i c h govern ever yday l i f e
it al l ows hi m t o become the ot her bei ng that i t represents.
Perhaps the best way to l o o k ^ t a mask is t o i magi ne your s el f on the i nsi de
. l ooki ng out.
P l a t e I I . Two o f the theme statements used i n t h e e x h i b i t .
21
Initiation Into the Mmuo
Knowledge of the mask and its deeper meanings, and the right to experience
personal transformation while wearing one, is carefully restricted to men who
have been initiated into the mmuo ("secret society"). Every male in the
community must undergo initiation or experience shame and ridicule. It is a
test of courage and endurance and a prerequisite to becoming a man with adult
responsibilities. These include maintaining for the community as a whole the
vital links between the living and the dead which keeps the visible world in
harmony with the powerful unseen world beyond. By gaining the approval of the
ancestors through initiation, adult men also take on the responsibility for
maintaining social, political, and judicial control in the affairs of normal
Igbo life.
Initiation transforms boys into men; masquerade transforms men into spirits
and ancestors. Through these methods the spiritual and moral continuity of the
Igbo way is maintained.
P l a t e I I I . The t h i r d e x h i b i t s t a t e m e n t . The photograph shows new
i n i t i a t e s i n t o the s e c r e t s o c i e t y a t A f i k p o . Photograph c o u r t e s y
o f Simon O t t e n b e r g , U n i v e r s i t y o f Washington, S e a t t l e .
22
P l a t e IV. Two o f the p r i n c i p a l e x h i b i t photographs d e m o n s t r a t i n g the
r i t u a l t h e a t r i c a l i t y o f Igbo masquerades. A i s the r i t u a l p r e p a r a t i o n .
B i s performance b e f o r e an a u d i e n c e .
Photograph c o u r t e s y o f Simon O t t e n b e r g , U n i v e r s i t y o f Washington, S e a t t l e ,
P l a t e V. D e t a i l s o f Case 63.
P l a t e V I I . D e t a i l s o f Case 65.
25
I d e s i g n e d and made costumes f o r the Nwampi and one Odogu mask showing
how t h e s e a r e worn i n Ozubulu. The costume f o r t h e s e masks c o n s i s t e d
o f a sewn brown t e x t i l e and woven r a f f i a which i s worn around the neck
and w a i s t . Costumes were a l s o made f o r two agbogho masks. One costume
was made from a y e l l o w t e x t i l e on which I p a i n t e d r e d and b l a c k c o l o u r s .
The o t h e r costume was made from a r e d t e x t i l e on which were sewn b l u e ,
y e l l o w and b l a c k m a t e r i a l s .
D e s c r i p t i v e s t a t e m e n t s were used i n a l l the c a s e s t o e x p l a i n the
names and uses o f a l l items i n t h e e x h i b i t . A p p r o p r i a t e photographs
w e r e . a l s o used i n a l l c a s e s t o show the masks i n t h e i r s o c i a l c o n t e x t ,
There were o t h e r photographs i l l u s t r a t i n g a t y p i c a l Igbo v i l l a g e and
showing some o t h e r Igbo masquerades such as the Ozoebunnu and I j e l l e
(see p l a t e s V I I I and X ) . There was a l s o a map o f Igbo t e r r i t o r y .
The masks and i k e n g a s were s e l e c t e d t o show a v a r i e t y o f Igbo a r t .
The okpa was i n t r o d u c e d i n t o t h e e x h i b i t t o demonstrate t h a t masks a r e
n o t made from wood o n l y . The okpa i s a f i b r e - n e t costume w i t h r a f f i a
attachments and i s used by an e n e r g e t i c v i l l a g e r u n n e r o r messenger.
The t w e l v e A f i k p o masks show t h e a r t s t y l e s o f S o u t h e a s t e r n Igbos.
These masks g e n e r a l l y have s m a l l f r o n t l e t s o r f a c e s . T h e i r d e s i g n i s
g e o m e t r i c , s t y l i s t i c and a t times n a t u r a l i s t i c . Except f o r the I s i j i ,
a l l o f them were c a r v e d from wood and have woven r a f f i a attachments
which a c t both as f a s t e n i n g medium and c u s h i o n a g a i n s t the f a c e o f the
wearer. The i s i j i was made from c a l a b a s h and i s the o n l y mask worn
j u s t once d u r i n g t h e i n i t i a t i o n o f t h e f i r s t s o n . A l l t h e masks were
p a i n t e d w i t h w h i t e , r e d and b l a c k . One n o t i c e s I b i b i o i n f l u e n c e i n
t h i s a r t s t y l e .
26
(Drawing by E.C. Onwuzolum).
27
The i k e n g a ("God o f F o r t u n e " ) has an i n d i r e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h
the mask because i t i s g i v e n t o one a f t e r i n i t i a t i o n . I t s y m b o l i z e s
the.achievement o f a boy who has now become a man. I t was i n t r o d u c e d
i n t o the e x h i b i t as an example o f Igbo s t a t u e s , A l l the f i v e i k e n g a s
a r e from C e n t r a l Igbo. Three a r e o f r e c e n t make w h i l e t h e o t h e r two
have been used i n r i t u a l . None o f them was p a i n t e d .
The Ozubulu masks show t h e a r t s t y l e o f the C e n t r a l Igbos. T h i s
s t y l e a l s o o c c u r s among the Western Igbo a c r o s s the N i g e r R i v e r . These
masks a r e l a r g e r than A f i k p o masks, T h e i r d e s i g n i s a b s t r a c t s i n c e
t h e y s y m b o l i z e d e a t h , a n o n - c o n c r e t e phenomena. The f a c i a l f e a t u r e s
a r e i n t e n d e d to f r i g h t e n and keep away the u n i n v i t e d from t h e i r r i t u a l s .
The f a c e o f the nwampi i s p a i n t e d w h i t e w h i l e the horn i s - b l a c k . Two
odogu have b l a c k p a i n t s . Two have b l a c k and r e d c o l o u r s . The r e d
c o l o u r i n t h e nose and mouth o f t h i s mask s y m b o l i z e s danger.
The Enugu masks a r e c a l l e d agbogho and demonstrate the N o r t h e r n
Igbo a r t s t y l e s . These masks a r e meant t o be b e a u t i f u l and g r a c e f u l .
T h e i r head-gear i s t h a t o f a t y p i c a l Igbo l a d y who has j u s t come out o f
t h e s e c l u s i o n n e c e s s a r y b e f o r e m a r r i a g e . They are a l l p a i n t e d w h i t e
and b l a c k and show n a t u r a l i s t i c f e a t u r e s . They a r e meant e i t h e r t o be
c a r r i e d on the head o r t o c o v e r t h e f a c e o n l y .
D e t a i l e d documentation o f a l l the m a t e r i a l s used i n t h e e x h i b i t
has been i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t h i s c h a p t e r . A show o f about 7 5 . g l i d e s was
o r g a n i z e d t o f u r t h e r b u t t r e s s the r i t u a l - t h e a t r i c a l i t y o f the masks.
The s l i d e s were shown f o u r t i m e s i n t h e o r i e n t a t i o n t h e a t r e o f t h e
Museum and t w i c e t o a c l a s s o f s e n i o r c i t i z e n s . There was a l i v e p r e -
s e n t a t i o n o f Igbo masquerade on J u l y 17 a t the G r e a t H a l l o f the Museum.
28
I am o f the o p i n i o n t h a t the e x h i b i t and p r e s e n t a t i o n s were s u c c e s s f u l .
However, I am a l s o o f the o p i n i o n t h a t a d d i t i o n a l background
i n f o r m a t i o n i s s t i l l v i t a l t o complete t h e s u c c e s s o f any e x h i b i t . T h i s
i s n e c e s s a r y to make f o r a b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e o b j e c t s and
photographs used i n a d i s p l a y . The u n d e r s t a n d i n g c o u l d be a c h i e v e d by
p r e p a r i n g a s c h o l a r l y c a t a l o g u e o r w r i t i n g a t h e s i s such as I am d o i n g .
A l t h o u g h a t h e s i s i s more t e c h n i c a l than a c a t a l o g u e f o r the p u b l i c ,
i t i s u n a v o i d a b l e i n my c a s e s i n c e I must s a t i s f y the r e q u i r e m e n t s o f
s c h o l a r s h i p demanded by the U n i v e r s i t y . T h e r e f o r e , I s u b s t i t u t e a
t h e s i s as an a d d i t i o n a l s o u r c e o f i n f o r m a t i o n t o "The World o f S p i r i t s "
i n p l a c e o f a c a t a l o g u e t h a t would have been p r e p a r e d i n u s u a l museum
p r a c t i c e .
29
DETAILS OF THE MASKS THAT WERE DISPLAYED IN THE EXHIBIT
. "THE WORLD OF SPIRITS"
Mba
From Amaseri i s a masquerade o f p h y s i c a l f o r c e
and i s meant t o be worn by an e n e r g e t i c young man
because i t runs through the v i l l a g e and may p u n i s h
t h o s e who b l o c k i t s p a t h . I t i s a f u l l head and
body net costume w i t h no s p e c i a l d e s i g n i n the
f a c i a l a r e a . No p a r t o f i t i s d e t a c h a b l e . I t i s
c o l o u r e d dark brown w i t h a t t a c h e d white bands o f
r a f f i a a t the c h e s t and l i m b s . T h i s costume was
made from n a t i v e f i b r e ( c o u l d a l s o be made from
European c o r d ) , i s heavy and i s e n t e r e d through the
c h e s t . T h i s mask i s f o r e i g n t o Igbo c u l t u r e
a l t h o u g h some Igbos make i t today. I t i s o f I b i b i o
o r E f i k o r i g i n (see M c F a r l a n , 1964:26). Because i t
i s used by the s e c r e t s o c i e t y f o r communication, i t
i s v e r y d i f f i c u l t t o purchase t h i s mask p u b l i c l y .
Measurements
Length - 78"
Arm span - 75"
From the O t t e n b e r g C o l l e c t i o n , S e a t t l e .
( M a t e r i a l s ; wood and r a f f i a ) . Mba i s a common
A f i k p o mask. I t i s a small w h i t e - f a c e d mask w i t h
a d e c o r a t i v e board p r o t r u d i n g from the top o f the
30
head. The board i s p a i n t e d i n d e t a i l s o f b l a c k ,
y e l l o w , w h i t e and r e d . A woven r a f f i a i s a t t a c h e d
t o the edge t o a c t as f a s t e n i n g s and c u s h i o n a g a i n s t
t h e wearer's f a c e .
Measurements
Length - 19"
Width - 5 V
Depth - 4"
Blade - 10" x 4"
A c a l i ( M a t e r i a l s : wood and r a f f i a ) . An o l d A f i k p o mask
used i n i n i t i a t i o n and o t h e r mask c e r e m o n i e s . I t
i s a v e r y s m a l l mask w i t h r e c t a n g u l a r c u t - o u t
f e a t u r e s i n brown and p a r t l y v a r n i s h e d wood.
Measurements
Length - 9"
Width - 4"
Depth - I V
(a) and ( b ) . I g r i . ( M a t e r i a l s : wood and r a f f i a ) . T h i s i s a l s o c a l l e d
Okumpka. I t i s one o f t h e most b e a u t i f u l masks i n
A f i k p o . Two o f t h e s e were d i s p l a y e d t o show s t y l e s .
(a) Measurements
Length - 1 9 V
Width - 5 V
Depth - 5"
T h i s i s l o n g - f a c e d , i n w h i t e , b l a c k , red and y e l l o w
c o l o u r s , w i t h g e o m e t r i c a l l y s t y l i z e d f e a t u r e s
i n c l u d i n g d i a g o n a l t e a r marks. T h i s has a s o r t o f
rounded edge a t the c h i n .
6
31
(b) Measurements
Length - 16"
Width - 4 V
Depth - 4"
I t i s a l s o l o n g - f a c e d , i n w h i t e and b l a c k c o l o u r s ,
w i t h g e o m e t r i c a l l y s t y l i z e d f e a t u r e s and a p o i n t e d
edge a t t h e c h i n . Has t e a r marks.
Both o f t h e s e masks a r e used i n the Okumkpa p l a y
( O t t e n b e r g , 1975:87) o f the A f i k p o .
Both a r e from the O t t e n b e r g C o l l e c t i o n , S e a t t l e .
K p i r i k p i r i o r Otogho ("Woodpecker"). ( M a t e r i a l s : wood and r a f f i a ) .
T h i s i s a small b i r d mask i n w h i t e , r e d and b l a c k
c o l o u r s , w i t h rounded f e a t u r e s and b e a k - l i k e p r o -
j e c t i o n s c u r v i n g downward from the f o r e h e a d and
upward from the c h i n . Used i n i n i t i a t i o n p l a y s .
Measurements
Length - 9"
Width - 6"
Depth - 6"
Beak e x t e n s i o n - 3"
Okumkpa ( M a t e r i a l s : wood and r a f f i a ) . T h i s i s the Okumkpa-
p l a y l e a d e r ' s mask. T h i s mask i s worn by the o r g a n i z e r
and d i r e c t o r o f t h i s f o u r a c t p l a y (see O t t e n b e r g ,
1975:104). I t i s a s i m p l e , l o n g , o v a l mask, w i t h the
f a c e q u a r t e r e d i n dark brown and w h i t e d e t a i l s r e n d e r e d
i n o p p o s i t e c o l o u r s . Broken egg s h e l l s were a p p l i e d
t o g i v e t e x t u r e and e f f e c t t o t h e mask.
Measurements
32
Length - 13"
Width - 5 V
Depth - 3"
Bekee ("White p e r s o n or f o r e i g n e r " ) . ( M a t e r i a l s : wood and r a f f i a ) .
An A f i k p o s m a l l , w h i t e - f a c e d mask w i t h brown-black
s u r r o u n d i n g and d e t a i l .
Measurements
H e i g h t - 10"
Width - 5h"
Depth - 6"
I b i b i o ( M a t e r i a l s : wood and r a f f i a ) . C a r v i n g o f a
b e a u t i f u l womanj t h i s s t y l e was c o p i e d by the
A f i k p o from I b i b i o s who a r e t h e i r neighbours
f u r t h e r s o u t h .
Measurements
Length - 11"
Width - 6"
Depth - 5"
From t h e O t t e n b e r g C o l l e c t i o n , S e a t t l e .
Mmaji ("Yam k n i f e " ) . ( M a t e r i a l s : wood and r a f f i a ) . A f i k p o ; s m a l l - f a c e d
mask w i t h a b s t r a c t f e a t u r e s : p e g - l i k e knobs and a
c u r v i n g c r e s t i n w h i t e , r e d , b l a c k and y e l l o w p r o -
t r u d i n g from the mudline o f the f a c e . T h i s i s used
1
W i n s e c r e t s o c i e t y dances t o thank the a n c e s t o r s f o r
s t r e n g t h ( s y m b o l i z e d by the k n i f e ) g i v e n t o members
t o c u l t i v a t e i n the farm, u b i .
Measurements
Length - 17"
33
Width - 6"
Depth - 5"
K n i f e - 9"
I s i j i ("The f i r s t o r b i g g e s t yam"). ( M a t e r i a l : c a l a b a s h ) . Used o n l y
i n t h e i n i t i a t i o n o f the f i r s t son. I t i s a gourd
mask, e l o n g a t e d t o resemble a yam. The neck o f the
gourd, c u r v i n g upward, i s p a i n t e d white and orange.
T h i s i s an a b s t r a c t symmetrical d e s i g n i n w h i t e ,
y e l l o w and orange on brown-black r e p r e s e n t i n g the
f a c e .
Measurements
Length - 18"
Width - 7"
Depth - 55s"
Neck - 6"
Okpesu ( M a t e r i a l s : wood and r a f f i a ) . T h i s u g l y mask i s
used to f r i g h t e n c h i l d r e n d u r i n g the Okumkpa p l a y .
I t has an o v a l b l a c k f a c e w i t h p r o t r u d i n g eyes and
t e e t h and a glued-on beard. D e t a i l s i n brown, r e d
and w h i t e .
Measurements
Length - 10"
Width - 6"
Depth - 4"
Beard - 8"
Mkpi ("He goat") ( M a t e r i a l s : wood and r a f f i a ) . T h i s i s a goat mask
i n brown-black w i t h v e r y s i m p l e f e a t u r e s . The mouth
34
1
and t e a r marks a r e d e t a i l e d i n orange. Two horns
p r o t r u d e from t h e head.
Measurements
Length - 15"
Width - 5"
Depth - 6"
Horns - 6"
Opanwa ("Mother c a r r y i n g a c h i l d on the head"). ( M a t e r i a l s : wood and
r a f f i a ) . Opanwa i s a w h i t e - f a c e d mask w i t h e l a b o r -
a t e l y c a r v e d and p a i n t e d d e t a i l i n g o f f a c e marks and
c o i f f u r e . From the top p r o t r u d e s the p o l e - f i g u r e o f
a c h i l d .
Measurements
Length - 22"
Width - 5 V
Depth - 6"
C h i l d - 1 3 V
The Ikengas
1.
A dark brown c a r v i n g o f a naked man s e a t e d on a
small s t o o l , w i t h a k n i f e i n h i s r i g h t hand and a
head i n h i s l e f t . Loops commence and t e r m i n a t e a t
both e a r s .
Measurements
Length - 20"
Width - 7"
Loops - 3"
From the O t t e n b e r g C o l l e c t i o n , S e a t t l e ,
35
2. S m a l l , l i g h t brown f i g u r e w i t h two horns.
Measurements
Length - 8"
Width - 3"
Horns - 2"
From the S t a r k w e a t h e r C o l l e c t i o n , M i c h i g a n .
3. S m a l l , l i g h t brown f i g u r e , w i t h r e c o g n i z a b l e
human f a c e .
Measurements
Length - 5"
Width - 3"
4. S m a l l , l i g h t brown f i g u r e , almost a twin t o No.
w i t h two horns.
Measurements
Length - 8"
Width - 2 V
Horns - 3"
i
i
5. A s m a l l , dark brown f i g u r e , w i t h two horns. T h i s
ikenga has been used i n r i t u a l and t h e dark brown
c o l o u r i s the r e s u l t o f age and o l d b l o o d o f animals,
Measurements
Length - 7"
Width - 3 V
Horns - 2"
U.B.C. Museum o f A n t h r o p o l o g y C o l l e c t i o n , Vancouver.
CASE 64 Ozubulu Masks
1. Odogu ( M a t e r i a l : wood). A l a r g e , b l a c k - f a c e d mask w i t h
36
t w i s t e d f e a t u r e s . There i s a red o u t l i n e . A l s o
on the head i s a s i n g l e c o i l e d , b l a c k and white
python, an animal v e n e r a t e d i n Ozubulu. T h i s i s
a s e r i o u s mask used i n b u r i a l . The b l a c k p a i n t
s y m b o l i z e s death w h i l e r e d warns p e o p l e o f danger.
The t w i s t e d f e a t u r e i s t o c r e a t e awe. The g l u e d
eye l a s h e s s y m b o l i z e d i t s wisdom o r c u n n i n g .
Measurements
Length - 11"
Width - 9"
Depth - 5"
2. Odogu ( M a t e r i a l : wood). T h i s i s a p a r t i c u l a r l y dangerous
mask. I t i s a l a r g e , b l a c k - f a c e d mask w i t h s p l i t
nose, p r o t r u d i n g e y e l i d s and tongue i n r e d . The r e d
shows t h a t i t s s i g h t , b r e a t h and words a r e dangerous

and c o u l d cause i n j u r y . People are warned t o keep a t
a d i s t a n c e . I t , f u r t h e r , has two backward-curving
s p i n a l horns and small round e a r s . Used i n b u r i a l
ceremonies.
Measurements
Length - 15"
Width - 10"
Depth - 6"
Horn - 6"
From the Starkweather C o l l e c t i o n , M i c h i g a n .
3. Okpolumpi o r Nwampi. ( M a t e r i a l : wood). T h i s i s a l a r g e , w h i t e - f a c e d
mask w i t h wide mouth and bared t e e t h . I t s small
37
e y e s , e a r s and mouth a r e o u t l i n e d i n brown-black.
I t has a c a r v e d h e a d - c o v e r i n g s u p p o r t i n g two
massive curved horns p a i n t e d b l a c k . T h i s i s a
mask o f p h y s i c a l f o r c e used t o demonstrate anger
when a member o f the mmuo s o c i e t y i s dead.
Measurements
Length - 21 "
Width - &V
Depth - 3"
Horns - 11V'
4. Okpoka ( M a t e r i a l : wood). T h i s i s a d a r k - f a c e d mask w i t h
h i g h - s e t e a r s , narrow f o r e h e a d , and p r o t r u d i n g
f e a t u r e s .
Measurements
Length - 10"
Width - 6"
Depth - 3"
From the L o c k e t t C o l l e c t i o n , Ann A r b o r , M i c h i g a n .
5. Okpoka ( M a t e r i a l : wood). A dark brown mask w i t h h i g h - s e t
e a r s , narrow f o r e h e a d and sharp p r o t r u d i n g f e a t u r e s .
The mouth i s t w i s t e d .
Measurements
Length - 10 "
Width - 6V
Depth - 2"
From the L o c k e t t C o l l e c t i o n , Ann A r b o r , M i c h i g a n .
CASE 65 EnuQU Masks
The m a t e r i a l used i n p r e p a r i n g t h e s e masks i s wood.
These a r e a l l c a l l e d agbogho and r e p r e s e n t female
38
s p i r i t s . They d e p i c t the b e a u t i f u l f e a t u r e s which
Igbo's a t t r i b u t e t o the e a r t h - g o d d e s s a l a . The
h a i r d o i s t y p i c a l o f Igbo women, e s p e c i a l l y a f t e r
t h e i r p e r i o d o f s e c l u s i o n i n p r e p a r a t i o n f o r m a r r i a g e .
A w h i t e - f a c e d c o n i c a l mask w i t h a l o n g , p o i n t e d
f a c e and f e a t u r e s . The e l a b o r a t e l y curved c o i f f u r e
w i t h i t s c e n t r a l c r e s t and o t h e r d e t a i l i n g i s i n
b l a c k and w h i t e . The mask i s meant to be c a r r i e d
on the head.
Measurements
Length - 15"
Width - 8"
Depth - 6"
H a i r d o - 4 V
From t h e Sawyer C o l l e c t i o n , Vancouver.
A w h i t e - f a c e d mask w i t h t h e white worn brown w i t h
age. I t has a s m a l l , p o i n t e d f a c e and f e a t u r e s
and c a r v e d c o i f f u r e . The mask i s meant t o c o v e r
the f a c e o n l y .
Measurements
Length - 12"
Width - 7"
Depth - 5 V
A w h i t e - f a c e d mask w i t h l o n g , p o i n t e d f a c e and
f e a t u r e s and an e l a b o r a t e c o i f f u r e o f h o r n - l i k e
shapes. The d e t a i l s and c o i f f u r e are i n l i g h t brown.
Measurements
Length - 13"
Width - 7"
39
Depth - 4"
H a i r d o - 3"
A w h i t e - f a c e d c o n i c a l mask w i t h a h i g h , e l a b o r a t e
c e n t r a l c r e s t on the c o i f f u r e and a sharp d e t a i l i n g
i n b l a c k on w h i t e . I t i s meant t o be c a r r i e d on
the head.
Measurements
Length - 1 7 V
Width - 8"
Depth - 7"
C o i f f u r e - 7"
From the U.B.C. Museum o f A n t h r o p o l o g y C o l l e c t i o n ,
Vancouver.
A w h i t e - f a c e d c o n i c a l mask w i t h a l o n g , p o i n t e d f a c e
and s m a l l f e a t u r e s d e t a i l e d i n brown-black. The
c o i f f u r e c o n s i s t s o f f i v e p a r a l l e l f r e e - s t a n d i n g
c r e s t s i n brown-black w i t h w h i t e , b l u e and y e l l o w i s h
d e t a i l i n g and i s meant t o be c a r r i e d on the head.
Measurements
Length - 19"
Width - 9"
Depth - 7"
C o i f f u r e - 9V
From the Sawyer C o l l e c t i o n , Vancouver.
40
CHAPTER I I I
THE IGBOS
The Geography o f Igboland
Below t h e c o n f l u e n c e o f the g r e a t N i g e r and Benue l i e s t h e f o r e s t
b e l t which c o v e r s most o f Southern N i g e r i a ; and e a s t o f t h i s s t r a t e g i c
p o i n t i s the home o f the Igbo p e o p l e s o f N i g e r i a (Crowder, 1966:22).
Numbering o v e r seven m i l l i o n , the Igbos o f S o u t h e a s t e r n N i g e r i a , a r e
a p e o p l e who speak a common language which forms p a r t o f the Kwa group
o f West A f r i c a n languages ( N z i m i r o , 1972:3). L o c a t e d between l a t i t u d e
5 t o 7 degrees n o r t h o f the e q u a t o r and l o n g i t u d e 6 t o 8 degrees e a s t
o f Greenwich, t h e i r t e r r i t o r i a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o v e r an a r e a o f some
15,800 square m i l e s , c o v e r s the N i g e r - C r o s s R i v e r a r e a , w i t h the
I b i b i o s and C r o s s R i v e r p e o p l e t o the e a s t , Ijaw t o the s o u t h , Edo
s p e a k i n g p e o p l e s to the west, and I g a l a and Idoma s p e a k i n g p e o p l e s t o
the n o r t h . N u m e r i c a l l y , the Igbos a r e one o f the p r i n c i p a l p e o p l e s o f
A f r i c a ; and a l o n g w i t h the Hausas, F u l a n i s , Yorubas, a r e an i m p o r t a n t
group i n p r e s e n t day N i g e r i a .
B e f o r e i t e n t e r s t h e A t l a n t i c Ocean through a network.of d i s -
t r i b u t a r i e s which c h a r a c t e r i z e i t s d e l t a , the N i g e r R i v e r d i v i d e s the
Igbo c o u n t r y i n t o two unequal p a r t s . The g r e a t e r p o r t i o n l i e s i n what
i s now c a l l e d the Anambra and Imo S t a t e s , w h i l e a s m a l l e r t r i a n g u l a r
p o r t i o n , west o f the N i g e r , i s p a r t o f Bendel S t a t e s . Though s e p a r a t e d
by the N i g e r and thus f a l l i n g i n t o o t h e r p o l i t i c a l u n i t s , "the western
and e a s t e r n Igbo have r e t a i n e d t h e i r c u l t u r a l as w e l l as t h e f r p s y c h i c
F i g . I. Map o f Igbo T e r r i t o r y , N i g e r i a .
(Drawn by E.C. Onwuzolum).
41
u n i t y . In modern times t h e i r a t t i t u d e towards p o l i t i c a l q u e s t i o n s
and t h e i r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h what t h e y r e g a r d as t h e i r own ' l e a d e r '
r e v e a l the s o l i d a r i t y between the Igbo peoples on both s i d e s o f
the N i g e r " (Uchendu,.1965:1).
Igboland's p h y s i c a l environment i s m a i n l y t r o p i c a l r a i n f o r e s t
w i t h m a r g i n a l savannah i n the extreme n o r t h . The average annual tem-
p e r a t u r e i s between 80 t o 90 degrees F w i t h an annual range o f between
5 and 10 degrees F. The r a i n y and d r y seasons are w e l l marked; the
former b e g i n s i n A p r i l and l a s t s t o O c t o b e r , when the d r y season
commences. R a i n f a l l i s h e a v i e r i n the south than i n the n o r t h , many
a r e a s having more than 70 i n c h e s a y e a r . D u r i n g t h e r a i n y season, a
"break" o c c u r s i n August and i s l o c a l l y c a l l e d o k o c h i j i oko (the
d r o u g h t f a v o u r a b l e t o the growth o f yams). Important i n the s e a s o n a l
c y c l e a r e the southwest monsoon winds t h a t b r i n g r a i n and the n o r t h e a s t
winds t h a t are d r y , d u s t y , as w e l l as c o l d . These winds a r e l o c a l l y
r e f e r r e d to as uguru ("harmattan") and a r e the f a r m e r ' s f r i e n d because
they are known to open the bush, d r y . t h e c l e a r i n g s , k i l l some o f t h e
i n s e c t s t h a t d e s t r o y c r o p s and make the b u r n i n g o f r u b b i s h easy.
However, i t t u r n s the n a t i v e s n e a r l y c h a l k w h i t e and c r a c k s t h e l i p s .
The d r y . s e a s o n i s a p e r i o d o f l e s s farm work and i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d
by r i t u a l s and f e s t i v i t i e s such as t h e masquerades. In t h i s season
the community o f f e r s s a c r i f i c e s t o t h e a n c e s t o r s s e e k i n g r a i n f o r next
p l a n t i n g season, abundant y i e l d i n the farms, w e a l t h , good h e a l t h , and
c h i l d r e n . Then t h e y g i v e form t o the a n c e s t o r s through masks, and
t h e s e come t e m p o r a r i l y from beyond to judge t h e l i v i n g .
42
The H i s t o r y o f the Igbos
When and from where the Igbo came i n t o t h e i r p r e s e n t t e r r i t o r y
has u n t i l v e r y r e c e n t l y been a s u b j e c t o f much s p e c u l a t i o n , because
the Igbos have no w r i t t e n r e c o r d e x c e p t a few N s i b i d i s c r i p t s which
a r e a r e c e n t d i s c o v e r y and which a r e s t i l l c o n t r o v e r s i a l . T h i s l a c k
o f w r i t t e n r e c o r d s makes i t d i f f i c u l t to a s c e r t a i n t h e i r o r i g i n ,
u n d e r s t a n d t h e i r p h i l o s o p h y , a s s e s s t h e i r v a l u e s , master the w e a l t h o f
t h e i r c u l t u r e , fathom t h e i r r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s , e x p l o r e t h e i r h i s t o r y ,
i n t e r p r e t t h e i r customs,.and comprehend t h e i r p o l i t i c a l system.
T h e r e f o r e , r e s e a r c h on the Igbo must depend p r i m a r i l y on o r a l h i s t o r y ,
f o l k t a l e s and l e g e n d s , p a r a b l e s and p r o v e r b s , o b s e r v a t i o n s and
e x p e r i e n c e s , what o t h e r p e o p l e have t o say about them, and what
a r c h a e o l o g i c a l f i n d s o f r e c e n t times have r e c o r d e d .
O r a l h i s t o r y o r f o l k t a l e s and legends may not l e a d one f a r i n t o
Igbo h i s t o r y because the Igbos use a n i m a l s t o d e p i c t a c t u a l e v e n t s .
The r e a s o n f o r t h i s use o f a n i m a l s i n s t o r i e s i s t w o - f o l d , v i z : a) t o
a v o i d opprobrium o r sometimes v i o l e n t r e p r i s a l s ' f r o m persons (or t h e i r
r e l a t i v e s ) i n v o l v e d , and b) t o a v o i d (as i s the custom) s p e a k i n g i l l o f
the dead o r d e i f y i n g i n d i v i d u a l s beyond c e r t a i n l i m i t s . T h i s use o f
animals t h e r e f o r e p l a c e s l i m i t a t i o n s on the depth o f s t o r i e s and so
hampers r e s e a r c h . For example, Igbos have a l e g e n d or f o l k t a l e about
t h e i r o r i g i n . The s t o r y t e l l s o f t o r t o i s e , Mbe or Mbekwu, who became
so powerful and i n t e l l i g e n t t h a t he was b a n i s h e d from t h e animal kingdom
by the r e s t o f the a n i m a l s on a c c o u n t o f h i s prowess. He l e f t w i t h
h i s f a m i l y and r e l a t i v e s and s e t t l e d i n an o s t e n s i b l y empty v i l l a g e
he d i s c o v e r e d . However, as days passed, Mbe r e a l i z e d t h a t t h i s
43
no-man's-land a c t u a l l y belonged t o s p i r i t s who had begun t o r e t u r n
one a f t e r a n o t h e r . When c o n f r o n t e d by t h e s p i r i t s , Mbe c l a i m e d
t h a t he was the f i r s t son o f the f o u n d e r o f the v i l l a g e but t h a t
the s p i r i t s were t o o young to remember t h a t he had been s o l d away
because o f a t r o u b l e t h a t had e r u p t e d i n the v i l l a g e . To t e s t h i s
knowledge, Mbe was s u b j e c t e d t o so many t e s t s which he a c c o m p l i s h e d
and was a l l o w e d not o n l y t o remain but t o r u l e the v i l l a g e . ,
T h i s s t o r y i s i n t e r p r e t e d by.the Igbos as e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e y
m i g r a t e d t o t h e i r p r e s e n t homes and had a g l o r i o u s p a s t . In f a c t , l i v i n g
as an Igbo, one cannot but f e e l t h i s sense o f a g l o r i o u s p a s t and t h i s
b u t t r e s s e s the p r i d e o f t h e average Igbo and g i v e s him c o n f i d e n c e . Mrs.
L e i t h - R o s s (1939:55) summed t h i s up a d m i r a b l y when i n 1930 she wrote:
" N e v e r t h e l e s s , e v e r y now and a g a i n j one has a sense o f an
o l d e r c u l t u r e l y i n g behind what one now s e e s , l o n g f o r g o t t e n
by the p e o p l e t h e m s e l v e s , grown so f a i n t t h a t i t i s o n l y i n
c e r t a i n l i g h t s t h a t one c a t c h e s i t , but the g l i m p s e i s o f
something so r i c h , so v i t a l , t h a t the p r e s e n t s i n k s i n t o
i n s i g n i f i c a n c e b e s i d e s i t " .
What was s p e c u l a t i o n i n 1930 has now been c o n f i r m e d as f a c t u a l
by r e c e n t h i s t o r i c a l and a r c h a e o l o g i c a l d i s c o v e r i e s . We know now f o r
sure t h a t by 3000 B.C. p e o p l e had s e t t l e d i n the p r e s e n t Igbo homeland
and were a l r e a d y making stone t o o l s i n c l u d i n g ground s t o n e axes and
p o t t e r y ^ . The work o f Shaw a t Igbo-Ukwu shows a f l o u r i s h i n g i r o n - a g e
c i v i l i z a t i o n i n the n i n t h c e n t u r y A.D. . From a l l t h e s e , F l i n t (1966:
63) put f o r t h a h y p o t h e s i s which legend c o n f i r m s i n the Mbe s t o r y ,
" t h a t the Igbos m i g r a t e d i n t o the a r e a en masse".
I s i c h e i (1976:3) m a i n t a i n s t h a t "the f i r s t human i n h a b i t a n t s o f
Igboland must have come from a r e a s f u r t h e r s o u t h p o s s i b l y from the
44
N i g e r c o n f l u e n c e . But men have been l i v i n g i n I g b o l a n d f o r a t
l e a s t f i v e thousand y e a r s s i n c e the dawn o f human h i s t o r y " . T h i s
f i r s t s e t t l e m e n t was on the n o r t h e r n edge o f the r a i n f o r e s t and
savanna t o i t s n o r t h . T h i s a r e a would have been e a s i e r t o c u l t i v a t e
w i t h wooden and s t o n e t o o l s . E x c a v a t i o n s a t A f i k p o and Nsukka have
c o n f i r m e d n o t o n l y t h i s s e t t l e m e n t but a l s o the f a c t t h a t r a i n f o r e s t
3
c o u l d be p e n e t r a t e d w i t h s t o n e t o o l s . A l s o , the c u l t i v a t i o n o f yam,
a c r o p t h a t i s o f r i t u a l and s y m b o l i c i m p o r t a n c e , and which was the
economic b a s i s o f Igbo c i v i l i z a t i o n , . c o n f i r m s t h i s e a r l y Igbo
s e t t l e m e n t i n the n o r t h e r n a r e a , around the C r o s s R i v e r and t h e Anamba
4 / %
v a l l e y - N s u k k a escarpment . Jones (1964:30), w r i t e s t h a t : r~
an ee'.'Ope can assume an e a r l y d i s p e r s i o n from t h i s c e n t r e t o
the Nsukka-Udi h i g h l a n d s i n the e a s t and an e a r l y d r i f t
southwards towards t h e c o a s t . . .
One can more p o s i t i v e l y d i s t i n g u i s h a l a t e r and more
massive d i s p e r s a l . . . which was m a i n l y s o u t h e a s t w a r d s . . .
i n t o what i s now E a s t e r n Isuama a r e a . From t h i s s u b s i d i a r y
d i s p e r s a l a r e a , t h e r e was one m o v e m e n t s o u t h - s o u t h - e a s t
i n t o the Aba d i v i s i o n to form t h e Ngwa group o f t r i b e s ,
and a n o t h e r movement e a s t i n t o Umuahia a r e a and hence t o
Ohafia-Arochukwu r i d g e , . w i t h an o f f s h o o t t h a t s t r u c k n o r t h . . .
to d e v e l o p i n t o the N o r t h - E a s t e r n Ibo".
These m i g r a t i o n s became e x t r e m e l y n e c e s s a r y because o f p o p u l a t i o n
p r e s s u r e ; Igbo c o u n t r y h a v i n g up u n t i l today one o f the h i g h e s t popu-
5
l a t i o n d e n s i t y f i g u r e s i n A f r i c a i f n o t the w o r l d . The many c e n t u r i e s
o f h i g h d e n s i t y c u l t i v a t i o n e x p l a i n s why the e n t i r e v e g e t a t i o n i n Igbo
c o u n t r y i s o f secondary growth .
European c o n t a c t w i t h t h e Igbo-speaking p e o p l e s d a t e s back t o the
a r r i v a l o f the Portuguese i n the m i d d l e o f the f i f t e e n t h c e n t u r y . For
n e a r l y f o u r c e n t u r i e s (1434-1807), the N i g e r Coast formed a " c o n t a c t
c o m m u n i t y " t h e c o n t a c t p o i n t between European and A f r i c a n t r a d e r s : the
45
Portuguese from t h e f i f t e e n t h and s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s , the Dutch
from the s e v e n t e e n t h , and the B r i t i s h from t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y .
I t was a p e r i o d o f t r a d e on the c o a s t r a t h e r than one o f c o n q u e s t
and empire b u i l d i n g i n the h i n t e r l a n d . The c h i e f i t e m p r o v i d e d by
the Igbo was s l a v e s , many o f whom came to the New World. The monopoly
h e l d by the c o a s t a l s l a v e r s ( t r a d e r s from the N i g e r S t a t e s ) reduced
Igbo s l a v e r s t o the r o l e o f middlemen who r a r e l y d e a l t d i r e c t l y w i t h
European s l a v e r s . The l o c a l t r a d e c u r r e n c i e s o f the p e r i o d i n c l u d e d
m a n i l l a s , copper r o d s , i r o n b a r s , whisky, guns and l a t e r c o w r i e s h e l l s .
With the a b o l i t i o n o f the s l a v e t r a d e i n 1807, a new t r a d i n g
ep.och opened. There was a s h i f t from t h e t r a f f i c i n men to the t r a f f i c
i n raw m a t e r i a l s f o r European i n d u s t r i e s , and t h e r e f o r e palm produce,
t i m b e r , e l e p h a n t t u s k s , and s p i c e s became the merchandize o f the
" l e g i t i m a t e " t r a d e . With t h i s s h i f t , the European t r a d e r s c o u l d no
l o n g e r be c o n f i n e d t o the c o a s t , but saw t h e i r r e a l i n t e r e s t , "the
t r a d e r s f r o n t i e r " , i n the h i n t e r l a n d , which was s t i l l the s o u r c e o f
goods ( i . e . palm p r o d u c e ) . In the s t r u g g l e t o e s t a b l i s h a " f r e e - t r a d e "
h i n t e r l a n d between 1807-1885, B r i t i s h companies p l a y e d a d e c i s i v e r o l e
f o r B r i t a i n by combining a g g r e s s i v e t r a d i n g w i t h a g g r e s s i v e i m p e r i a l i s m .
When the P r o t e c t o r a t e o f Southern N i g e r i a was c r e a t e d out o f t h e
former Royal N i g e r Company and the N i g e r C o a s t P r o t e c t o r a t e i n 1910,
t h e c o n t r o l o f the area passed from the B r i t i s h F o r e i g n O f f i c e t o the
C o l o n i a l O f f i c e . H i t h e r t o , I g b o l a n d had been t e c h n i c a l l y t r e a t e d as a
B r i t i s h C o l o n y even b e f o r e i t was f o r m a l l y conquered and p a c i f i e d .
Between 1902, when the Aro "Long J u j u " was d e s t r o y e d , and 1914 when
N o r t h e r n and.Southern N i g e r i a were amalgamated, t h e r e were twenty-one
46
B r i t i s h m i l i t a r y e x p e d i t i o n s i n t o I g b o l a n d . In f a c t , i t was not u n t i l
1928, when Igbo men were made t o pay tax f o r the f i r s t time i n t h e i r
h i s t o r y , t h a t i t became c l e a r to them t h a t they were a s u b j e c t p e o p l e .
No s k e t c h o f t h e B r i t i s h p e n e t r a t i o n o f Igboland c o u l d be complete
w i t h o u t m e n t i o n i n g the m i s s i o n a r i e s . I t was i n 1857 t h a t Bishop
Crowther s u c c e s s f u l l y e s t a b l i s h e d a Church M i s s i o n a r y S o c i e t y M i s s i o n
a t O n i t s h a . The Roman C a t h o l i c M i s s i o n f o l l o w e d i n 1885. O n i t s h a
thus b e c a m e t h e r e l i g i o u s and e d u c a t i o n a l c e n t r e o f . t h e s e two g r e a t
p r o s e l y t i z i n g m i s s i o n s as w e l l as t h e base f o r B r i t i s h m i l i t a r y pene-
t r a t i o n i n t o o t h e r areas o f Igbo c o u n t r y .
A l t h o u g h t h e m i s s i o n a r i e s . e n j o y e d the p r o t e c t i v e power and the
m i l i t a r y p r e s t i g e o f the a d v a n c i n g c o l o n i a l power, i t was t h e mystery
o f the w r i t t e n word, i n the p s y c h o l o g y o f the "bush s c h o o l s " founded
by them, r a t h e r than the m i l i t a r y might o r the c o n t e n t o f the h o l y
book which a s s u r e d t h e i r s u c c e s s among t h e Igbos.
Today we f i n d both t h e c o l o n i a l a u t h o r i t i e s and the m i s s i o n a r i e s
almost d e s t r o y e d Igbo c u l t u r e and made some w h i t e men out o f b l a c k s
i n the p r o c e s s o f a c c u l t u r a t i o n . T o d a y , / h ~ a l s o w e s t i l l - f i n d o t h e r
Igbos who, though f o r m a l l y e d u c a t e d , t r y t o r e - d i s c o v e r * t h e ways o f
t h e i r f a t h e r s because the f a t h e r s , the a n c e s t o r s a r e never wrong. A f t e r
a l l t h e r e i s an Igbo p r o v e r b t h a t one does not beget an h e i r b e f o r e
h i s f a t h e r .
A Survey o f T r a d i t i o n a l Igbo S o c i e t y
I w i l l now devote some c o n s i d e r a b l e space to an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f
47
the Igbo S o c i e t y . T h i s i s
;
v e r y i m p o r t a n t because to know how a
p e o p l e view, i n t e r p r e t and o r g a n i z e the w o r l d around them i s t o under-
stand how t h e y e v a l u a t e l i f e ; and a p e o p l e s ' e v a l u a t i o n o f l i f e , both
temporal and non-temporal, p r o v i d e s them w i t h a c h a r t e r o f a c t i o n
and a g u i d e t o b e h a v i o u r .
O c c u p a t i o n
The Igbo n a t i o n i s made up o f a heterogeneous group o f p e o p l e
u n i f i e d by a dominant Igbo c u l t u r e ; t h i s i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a common
language ( w i t h d i f f e r e n t d i a l e c t s ) , common r e l i g i o u s s y m b o l s t h e o f o
o r o t o s i (a r i t u a l s t a f f made from a t r e e b r a n c h ) , o c c u p a t i o n o f a
common t e r r i t o r y , p o s s e s s i o n o f b a s i c a l l y i d e n t i c a l p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n
and i n the c o n t e x t o f t h i s s t u d y , a l l Igbos p o s s e s s some type o f r e l a t e d
masquerade. I n i t i a t i o n i n t o t h i s masquerade s o c i e t y c a l l e d mmuo o r mma
i s a l s o u n i v e r s a l among the r u r a l Igbos..
A g r i c u l t u r e has been the m a i n s t a y o f Igbo s o c i e t y i n what i s
termed " r o o t c r o p " economy. Yam, c a s s a v a (manioc) and many v a r i e t i e s
o f cocoyam ( t a r o ) a r e the c h i e f s t a p l e s and p r o v i d e t h e b u l k o f the
p o p u l a t i o n w i t h most s u b s i s t e n c e needs. No meal i s c o n s i d e r e d complete
w i t h o u t one or two o f them. O t h e r p r o d u c t s a r e peanuts, p l a n t a i n s ,
bananas, maize, pumpkin, egwusi (melon), okro ("okra"), r i c e , beans*,
palm o i l , palm wine o f v a r i o u s k i n d s , p e a r s , papaya, oranges, e t c .
These s t a p l e s have a high y i e l d which i s . o f f s e t t o some e x t e n t by t h e i r
l o n g growth p e r i o d . T h e i r p r o f i t a b l e c u l t i v a t i o n r e q u i r e s abundant
l a n d and cheap l a b o u r . Land means many t h i n g s t o the Igbo; i t i s t h e
48
domain o f t h e e a r t h - g o d d e s s , a l a ; a b u r i a l p l a c e f o r the a n c e s t o r s ;
a p l a c e t o l i v e on, and a p l a c e t o make a l i v i n g . Land i s t h e r e f o r e
the most i m p o r t a n t a s s e t t o , t h e p e o p l e ; i t i s a s o u r c e o f s e c u r i t y
and i s e m o t i o n a l l y p r o t e c t e d from a l i e n a t i o n through the t e n u r e system
which p r e s c r i b e s the r i g h t s o f i n d i v i d u a l s or groups o v e r l a n d . The
p r i n c i p l e i s t h a t a l l l a n d i s owned and t h r o u g h the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f
the l i n e a g e . h e a d (minimal l i n e a g e ) , e v e r y member i s p r o v i d e d l a n d on
which to b u i l d h i s house and on which t o r a i s e c r o p s . T h i s i s main-
t a i n e d through r e l i g i o u s s a n c t i o n s .
Igbos a l s o hunt and f i s h ; they r a i s e domestic c a t t l e , sheep, goats
and p o u l t r y . Igbos d e v e l o p e d i r o n t e c h n o l o g y over the c e n t u r i e s and
so t h e r e a r e smiths i n Igboland who produce s p e a r s , hoes, k n i v e s ,
t r a p s , guns, g a t e s , n e e d l e s and o t h e r i r o n implements. These a r e used
f o r f a r m i n g , h u n t i n g , f i s h i n g and i n o c c a s i o n a l w a r f a r e . The a r t s o f
woodworking and c a r v i n g were a l s o d e v e l o p e d , hence the unique n a t u r e
o f Igbo masks as can be seen i n museum e x h i b i t s . P o t t e r y , t o o , . i s an
a n c i e n t Igbo c r a f t and t h i s h e r e d i t a r y a r t i s p r a c t i c e d by women. A l s o
weaving i s p r a c t i c e d by women and Akwuete Igbos a r e famous f o r t h e i r
f a b r i c s . Thus, w i t h i n the b o u n d a r i e s o f Igbo, a g r i c u l t u r e , h u n t i n g ,
f i s h i n g , metalwork, woodwork, p o t t e r y and weaving were and s t i l l a r e
the main o c c u p a t i o n o f t h e p e o p l e .
Igbo P o l i t i c a l System
Henderson (1972:23), was w o r r i e d t h a t :
"The s o c i e t i e s o f t h e I b o - s p e a k i n g p e o p l e s have f o r some
time p r e s e n t e d a quandry to the s t u d e n t o f c o m p a r a t i v e
h i s t o r y . The Ibo l i v e i n some'of the h e a v i e s t p o p u l a t i o n
49
c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n a l l o f A f r i c a and they occupy a r e g i o n
l o n g i n communication w i t h s o c i e t i e s p o s s e s s i n g
s t r a t i f i e d , even h i e r a r c h i a l s o c i a l systems. Moreover,
the Ibo themselves p a r t i c i p a t e d e x t e n s i v e l y and a c t i v e l y
in>the European s l a v e t r a d e , a powerful and p o l i t i c a l
s t i m u l u s t h a t i n many areas a l o n g the Guinea Coast promoted
c o n f e d e r a t i o n , c e n t r a l i z a t i o n , and s t a t e f o r m a t i o n i n
d i v e r s e i n d i g e n o u s s o c i e t i e s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , the Ibo
m o s t l y c o n t i n u e d t o l i v e i n s m a l l - s c a l e segmentary
s o c i e t i e s , each s t r u c t u r a l l y d i f f e r e n t i a t e d but based
s t r o n g l y on u n i l i n e a l d e s c e n t " .
T h i s i s the case because t h e Igbo w o r l d i s based on the p r i n c i p l e o f
e q u a l i t a r i a n i s m . E q u a l i t y o r near e q u a l i t y e n s u r e s t h a t no one person
o r group o f - p e r s o n s a c q u i r e s too much c o n t r o l o v e r the l i f e o f o t h e r s .
T h i s i s an e f f e c t i v e i d e o l o g i c a l o b s t a c l e to the development o f a s t r o n g
c e n t r a l a u t h o r i t y . However,,no human s o c i e t y can o r has a c h i e v e d
a b s o l u t e e q u a l i t y among i t s c i t i z e n s , and the Igbos are no e x c e p t i o n .
There a r e d i s t i n c t i o n s i n age, sex and w e a l t h ; i n f a c t , Igbos emphasize
or put s t r e s s on achievement and s u c c e s s . They r e c o g n i z e t h a t "a c h i l d
who washes h i s hands c l e a n d e s e r v e s t o e a t w i t h h i s e l d e r s " . However,,
t h e r e are i n s t i t u t i o n a l checks and b a l a n c e s which p r e v e n t the emergences
o f demagogues and t h i s has i t s r o o t i n Igbo morals and r e l i g i o u s
p h i l o s o p h y . For example, a r i c h man i s made " h o l y " t o keep him i n
check; i n r e t u r n , the s o c i e t y r e l i e s on the " h o l y w e a l t h y man", the Nze,
to m a i n t a i n an o r d e r e d s o c i e t y . The Nze ("holy w e a l t h y man"), i s a
t i t l e which r e q u i r e s not o n l y . s p e n d i n g o f w e a l t h but r e l i g i o u s
s a n c t i o n s and p u r i t y . These holy.men a d j u d i c a t e and a d m i n i s t e r the
town and t h e i r e x e c u t i v e arm i s e i t h e r the age-grade a s s o c i a t i o n s o r
the mmuo ("masquerade") s o c i e t i e s .
The p o l i t i c a l i n s t i t u t i o n s i n Igboland d i f f e r i n t h e i r s t r u c t u r e .
Some o f t h e s e , l i k e the k i n g s h i p i n s t i t u t i o n i n O n i t s h a , N r i and
50
A g u l e r i , are i n t r u s i v e t r a i t s . A l t h o u g h age-grade a s s o c i a t i o n s , t i t l e
t a k i n g s o c i e t i e s , d i b i a f r a t e r n i t i e s (a p r i e s t l y a s s o c i a t i o n ) , s e c r e t
s o c i e t i e s , and o r a c l e s are among the t r a d i t i o n a l i n s t r u m e n t s o f
government, the r o l e o f each i n the p o l i t i c a l p r o c e s s e s o f a g i v e n
v i l l a g e - g r o u p d i f f e r s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e r e emerges a g e n e r a l p a t t e r n
o f p o l i t i c a l p r o c e s s which i s s h a r e d by a l l Igbo.
We may d i s t i n g u i s h two l a y e r s o f t h e . p o l i t i c a l s t r u c t u r e - 1) the
v i l l a g e , and 2) the v i l l a g e - g r o u p . A t . t h e v i l l a g e l e v e l o f government
( t h i s v a r i e s i n s i z e and p o p u l a t i o n ) , the a c c e p t e d p r a c t i c e i s d i r e c t
democracy o r what Njaka.(1974:10) c a l l s " O h a c r a c y " a government by a l l
male a d u l t s i n the v i l l a g e (the Oha) i n which d e c i s i o n s a r e a r r i v e d a t
by common-consensus. A t . t h e v i l l a g e - g r o u p l e v e l , a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e
system i s adopted; e q u a l i t y among the a s s o c i a t i n g v i l l a g e s i s m a i n t a i n e d
through the p r i n c i p l e o f equal " s h a r i n g o f K o l a " and equal c o n t r i b u t i o n
o f m a t e r i a l r e s o u r c e s needed f o r the s u r v i v a l o f the group. T h i s
e q u a l i t y i s n e c e s s a r y s i n c e Igbos a r e a v e r s e and s e n s i t i v e to o u t s i d e
a u t h o r i t y . - T h i s means t h a t e a c h . v i l l a g e i s autonomous and s o v e r e i g n
i n a l l i n t e r n a l m a t t e r s , but may c o o p e r a t e w i t h o t h e r v i l l a g e s a t the
v i l l a g e - g r o u p l e v e l . T h i s s o l i d a r i t y i s b u t t r e s s e d by myths o f common
o r i g i n .
The v i l l a g e i s segmented i n t o a number o f l i n e a g e s and each o f
t h e s e i n t o major, minor, and minimal s u b l i n e a g e s . Each l i n e a g e com-
p r i s e s o f t e r r i t o r i a l l y k i n - b a s e d u n i t s c a l l e d umunna ( " c h i l d r e n o f
same f a t h e r " ) ; t h i s i s a f l u i d term whose n a r r o w e s t r e f e r e n t i s the
c h i l d r e n o f the same f a t h e r but o f d i f f e r e n t mothers; i t s w i d e s t
r e f e r e n t . i s the p a t r i l i n e a l members, r e a l o r p u t a t i v e whom one cannot
marry. Umunna i s made o f compounds, each c o n s i s t i n g o f a number o f
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e c o n o m i c a l l y independent households w i t h a man and h i s w i f e . I t i s
i n these compounds t h a t t r a d i t i o n a l a u t h o r i t y m a i n l y l i e s because
a l l the h o u s e h o l d e r s i n the compounds r e c o g n i z e the head o f the umunna
as the p o l i t i c a l a u t h o r i t y o f the l i n e a g e . No d e c i s i o n would be made
w i t h o u t f i r s t c o n s u l t i n g t h i s man who i s c a l l e d okpara. As head o f .
the compound,,he has numerous r i t u a l , moral and l e g a l r i g h t s and
o b l i g a t i o n s . He i s the eyes o f t h e members o f h i s l i n e a g e w h i l e the
o t h e r members a r e h i s e a r s . , He s e t t l e s problems a n d . o f f e r s s a c r i f i c e s .
In r e t u r n he r e c e i v e s r e s p e c t , o b e d i e n c e and m a t e r i a l token o f good-
w i l l . He r e p r e s e n t s the l i n e a g e i n d i s p u t e s w i t h o u t s i d e r s and i s
the c u s t o d i a n o f the l a n d . : T h i s i s s y m b o l i z e d by h i s p o s s e s s i o n o f
the o f o (a s t a f f made from the t r e e Detarium e l a s t i c a ) . He m a i n t a i n s
a u t h o r i t y i n the extended f a m i l y which i s the compound. He i s the
l i n k between the l i v i n g and the dead a n c e s t o r s .
L e g i s l a t i v e a c t i v i t i e s o f the e n t i r e v i l l a g e are the c o n c e r n o f
a l l a d u l t -males and t h i s t a k e s p l a c e i n ad hoc g e n e r a l assembly c a l l e d
Oha. Once d e c i s i o n s a r e a r r i v e d a t i n the v i l l a g e s q u a r e , t h i s i s
g i v e n r i t u a l s a n c t i o n by the o l d e s t o f o h o l d e r who would say " t h i s i s
iwu ("law") i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h our custom and may i t be r e s p e c t e d and
obeyed. A n c e s t o r s , you a r e w i t n e s s " . The o f o i s s t r u c k f o u r times on
the ground and each time i t i s so s t r u c k , the assembly w i l l a s s e n t " i h a "
( " l e t i t be s o " ) .
In c o m p l i c a t e d c a s e s , e s p e c i a l l y where the assembly i s a c t i n g i n
a j u d i c i a l c a p a c i t y and where the f a c t s are not too c l e a r , the Igbo
take r e c o u r s e t o o r a c l e s o r t o d i v i n e r s . The o r a c l e s depended on "sons
abroad" f o r c l i e n t s and t o a s c e r t a i n the t r u t h . One must concede t h a t
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the d e c i s i o n s o r judgements o f the o r a c l e s were f a i r l y a c c u r a t e .
Common sense shows t h a t the r e p u t a t i o n and i n f l u e n c e o f the o r a c l e s
depended on t h e i r a b i l i t y t o be,honest and j u s t . The d e c i s i o n s o f
the o r a c l e s were s u b j e c t to no f u r t h e r a p p e a l . '
The e x e c u t i v e f u n c t i o n o f the v i l l a g e i s v e s t e d i n the y o u t h s
through t h e i r age-grade a s s o c i a t i o n s and/or the mmuo s o c i e t i e s . B e s i d e
s e r v i n g as a s o c i a l i n d i c a t o r which s e p a r a t e s the s e n i o r s from t h e i r
j u n i o r s , the age-grade a s s o c i a t i o n i s a means o f a l l o c a t i n g p u b l i c
d u t i e s to v a r i o u s segments o f the p o p u l a t i o n , g u a r d i n g p u b l i c m o r a l i t y
through the c e n s o r s h i p o f members' b e h a v i o u r , and p r o v i d i n g companion-
s h i p and mutual i n s u r a n c e f o r members. Members run e r r a n d s , keep the
v i l l a g e c l e a n and keep s u r v e i l l a n c e o v e r v i l l a g e p r o p e r t y . The mmuo
("masquerade") s o c i e t y a c t e d as p o l i c e m o r e w i l l be s a i d on t h i s
l a t e r .
S c h o l a r s have sometimes i m p l i e d i n t h e i r w r i t i n g t h a t l a r g e p o l i t i c a l
u n i t s are "more advanced" than s m a l l ones, and t h a t a change from small
to l a r g e marked p r o g r e s s . A p p l i e d t o the Igbos, t h i s i m p l i c a t i o n i s
v e r y d e c e p t i v e . Even though the Igbos remained o r g a n i z e d i n s m a l l age-
graded v i l l a g e u n i t s , to them t h i s made t r u e d e m o c r a c y t h e government
o f the p e o p l e , by the p e o p l e * f o r the p e o p l e , the oha, v e r y p o s s i b l e .
Enlargement o f s c a l e o f f e r e d no o b v i o u s p o l i t i c a l advantage t o Igbo
communities. Democracy, as i t i s p r a c t i c e d today i n the West,.is f u l l
o f l i m i t a t i o n s . A Frenchman who v i s i t e d Igbo c o u n t r y i n 1906 s a i d t h a t
t r u e l i b e r t y e x i s t e d t h e r e , t h r o u g h i t s name was not i n s c r i b e d on
any monument.
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Igbo K i n s h i p Network
N o r m a l l y the Igbo c h i l d i s brought up i n h i s f a t h e r ' s l i n e a g e .
L a t e r i n h i s c h i l d h o o d , he i s c o n s t a n t l y brought i n t o c o n t a c t w i t h
h i s mother's l i n e a g e . . As he grows up he becomes i n c r e a s i n g l y . a w a r e
o f the w i d e r s o c i a l network, the m o s t , i m p o r t a n t o f which a r e the
extended f a t h e r ' s mother's l i n e a g e and the extended mother's mother's
l i n e a g e . When he m a r r i e s he a l s o a c q u i r e s a f f i n a l l i n k s , w i t h h i s
w i f e ' s 1 i n e a g e , , p l a y i n g v e r y i m p o r t a n t r o l e s i n the l i f e o f h i s c h i l d r e n .
These f i v e l i n e a g e s c o n s t i t u t e f o r the Igbo t h e i r most i m p o r t a n t k i n -
s h i p network.
Igbo s o c i e t y i s one w i t h pronounced p a t r i l i n e a l emphasis. S i n c e
a g n a t i o n determines the membership o f a f a m i l y group, the l i n e o f i n -
h e r i t a n c e , and s u c c e s s i o n t o name and o f f i c e , a person t a k e s most o f
h i s j u r a l r i g h t s i n l a n d and i n s o c i a l , economic, and p o l i t i c a l p o s i t i o n
from the l i n e a g e o f h i s f a t h e r . The members o f t h i s l i n e a g e a r e
c a l l e d the urnunna ( " c h i l d r e n o f the f a t h e r " ) .
tlmunna bu i k e ("the f a t h e r s agnates a r e the source o f one's
s t r e n g t h " ) , i s a p o p u l a r Igbo s a y i n g , because one depends on h i s agnates
f o r c o m f o r t and s o c i a l and economic s e c u r i t y . Agnates h e l p one " t o
get up" by p r o v i d i n g t h e needed l a d d e r f o r s o c i a l c l i m b i n g . I t i s t o
one's p a t r i l i n e a l l i n e a g e t h a t one b r i n g s home h i s w i f e a f t e r m a r r i a g e ;
and t h e s e members a r e e x p e c t e d t o make the m a r r i a g e succeed by h e l p i n g
p r o v i d e p a r t o f what i s r e q u i r e d i n the m a r r i a g e ceremony and s e t t l i n g
any d i s p u t e s t h a t might t h r e a t e n t o d e s t r o y the m a r r i a g e . T i t l e - t a k i n g
ceremonies, m a r r i a g e f e a s t s , b u r i a l r i t e s , i n i t i a t i o n and masquerade
c e r e m o n i e s , and o t h e r s o c i a l e v e n t s through which a w i d e r s o c i a l group
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i s a c t i v a t e d , succeed or f a i l because.of the t y p e o f i n t e r p e r s o n a l
r e l a t i o n s between a person and h i s a g n a t e s . The i d e a l b e h a v i o u r
e x p e c t e d among agnates may be c h a r a c t e r i z e d as " b r o t h e r ! i n e s " , i . e .
r e l a t i o n s h i p d e f i n e d by mutual r e s p e c t , t r u s t , h e l p , l o y a l t y and
a f f e c t i o n .
I f agnates a r e the g r e a t e s t prop o f s u c c e s s , t h e y a l s o a r e the
g r e a t e s t s o u r c e s o f h o s t i l i t y . Igbos say t h a t i t i s t h e home not the
bush r a t t h a t knows where the mother keeps her condiments. In o t h e r
words, agnates know one's s t r e n g t h s and weaknesses and might e x p l o i t
same, e s p e c i a l l y i n m a t t e r s o f p r o p e r t y i n h e r i t a n c e . Hence, p e o p l e a r e
g e n e r a l l y c a r e f u l w i t h p a t r i k i n s but might be more r e l a x e d among t h e i r
mother's a g n a t e s , where, t o borrow on Ozubulu p h r a s e , he i s r e f e r r e d
t o as nwadiana ("the son o f the owner o f the s o i l " ) .
A person i s most welcome among h i s ununne ("the mother's l i n e a g e " )
where l i t e r a l l y he i s f r e e to do a n y t h i n g . S i n c e he does not compete
f o r i n h e r i t a n c e i n t h i s group, t h e r e i s no f e a r o f p o i s o n i n g or
h o s t i l i t y and one may e a t whatever one p l e a s e s i n t h i s group. The
k i n s h i p bond i n t h i s case i s u n a f f e c t e d by m a t e r i a l s t a t u s and p e o p l e
never a l l o w i t to s t r a i n . I t i s one's l a s t l i n e o f d e f e n c e . .
The f a t h e r ' s mother's and the mother's mother's l i n e a g e s con-
s t i t u t e the extend o r "remote" kinsmen. They a r e a l s o i m p o r t a n t i n
the l i v e s o f the Igbos, a l t h o u g h one does not command any d e f i n e d
p r i v i l e g e s . Members a s s u r e him o f . s u p p o r t and a t t e n d h i s ceremonies
such as d u r i n g i n i t i a t i o n and p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n masquerade, . t i t l e -
t a k i n g , m a r r i a g e , e t c . Members o f t h i s extended k i n g r o u p are never
a l l o w e d t o marry because o f c o n s a n g u i n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p .
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The c l a s s i f i c a t o r y terms employed by t h e Igbo f o r naming t h e s e
a g n a t i c groups v a r y . A l t h o u g h " t h i s s i t u a t i o n may be c o n f u s i n g t o
the i n v e s t i g a t o r , . i t i s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y so t o t h e Ibo. Every Ibo i s
c o n v e r s a n t w i t h k i n s h i p terms w i t h i n and o f t e n f a r beyond the r a d i u s
i n which he may seek a w i f e , j u s t as he i s aware o f d i a l e c t i c a l v a r i -
a t i o n s i n any o t h e r f i e l d o f t e r m i n o l o g y " (Ardener, 1954:85).
I t has been s t r e s s e d t h a t e v e r y Igbo belongs t o an a g n a t i c group,
a l i n e a g e w i t h an unbroken c o n t i n u i t y o f - d e s c e n t i n the male l i n e .
T h i s a g n a t i c group ( p a t r i l i n e a g e ) , as w e l l as i t s members o r a g n a t e s ,
i s c a l l e d by t h e same term "umunna" and t h i s i s an exogamous u n i t i n
o n e f r a m e o f r e f e r e n c e . A l l i t s female members who must l e a v e the l i n e a g e
a t m a r r i a g e a r e c a l l e d umu-okpu o r umu-ada. In a n o t h e r frame o f r e f e r e n c e
i t i s a term f o r agnates meaning c h i l d r e n o f f a t h e r , i t s s i n g u l a r being
nwanna ( " c h i l d o f f a t h e r " ) .
By r u l e o f exogany and v i r i l o c a l r e s i d e n c e , . w e e x p e c t t o meet
non-agnates as r e s i d e n t members o f a l i n e a g e s e t t l e m e n t , ego's mother
i s one.. Ego's f a t h e r i s nna w h i l e the mother i s nne. A l l f a t h e r ' s
b r o t h e r s and s i s t e r ' s s e n i o r t o ego a r e c l a s s i f i e d as dede and dada
r e s p e c t i v e l y ; terms which d i s t i n g u i s h between g e n e r a t i o n and sex but
which can be a p p l i e d to ego's s e n i o r f u l l s i b l i n g s and s e n i o r h a l f
s i b l i n g s . , Ego's f a t h e r ' s f a t h e r i s c a l l e d nnanna and f a t h e r ' s mother
i s c a l l e d nnenne, the l a t t e r i s a l s o a p p l i e d t o ego's a c t u a l mother's
mother. Ego's f a t h e r ' s wives o t h e r than h i s mother a r e c a l 1 e d nwunyenna.
Ego c a l l s h i s wives hwanyi and t h e y c a l l him di_. H i s c h i l d r e n a r e
c a l l e d umu and t h i s i n c l u d e s c h i l d r e n o f h i s b r o t h e r s and s i s t e r s .
The i n - l a w r e l a t i o n s h i p c r e a t e s a w i d e r range o f a f f i n a l l i n k s which
56
a r e termed ogo--a r e c i p r o c a l term which subsumes a l l g e n e r a t i o n s
and both s e x e s .
Igbo k i n s h i p terms a r e c l a s s i f i c a t o r y c o v e r i n g t h e w i d e s t
p o s s i b l e range o f k i n s h i p . Terms o f a d d r e s s a r e governed by r u l e s
which guide and r e g u l a t e s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n . Among o t h e r f e a t u r e s ,
Igbo k i n s h i p t e r m i n o l o g y embodies the " p r i n c i p l e o f r e s p e c t " r e l a t i o n - .
c a l l
s h i p . T h i s r e q u i r e s a j u n i o r t o / a l l h i s s e n i o r s dee--a term o f
r e s p e c t , based on s e n i o r i t y and always a d d r e s s e d t o a s e n i o r by a
j u n i o r and never used among age e q u a l s . R e i n f o r c i n g t h e p r i n c i p l e o f
r e s p e c t - , i s what might be termed the p r i n c i p l e o f " s u p e r i o r i t y o f
p r a i s e names". T h i s r e c o g n i z e s the s u p e r i o r i t y o f one's p r a i s e name
o r s t a t u s name over a l l o t h e r a p p r o p r i a t e k i n s h i p terms o f a d d r e s s .
A t i t l e d man's p r a i s e name takes precedence o v e r a l l o t h e r terms o f
a d d r e s s . Ogbuehi ( " k i l l e r o f cows"), EzeazUka ( t h i s r e c o g n i z e s the
need to have c h i l d r e n t o r e p l a c e o n e ) , e t c . , a r e p r a i s e names.
R e l i g i o n
A n t h r o p o l o g i s t s commonly make the a n a l y t i c a l d i s t i n c t i o n , but t o
the Igbos, the s e c u l a r and the s a c r e d , . t h e n a t u r a l and the s u p e r n a t u r a l ,
are a continuum. S u p e r n a t u r a l f o r c e s c o n t i n u a l l y impinge on l i f e , and
must be p r o p i t i a t e d by a p p r o p r i a t e p r a y e r s and s a c r i f i c e s . The Igbos
were and s t i l l a r e p r o f o u n d l y r e l i g i o u s , and a l l a c c o u n t s o f t h e i r
l i f e r e f l e c t t h i s f a c t . N e a r l y a l l a d h e r e n t s o f t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o n
r e g a r d i t as a medium o f o b t a i n i n g s u p e r n a t u r a l power. T h i s does.not
p r e v e n t i t from f u n c t i o n i n g as a system o f e x p l a n a t i o n , a s o u r c e o f
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moral i n j u n c t i o n , a symbol o f s o c i a l o r d e r , o r a r o u t e t o i m m o r t a l i t y ;
"but i t does mean t h a t i t a l s o o f f e r s t h e p r o s p e c t o f a s u p e r n a t u r a l
means o f c o n t r o l o v e r man's e a r t h l y environment" (Thomas, 1973:27).
The major v a l u e s o f s o c i a l l i f e among t h e Igbos a r e r o o t e d
f i r m l y i n n o t i o n s o f f i l i a t i o n and d e s c e n t . When p e o p l e a s s e s s the
c a r e e r o f one a n o t h e r , the p r i m a r y concern or c r i t e r i o n i s t h e number
o f - c h i l d r e n he has r a i s e d t o s u p p o r t and s u r v i v e him. C h i l d r e n are
e x t o l l e d i n p r o v e r b s above any o t h e r good,.even above the a c c u m u l a t i o n
o f w e a l t h ( a k u ) ; " c h i l d r e n f i r s t , wealth f o l l o w s " i s a p r o v e r b
o
a f f i r m i n g the r o u t e to s u c c e s s . People c o n s i d e r t h a t a w e a l t h y
person who has no c h i l d r e n w i l l reap r o t t e n d e s t i n y , because h i s
r e l a t i v e s o r kinsmen may c o n s p i r e t o s e i z e h i s f o r t u n e . He may v e r y
l i k e l y d i e a bad d e a t h - - a j o onwu. Igbo s a y i n g s make i t q u i t e c l e a r
t h a t m a i n t a i n i n g l i f e i s a j u s t i f i a b l e end i n i t s e l f o n l y to the e x t e n t
t h a t i t i s p r o d u c t i v e or n u r t u r a n t o f more l i f e . T h i s overwhelming
concern w i t h the p r o d u c t i o n and the c o n t i n u i t y o f l i f e i s b a s i c t o the
fundamental concept o f Igbo p h i l o s o p h y and r e l i g i o u s t h o u g h t : t h e
i d e a o f c h i . Chi i s l i f e (ndu), o r l i f e c o n c e i v e d as an animate s e l f
t h a t g u i d e s the c o u r s e o f e x i s t e n c e . The most d i r e c t l y important-
m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f t h i s f o r any person i s t h e c h i i n t h a t p e r s o n , which
i s t h o u g h t o f as a s p i r i t u a l e s s e n c e o f t h e l i v i n g s e l f t h a t g u i d e s
and determines the c o u r s e o f t h a t p e r s o n ' s l i f e from b i r t h to d e a t h .
I t i s b e l i e v e d t h a t when an i n d i v i d u a l chooses " t o e n t e r the w o r l d " , ,
he makes a p a c t w i t h a p a r t i c u l a r e s s e n t i a l being ( c h i ) s e l e c t i n g h i s
l e n g t h o f l i f e and h i s f u t u r e a c t i v i t i e s ; the c h o i c e s so made a r e
marked by.the c h i on h i s hand as h i s a k a l a k a ("marks o f the hand") o r
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d e s t i n y .
S i n c e c h i i n one a s p e c t r e f e r s to a s i n g l e l i f e a c t e d out by
each p e r s o n , t h e r e a r e as many c h i as t h e r e a r e l i v i n g i n d i v i d u a l s .
However,.not o n l y does c h i have a more g e n e r a l and i n c l u s i v e meaning
as the essence o f l i f e , i t i s a l s o p r o j e c t e d as a l i f e essence
a t t r i b u t e d t o . t h e e n t i r e u n i v e r s e ; a u n i v e r s a l s e l f , c a l l e d chukwu o r
c h i n e k e meaning l i t e r a l l y " g r e a t c h i " . The term "chukwu" d e s i g n a t e s
an u l t i m a t e s e l f , o r d e r i n g t h e c o u r s e and c h a r a c t e r o f the u n i v e r s e as
a whole, which i n t u r n i s c o n c e i v e d as a m u l t i p l i c i t y o f " w o r l d s " (uwa).
The u n i v e r s a l s e l f i s a d d r e s s e d i n p r a y e r s as "chuwku - o k i k e , c h i n e k e " ,
e t c . meaning " g r e a t c h i the c r e a t o r " . T h i s g r e a t c h i i s s a i d t o
have c r e a t e d a l l p h y s i c a l phenomena and endowed them w i t h f o r c e and
d i r e c t i o n . The sky ( i g w e ) , the h e a v e n l y b o d i e s as h i s "messenger"
and e y e s , the e a r t h (ani o r a l a ) , and the streams.and r i v e r s (mmi1i
o r mmini). Chineke s e n t t r e e s t o grow on l a n d , a n i m a l s t o roam i t ,
men to occupy i t , yams and o t h e r foods to f e e d p e o p l e , and v a r i o u s
o b j e c t s as " m e d i c i n e s " (ogwu) t o h e l p men i n the c o u r s e o f t h e i r l i v e s .
When a person d i e s , h i s c h i c e a s e s to e x i s t as an independent e n t i t y ,
r e t u r n i n g t o the g r e a t ground o f b e i n g i n the sun o r i n the sky.
Chukwu e x i s t s as l o n g as the u n i v e r s e which i t p e r s o n i f i e s .
Henderson argues t h a t i t i s i m p l i c i t i n the l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e o f
t h e s e terms t h a t chukwu i s a s u b c a t e g o r y o f c h i r a t h e r than the more
g e n e r a l c l a s s w i t h i n which c h i may be c a t e g o r i z e d ^ . We may view the
meaning o f t h e s e c o n c e p t s as a sematic s t r u c t u r e , whose marked terms
a r e a s u b c a t e g o r y . I t i s r e a s o n a b l e to t r a n s l a t e c h i as "god" and
chukwu as " g r e a t god". However, Igbos a l s o say t h a t the g r e a t god i s
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the source from which a l l p a r t i c u l a r gods o f persons o r i g i n a t e ;
i t might t h e r e f o r e be e q u a l l y v a l i d t o t r a n s l a t e "chukwu" as god and
" c h i " as p e r s o n a l god. We c o u l d t h e r e f o r e c o n c e i v e o f t h e s e terms
i n the f o l l o w i n g d i m e n s i o n s ; c h i g as " p e r s o n a l god", chukwu as " g r e a t
g o d " , c c f i i i "god w i t h o u t q u a l i f i c a t i o n " - - a n d i n t h i s l a t t e r . s e n s e the
term a l s o r e f e r s to d a y l i g h t . (See f i g u r e below).
(Unmarked narrow meaning: u n d e r l y i n g (Marked narrow meaning:
the essence o f the i n d i v i d u a l s e l f ) u n d e r l y i n g essence o f the
u n i v e r s e ) .
F i g . I I . The Semantic S t r u c t u r e o f Chi (taken from Henderson, 1972,
p. 109).
I f the d e s c r i p t i o n o f Igbo b e l i e f system thus f a r makes a concern
w i t h l i f e and l i f e f o r c e s appear c e n t r a l , i n d i v i d u a l l i f e i t s e l f i s
c o n c e i v e d not s o l e l y i n o p p o s i t i o n t o the n o t i o n o f death "onwu", but
as an i m p e r f e c t a p p r o x i m a t i o n o f i t . Indeed, a c t s o f a t t a i n i n g t h e
h e i g h t s o f p r e s t i g e by i n d i v i d u a l s among t h e Igbos (e.g. t i t l e - t a k i n g ,
i n i t i a t i o n i n t o s e c r e t s o c i e t i e s ) , a r e marked by i d e n t i t y - c h a n g i n g
r i t u a l s t h a t b r i n g them c l o s e r and c l o s e r t o d e a t h . The u l t i m a t e goal
f o r e v e r y person i s to l o s e h i s c h i and t h e r e b y become a dead person o r
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a ghost.(mmuo o r mma). The c o n c e p t s o f "god" and "ghost" form t h e
major c o n t r a s t p a i r i n Igbo r e l i g i o n , two f o r c e s i n o p p o s i t i o n
which, however, i n t e r p e n e t r a t e through t h e p r o c e s s o f r e i n c a r n a t i o n .
T h i s b e l i e f a l s o p o s t u l a t e s a m u l t i p l i c i t y o f w o r l d s (uwa) i n
which e x i s t e n c e o c c u r s . The number o f t h e s e worlds i s i n d e f i n i t e ,
but from t h e p o i n t o f view o f men i n h a b i t i n g t h i s one, the o t h e r
worlds a r e a l l " l a n d s o f the dead" (anj nmuo), i n t o which a l l persons
who d i e s h o u l d s u b s e q u e n t l y be i n c a r n a t e d . . On the o t h e r hand, t h e s e
l a n d s o f t h e dead a r e a l s o the s o l e . s o u r c e o f a l l new human beings i n
the e m p i r i c a l w o r l d ; Men, wherever they a r e , a r e b e l i e v e d t o be
l o o k i n g i n t o the o t h e r w o r l d s , communicating w i t h p e o p l e t h e r e , and
c o n s i d e r i n g b e i n g i n c a r n a t e d t h e r e anew.. A l l the dead are b e l i e v e d t o
take a c o n t i n u o u s i n t e r e s t i n t h i s w o r l d . Indeed, some never l e a v e
i t , but wander about i n i t m o s t l y i n a s t a t e o f p e r p e t u a l , i n c o r p o r e a l
u n r e s t ; t h e s e a r e the "bad d e a t h s " ( a j o onwu), f o r t h e s e v i o l a t e d the
w o r l d o r d e r . They belong nowhere and do l i t t l e but make t r o u b l e f o r
the l i v i n g .
The dead who a r e viewed h o p e f u l l y as s o u r c e s of-human b e i n g s a r e
those whose l i v e s were exemplary, f u l f i l l e d and who were s e n t out o f
t h i s w o r l d w i t h g l o r i o u s f u n e r a l s which f a c i l i t a t e d t h e i r subsequent
e s t a b l i s h m e n t i n o t h e r w o r l d s , and t h e r e f o r e l o o k back here w i t h
p l e a s a n t memories and thoughts o f r e t u r n i n g . These dead a r e e x h o r t e d
by the l i v i n g i n r i t u a l s and ceremonies to r e t u r n as i n f a n t s , and
p e r i o d i c a l l y , i n o t h e r forms, c h i e f o f which i s t h e mask.
The worlds o f the dead are c o n c e i v e d as l o c a t e d nearby, i n the
v i c i n i t y o f the e a r t h i n which t h e y were b u r i e d . I t i s b e l i e v e d t h a t
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the c l o s e r a person was b u r i e d t o a house, the more l i k e l y he o r she
w i l l choose to r e i n c a r n a t e t h e r e as an o f f s p r i n g o f i t s o c c u p a n t s .
Hence, h i g h l y v a l u e d persons a r e b u r i e d w i t h i n t h e i r own house o r
compound t o f a c i l i t a t e t h e i r r e t u r n , w h i l e t h o s e whose l i f e c o u r s e s
have been condemned, are c a s t away i n t o d i s t a n t bush so t h a t t h e y w i l l
not r e t u r n . Those b u r i e d n e a r b y . a l s o c o n t i n u e to observe and p r o t e c t
t h e i r l i v i n g c h i l d r e n ; may be p e r i o d i c a l l y f e d r i t u a l l y , and i n v o k e d
to r e t u r n p h y s i c a l l y to the w o r l d i n the form o f r e i n c a r n a t e d dead
(nmanwu, i . e . masquerade o r mask), to i n s p e c t and judge the community:,
t o e x p r e s s t h e i r p l e a s u r e a t the c e l e b r a t i o n s o f t h e i r kinsmen or t o
demand t h a t laws they have helped t o s u p p o r t be u p h e l d . They may a l s o
be invoked t o . e n t e r i n c o r p o r e a l l y i n t o o b j e c t s c o n s t r u c t e d i n t h e i r
name to be f e d , v e n e r a t e d , prayed t o , and thanked f o r t h e i r s p i r i t u a l
a s s i s t a n c e i n m a i n t a i n i n g l o n g . l i v e s f o r t h e i r c h i l d r e n and i n
b r i n g i n g some c h i l d r e n i n t o t h i s w o r l d .
The major c a t e g o r i e s o f Igbo r e l i g i o n have n o t been exhausted i n
the d i s c u s s i o n o f the p e r s o n a l g o d , . i t s r e l a t e d but " u n i v e r s a l i z e d "
concept o f g r e a t god and g h o s t , and a n c e s t o r s ; f o r the o b j e c t s o f the
p h y s i c a l u n i v e r s e (which may r e p r e s e n t t h e s e components) a r e a p p r o p r i a t e
symbols because they a r e b e l i e v e d t o be imbued w i t h i n t r i n s i c f o r c e s
and i n t e n t i o n a l powers t h a t a r e a l s o r e l e v a n t to the needs o f the
l i v i n g . These f o r c e s and powers a r e subsumed under the terms o f s p i r i t s
( a l u s i ) and m e d i c i n e (ogwu). These two terms i n t r o d u c e numerous com-,
p l e x i t i e s i n Igbo b e l i e f system.. T h e i r meanings i n t e r p e n e t r a t e not
o n l y one a n o t h e r but w i t h t h e i d e a s o f gods and g h o s t s . M e d i c i n e s
r e t a i n e d o v e r time can become s p i r i t s ; s p i r i t s , under c e r t a i n c i r c u m s t a n c e s
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can make p a c t s w i t h p e r s o n a l gods and t h e r e b y become a t t a c h e d t o
i n d i v i d u a l s ; and s p i r i t s a r e r e g a r d e d as such p a r t l y because t h e i r ,
power a t t r a c t s the g h o s t s o f the dead. To make t h e i r importance i n
the b e l i e f system c l e a r , . s o m e extended d i s c u s s i o n o f s p i r i t s and
m e d i c i n e s i s n e c e s s a r y .
Igbos b e l i e v e t h a t when the g r e a t god c r e a t e d the u n i v e r s e , he
endowed some o f . i t s o b j e c t s w i t h s p i r i t u a l power. These s p i r i t s a r e
a b s t r a c t but p u r p o s e f u l f o r c e s t h a t r e s i d e i n n a t u r a l o b j e c t s , p o s s e s s
moral commitments, and may be h e l p f u l or harmful t o man. L i k e p e r s o n a l
gods, t h e y a r e l i m i t l e s s i n t h e i r d u r a t i o n . U n l i k e the g r e a t god,
they are s p a t i a l l y l o c a l i z e d f o r c e s t h a t a c t d i r e c t l y a n d . i n t e n t i o n a l l y
upon men, and n e g o t i a t i o n s can be made w i t h them. For example, the
sun (anyahwu) and the moon (dnwa) a r e messengers o f the g r e a t god;
they t r a v e r s e the sky (igwe) o v e r the l a n d (ani o f a l a ) i n i n t e r s e c t i n g
paths which d i v i d e the e a r t h i n t o quadrants a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the f o u r
days (eke, oye o r o r i e , a f o and nkwo) o f the Igbo week and w i t h
m a r k e t s ^ ; Thus a c o n c e p t u a l l i n k a g e i s made between time and s p a c e ,
f o r each Igbo day i s a s s o c i a t e d and i d e n t i f i e d w i t h a p a r t i c u l a r
market p l a c e h e l d i n a p a r t i c u l a r l o c a t i o n communicated and l i n k e d
w i t h a p a r t i c u l a r s e c t o r o f the e a r t h . A l l t h e s e phenomena-days o f
the week ( o f t e n r e p r e s e n t e d as f o u r women c a r r y i n g market b a s k e t s o r
as a f o u r - f a c e d p e r s o n ) , sun, moon, the l a n d , e t c . , a r e thought o f as
imbued w i t h s p i r i t u a l f o r c e s . The r i v e r o r stream i s o f t e n the k i n g
o f the s p i r i t f o r i t was t h e r e o r r a t h e r was c r e a t e d a t t h e same time
t h a t the ( f e m a l e ) l a n d was c r e a t e d . The o g i 1 i s i o r egbo t r e e i s
r e g a r d e d as the f i r s t t o grow on the l a n d and i s a l s o s p i r i t u a l l y
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p o t e n t . T h i s i s why i t a l o n e i s s u i t a b l e f o r an o b j e c t i f i c a t i o n
o f a p e r s o n a l god and as the t r e e - s h r i n e o f l a n d .
A l t h o u g h the meaning o f a l u s i v a r i e s among d i f f e r e n t Igbo
communities, and t h e r e a r e many v a r i e t i e s i n a s i n g l e community, the
meaning o f the term becomes c l e a r when one c o n s i d e r s the most r e v e r e d
and most a n c i e n t and a l s o the most common among the Igbos.- T h i s i s
the oath or i y i . When a major d i s p u t e a r i s e s i n the community and
each p a r t y r e f u s e s to admit t h a t the o t h e r i s r i g h t , an o b j e c t may be
brought from a r e v e r e d s h r i n e and p r e s e n t e d t o a member o f each o f the
p a r t i e s to swear the t r u t h o f t h e i r c o u r s e . I f t h a t member o f one o f
the p a r t i e s d i e s w i t h i n a s p e c i f i e d time a f t e r s w e a r i n g to the o a t h ,
i t i s b e l i e v e d t h a t the s p i r i t has k i l l e d him f o r d e n y i n g a c r i m e o f
which he was g u i l t y ; i f he l i v e s the s p i r i t has e x o n e r a t e d him and
h i s c o h o r t s . ( I f both l i v e then an o r a c l e i s r e s o r t e d t o ) . . In b r i e f ,
t h e s e s p i r i t s b r i n g i l l n e s s and death to whoever has v i o l a t e d moral
s t a n d a r d s , and t h i s power t o harm i s the b a s i s o f t h e i r v e n e r a t i o n ,
f o r t h e y a r e c r i t i c a l s a n c t i o n s . o f m o r a l i t y throughout I g b o l a n d .
The most u b i q u i t o u s s p i r i t u a l agent among t h e Igbos i s the l a n d ,
f o r i t s s a n c t i o n i s i n e s c a p a b l e . A l l s t r o n g l y v a l u e d s o c i a l norms
are t h i n g s o f the l a n d ( o d i n a n i o r bmenani), i . e . custom. T h i s term
c o v e r s ai;wide range o f t h i n g s . ' W i t h i n t h i s c a t e g o r y , two k i n d s o f
s a c r e d v i o l a t i o n s a r e d i s t i n g u i s h e d :
1, A c t s not s t r i c t l y f o r b i d d e n by the l a n d (Nso o r a l u ) ;
2. A c t s t h a t a r e - f o r b i d d e n by the l a n d (Nso a n i ) , a b o m i n a t i o n .
The a c t s 1 above a r e r e s t i t u t i v e s a n c t i o n : . o n e must p e r f o r m a
r i t u a l a c t t h a t negates t h e i r v i o l a t i o n , e.g. i f a son s h o u l d push down
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h i s f a t h e r i n an argument o r f i g h t , he has committed an nso and has
t o p e r f o r m a r i t u a l t o l i f t h i s f a t h e r up a g a i n . He has to s a c r i f i c e
a c h i c k e n to the f a m i l y a n c e s t r a l s h r i n e .
However, a c t s o f the type i n 2 above a r e v e r y s e r i o u s . These
a r e abominations and the o f f e n d e r must " c o v e r " the a b o m i n a t i o n . For
example, i n c e s t cannot be undone, i t i s a permanent damage. A l s o ,
s h o u l d a member v i o l a t e the r u l e s o f a s e c r e t s o c i e t y by unmasking a
masquerade, i . e . d i s c l o s i n g the i d e n t i t y o f the a c t o r to a n o n - i n i t i a t e
( o u t s i d e r ) , he has committed an a b o m i n a t i o n ( t h i s depends on t y p e o f
d i s c l o s u r e and the s e r i o u s n e s s a t t a c h e d to such i n f o r m a t i o n ) , f o r
which a permanent damage has been done; The l a n d i s thus angry and
w i l l c e a s e ' t o be i n h a b i t a b l e . A r i t u a l t o c o v e r t h i s a b o m i n a t i o n i s
s e r i o u s and i n o l d e n times the c u l p r i t was e i t h e r k i l l e d o r e x i l e d
or s o l d i n t o s l a v e r y .
Nso has a n o t h e r r e l a t e d meaning Aso which i s " h o l i n e s s " , e.g.
the g r e a t god i s h o l y . We a r e t h e r e f o r e d e a l i n g w i t h a t h r e e - l e v e l
semantic s t r u c t u r e i n t h i s c l a s s o f r e i i g i o u s norms (see F i g . I I I ) .
F i g . I I I . Semantic S t r u c t u r e o f NSO. (Taken from Henderson, 1972.
NS0-, (the g e n e r a l meaning: s a c r e d
V t h i n g s and a c t s t h a t a r e
\ h o l y and/or f o r b i d d e n )
p. 116).
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R e g a r d l e s s o f the k i n d o f m o r a l i t y they s u p p o r t , two d i s t i n c t
k i n d s o f s p i r i t u a l f o r c e s may be d i s t i n g u i s h e d i n any Igbo community:
those a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the p e r s o n a l gods o f p a r t i c u l a r human b e i n g s ,
and those w i t h power o v e r a c o l l e c t i v i t y , e.g. a v i l l a g e group. The
same d i s t i n c t i o n a p p l i e s to most o t h e r s p i r i t s . There i s an i m p o r t a n t
dynamic r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e s e two c a t e g o r i e s ; s p e c i f i c a l l y , t h e r e
i s a tendency, o v e r t i m e , f o r p e r s o n a l s p i r i t s t o become c o l l e c t i v e .
Men know t h a t t h e r e a r e , g o d s , s p i r i t s and g h o s t s , know t h e i r p u t a t i v e
l o c a t i o n s , . a n d know t h a t t h e s e may-act on them. However, w h i l e the
c o u r s e o f human l i v e s and communities a r e presumed t o be s e t by the
w i l l o f t h e s e s p i r i t s , they a r e l a r g e l y unknown to men. C o n s e q u e n t l y ,
men c o n t i n u a l l y seek t o b r i n g them i n t o p e r s o n a l o r p u b l i c awareness
through a c t s o f communication.
Messenger s p i r i t s such as masks [and a l s o udene, " v u l t u r e " ) a r e
b e l i e v e d to s e r v e t h i s purpose, but communication through them i n t u r n
r e q u i r e s p h y s i c a l m e d i a . These p h y s i c a l media are m e d i c i n e (ogwu)
which a r e p u t a t i v e i n t r i n s i c p r o p e r t i e s o f p h y s i c a l o b j e c t s b o n e s ,
p l a n t s , l i q u i d s , s t o n e s , m e t a l s , b o d y . p a r t s and e f f l u v i a l o f a n i m a l s
and menwhich are b e l i e v e d t o produce c e r t a i n e f f e c t s a u t o m a t i c a l l y
by v i r t u e o f . t h e i r p r o p e r t i e s , e.g. (dmu), young green shoots o f the
o i l palm ( E l a i s a g u i n e e s i s ) i s c o n s i d e r e d p r o t e c t i v e . . The f u n n e l e d
c l a y o f a t e r m i t e h i l l (nkpu) i s r e g a r d e d as a channel o f communication
w i t h s p i r i t s and the dead l o c a t e d i n the e a r t h , and i s t h e r e f o r e used
i n making powerful m e d i c i n e s . I t i s b e l i e v e d t h a t masks
';" come up from and r e t i r e and r e s t i n t e r m i t e h i l l s . The most i m p o r t a n t
m e d i c i n a l medium i n Igboland i s c a l 1 e d o f o CDetafium s e n e g a l e s e ) , and
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i t i s owned by i n d i v i d u a l s and groups. Important and s e r i o u s
masquerades a l s o have t h i s s t a f f o f Igbo manhood, the o f o , e.g. the
Ozoebunu o f Ozubulu i s b e l i e v e d t o use the o l d e s t o f o o f the v i l l a g e .
And i n t h i s r e g a r d t h i s mask i s a s t o r e o f knowledge.
Important m e d i c i n a l media such as the o f o and v a r i o u s c o m b i n a t i o n s
o f m e d i c i n e s , cannot s i m p l y be o b t a i n e d and u t i l i z e d ad hoc, f o r
s p e c i a l i z e d knowledge i s r e q u i r e d t o make them work. H e r e - i n comes
the importance o f the s e r v i c e s o f the d i b i a ( " d i v i n e r , medicine-man
o r d o c t o r " ) who c o n t r o l s m e d i c i n e , g i v i n g them r e l a t i o n s h i p t o the
messenger s p i r i t s . Some d i b i a a r e t r a i n e d by o t h e r s , w h i l e o t h e r s
i n h e r i t the t r a i t s .
The d i b i a s u p e r v i s e s the c o n s t r u c t i o n o f r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f
m e d i c i n a l o b j e c t s such as goods, s h r i n e s , and o b j e c t s d e d i c a t e d t o
the g h o s t s o f the dead ( a t t i m e s t h i s i n c l u d e s the c a r v i n g o f masks).
They a l s o d e d i c a t e s h r i n e s , and must be p r e s e n t b e f o r e the mask i s
worn and would be r e q u i r e d t o watch i n c a s e e v i l s p i r i t s i n t e r v e n e i n
a masquerade performance. More w i l l be s a i d about t h i s i n the next
c h a p t e r . In c o n c l u d i n g t h i s d i s c u s s i o n i t may be i n s t r u c t i v e t o
r e p r e s e n t the dynamic a s p e c t s o f Igbo r e l i g i o n s c h e m a t i c a l l y . T h i s
s u g g e s t s a developmental p r o c e s s t h a t r e l a t e s persons to r o l e s , c o l l e c -
t i v i t i e s , and t o the c o n c e i v e d moral o r d e r o f the u n i v e r s e .
The d i s c u s s i o n i n t h i s c h a p t e r i s l e n g t h y and v e r y i m p o r t a n t
because i t i s b a s i c to an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the mask and masquerade p e r -
formance o f the Igbos. I t o f f e r s a c o s m o l o g i c a l e x p l a n a t i o n f o r the
concept o f the mask. The mask f i t s i n t o t h i s cosmology through the wood
(because o f the s a n c t i t y o f the t r e e ) used i n making i t , t h e p a i n t s
67
Symbol o f
S e l f
The G r e a t God
Chukwu
o r
Chineke
CREATES
7
AND DETERMINES
The P e r s o n a l
god
I t s g h o s t l y
elements
L i f e b i r t h
" 1
Ills a s s o c i a t e d
m e d i c i n e s and
s p i r i t s
I
I
s
ATH
I
: e s s i o n
to c o n t r o l
by
1
-H
descendants i
C o l l e c t i v e l y
worshipped
s p i r i t s and
m e d i c i n e s
A t t a c h e d bad |
g h o s t s
I
Good death
^ B a d death-
r
LAND OF THE DEAD
R e v e r s i b l e Time I r r e v e r s i b l e Time
F i g . IV. R e l i g i o u s Symbol o f S e l f , Role and C o l l e c t i v i t y . (Taken
from Henderson, 1972. p. 123),
which put s p i r i t u a l f o r c e s i n t o i t and because i t i s an i n v o c a t i o n o f
the dead. In the-inex" diagram, I have m o d i f i e d Henderson's c h a r t t o
l o c a t e the p l a c e o f masks i n Igbo cosmology.
68
R i t u a l t h e a t r e
o f
The D e a d f >The L i v i n g
Return o f the dead as masquerades
I n i t i a t i o n ( i k e n g a )
Making o f masks] ( R i t u a l s & M e d i c i n e
Land o f the Dead
)
f 1
The L i v i n g
Death
REVERSIBLE TIME IRREVERSIBLE TIME
V. P l a c e o f the Masquerade*in Igbo Cosmology.
69
CHAPTER I I I
1. H a r t l e " A r c h a e o l o g y i n E a s t e r n N i g e r i a " i n the West A f r i c a n
A r c h a e o l o g i c a l N e w s l e t t e r . (1966: No. 5, p.13), f f a l s o (1969:
No. 11, p. 35).
2. c f Shaw's e x c a v a t i o n s a t Igbo-Ukwo. P u b l i s h e d i n 2 volumes.
London, 1970.
3. 'ccf Wi11 e t : " N i g e r i a " i n P.L. S h i n n i e ( e d . ) . The A f r i c a n Iron Age.,
O x f o r d (1971:19); a l s o H a r t l e (1966:13) and (1969:35).
4. c f A l e x a n d e r and Coursey,."The o r i g i n s o f yam c u l t i v a t i o n " i n P.J. -
Ucko and G.W. Dimbleby ( e d s . ) . The D o m e s t i c a t i o n and E x p l o i t a t i o n
o f P l a n t s and A n i m a l s . London, 1969.
5. c f Buchanan and Paugh (1964:60).
6. I s i c h o i (1973:7) noted t h a t Thompson, a c o n s e r v a t o r o f f o r e s t s i n
N i g e r i a , r e p o r t e d t h i s a s t o n i s h i n g f a c t o v e r s e v e n t y y e a r s ago.
7. V i r i l o c a l r e s i d e n c e r e s u l t s when a c o u p l e e s t a b l i s h e s a household
w i t h the husband's p a r e n t s .
8. P r o v e r b i a l l y , Igbos l i k e n c h i l d r e n t o the t i e - c l o t h which s u p p o r t s
a person's b e l l y , h e l p i n g him t o walk the r o a d o f l i f e . I t i s
s a i d t h a t b e f o r e one d i e s , h i s o f f s p r i n g s s h o u l d be as numerous
as the g r a i n s o f sand t h a t bury a yam. The v a l u e o f c h i l d r e n i s
o f t e n a f f i r m e d i n the p e r s o n a l names g i v e n t o them, e.g. Nwa-Ka-ego
( " c h i l d s u r p a s s e s money"), Nwa-bu-nda ( " c h i l d i s shelter" 7 7
9. For a d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n , , a n a l y s i s and u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h i s
c o n c e p t o f " c h i " , p l e a s e r e f e r t o T a l b o t (1926), Horton (1956,
1961, 1967), and.Bradbury (I960).'
10. T a l b o t (1926:2:40-41) c l e a r l y p e r c e i v e d the c e n t r a l s i g n i f i c a n c e
o f the n o t i o n o f " c h i " and i t s r e l a t i o n t o the c o n c e p t i o n s o f
s e l f and u n i v e r s e .
11. For and b e t t e r and deeper e x p l a n a t i o n o f s i g n i f i c a n c e o f the f o u r
days o f the Igbo week, see Horton, 1956:17-28.
70
CHAPTER IV
ETHNOGRAPHIC DETAILS OF IGBO MASKS AND MASQUERADE PERFORMANCE
In t h i s c h a p t e r , I w i l l b r i e f l y i n t r o d u c e the r e a d e r to an
example o f the appearance o f the mask. The c o n c e p t and meaning o f
the mask w i l l then be d i s c u s s e d . T h i s w i l l be f o l l o w e d by a d e s c r i p -
t i o n o f the c a r v i n g o f the mask, and making o f costumes. The r e m a i n i n g
p a r t o f the c h a p t e r w i l l be devoted t o i n i t i a t i o n i n t o the mmuo.
The S e t t i n g
I t i s v e r y a p p r o p r i a t e to commence w i t h an i n t r o d u c t o r y i l l u s -
t r a t i o n o f the appearance o f the masks. In the d r y season, i . e . between
the months o f O c t o b e r and March but p a r t i c u l a r l y i n December, i t has
become.customary f o r Igbos t o e x h i b i t o r d i s p l a y t h e i r masked r i t u a l
p l a y s on eke days^. These p l a y s a r e performed e i t h e r i n the market
s q u a r e , the v i l l a g e s q u a r e , o r on r i t u a l p l a y - g r o u n d p r e s c r i b e d and
t h e r e f o r e r e s e r v e d f o r such an o c c a s i o n . - In one Igbo community, Ozubulu,
such a p l a y - g r o u n d has a l i t t l e hut b u i l t nearby. Both the hut and the
square are c o l l e c t i v e l y c a l l e d dbimmuo, meaning l i t e r a l l y "the abode
o f s p i r i t s " . I t i s on such obimmuo, a b b r e v i a t e d t o dbom, t h a t
masquerades p e r f o r m on eke days to e n t e r t a i n the community.
S i n c e eke i s the h o l y day o f the Igbo week, and l i t t l e o r no work
i s done, a d u l t s perform r i t u a l s a c r i f i c e s t o t h a n k . t h e gods and
71
a n c e s t o r s . I n d i v i d u a l s may s a c r i f i c e c h i c k e n to t h e i r ikenga (the
p e r s o n a l god o f f o r t u n e ) and ask f o r l i f e and f u r t h e r achievements.
L i n e a g e heads, d i - o k p a l a , may a l s o s a c r i f i c e to the l i n e a g e a n c e s t r a l
s h r i n e to ask f o r p r o t e c t i o n and b l e s s i n g s f o r the kinsmen., A l s o ,
the e n t i r e community w i l l o f f e r s a c r i f i c e s through the v i l l a g e p r i e s t
to the v i l l a g e gods, a n c e s t o r s and o t h e r s p i r i t s a s k i n g f o r f o r g i v e n e s s
o f the t r a n s g r e s s i o n s o f the p e o p l e and p r a y i n g f o r b l e s s i n g s i n the
form o f l i f e , h e a l t h , c h i l d r e n , f o o d , and g e n e r a l l y peace, harmony
and p r o s p e r i t y . T h i s i s a c o r p o r a t e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y .
In a s i m i l a r f a s h i o n , members o f the mmuo s e c r e t s o c i e t y p e r f o r m
s a c r i f i c e s to the gods and a n c e s t o r s through t h e i r masks. The mmuo
s o c i e t y i s comprised o f o n l y a d u l t males who have been i n i t i a t e d i n t o
3
the masquerade s o c i e t y . Women and c h i l d r e n are never members . The
mmuo s o c i e t y , m a y s a c r i f i c e some palm wine, k o l a nuts and c h i c k e n .
L a t e r , the meat o f the fowl i s cooked and eaten by members p r e s e n t .
In the e v e n i n g s o f - s u c h eke days, members put on masquerade performances
to demonstrate t h a t the gods and s p i r i t s have.heard the p r a y e r s o f the
community; t h a t the a n c e s t o r s a r e
1
h a p p y and have a c c e p t e d the s a c r i f i c e s
and s u p p l i c a t i o n s . o f the community. I t i s b e l i e v e d t h a t when evoked,
the a n c e s t o r s ( t h e dead members o f the community), would appear as
masked and costumed f i g u r e s - - m a s q u e r a d e s - - t h u s g i v i n g the i m p r e s s i o n
t h a t the dead have t e m p o r a r i l y r e t u r n e d to the w o r l d o f t h e l i v i n g i n
happy moods. In a r e l i g i o u s sense, t h i s r e - e n a c t e d r e t u r n g i v e s
credence t o a b e l i e f i n the p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f the s p i r i t s i n human a f f a i r s .
One i m p o r t a n t p o i n t needs t o be made here. The reason f o r the
masked r i t u a l p l a y s o f the Igbos i n the d r y season (when t h e r e i s l i t t l e
72
o r no work on the f a r m s ) , on f u n e r a l o c c a s i o n s and on such i m p o r t a n t
t r i b a l ceremonies l i k e the New Yam f e s t i v a l , i s n o t o n l y to demon-
s t r a t e t h a t the e n t i r e community i s a t the mercy o f the s u p e r n a t u r a l
f o r c e s , but a l s o to e n t e r t a i n the community who a r e a t the same time
the a u d i e n c e a t such p e r f o r m a n c e s . People have t o l d me t h a t o r i g i n a l l y
t h e s e performances were a r r a n g e d by a g u i l d o f masked a c t o r s , but
l a t e r on the g u i l d expanded i n t o the mmuo s e c r e t s o c i e t y , which
o p e r a t e s even today,.and r e q u i r e d the i n i t i a t i o n o f a l l a b l e - b o d i e d ,
4
courageous Igbo males . T h i s e v o c a t i o n o f the a n c e s t o r s and s p i r i t s
t o p e r f o r m f o r t h e community as masquerades i s an e x p l i c i t a s p e c t and
f u n c t i o n o f Igbo r e l i g i o n and what A d e d e j i (1972:255) c a l l s " r i t u a l
f e s t i v a l drama" when d e s c r i b i n g the egungun o f the Yorubas. Donald
Baker (1976:58) c a l l s i t the f e s t i v a l drama phase o f t h e a t r e . In t h i s
t h e s i s I would l i k e to d e s c r i b e Igbomasquerades as r i t u a l t h e a t r e s . .
The r i t u a l s and p r a y e r s o f the s e c r e t s o c i e t y members a r e p r e l i m i n -
a r y to t h e appearance o f the mask; and a f t e r t h o s e , the masks and
costumes a r e put on and the s t a g e i s s e t . F i r s t l y , t h r o u g h the wooden
gong, the appearance o f the mmuo i s announced to the community, who
q u i c k l y assemble a t the obom o r h o l y s q u a r e . Then, w i t h the mask i n
f r o n t , members dance t o the rhythm o f music and songs to the square and
t o the welcome c h e e r o f t h e i r a u d i e n c e . I f the performance i s g o o d , t h e
a u d i e n c e c h e e r s and sometimes p a r t i c i p a t e s i n some o f the songs. L a t e r ,
they p r e s e n t g i f t s t o the masks; t h i s i s g i v i n g g i f t s t o the s p i r i t s .
The mask i s admired w i t h a w e a n d r e v e r e n c e . The u n i n i t i a t e d are
not supposed to l o o k a t the mask i n the f a c e w h i l e women and c h i l d r e n
watch a t a s a f e d i s t a n c e . We have a l r e a d y noted t h a t , among the Igbo,
73
masks and masquerades a r e male a f f a i r s and though women may o r g a n i z e
t h e i r own dance performance, they never put on masks. A f t e r i t s
performance, the mask r e t i r e s i n t o the hut i n the obom where the
costumes and o t h e r masquerade p a r a p h e r n a l i a a r e s t o r e d u n t i l r e q u i r e d
a g a i n f o r performance. I t i s u s u a l l y the duty o f the most s e n i o r member
o f the mmuo s o c i e t y to c a t e r to the need o f the mask and a v o i d i t s
d e s e c r a t i o n o r p o l l u t i o n by u n a u t h o r i z e d p e r s o n s . I f t h i s i s not
done, the a n c e s t o r s w i l l wreak vengeance on the.community i n the form
o f i l l n e s s o r famine.
The Concept o f the Mask
The above i l l u s t r a t e s the Igbo b e l i e f t h a t masks g i v e v i s i b l e
i d e n t i t y and form to the unseen s u p e r n a t u r a l . T h e m a s k i s s p i r i t and
a l s o a means o f communicating w i t h s p i r i t s . I t s t o o d i n i t s o r i g i n a l
r i g h t as an i n d i v i d u a l and group e x p r e s s i o n o f the l i k e n e s s o f the
s p i r i t s .
A g r e a t many p e o p l e , e s p e c i a l l y the Western v i s i t o r s to museums
o r a r t - g a l l e r i e s , . t h i n k o f t h e mask as a s e p a r a t e e n t i t y and as l a r g e l y
d i s t i n c t from i t s costumes. T h i s must have l e d Jones (1973:58) to
d e f i n e a mask as "a term which i s p o p u l a r l y used t o r e f e r t o any k i n d
o f c o n c e a l i n g headpiece worn by an a c t o r i n a performance g i v e n by an
a s s o c i a t i o n , which i n West A f r i c a i s c a l l e d a s e c r e t s o c i e t y " . To most
Westerners, the mask u s u a l l y has one m e a n i n g i t i s , say, a b e a u t i f u l
white mask t h a t l o o k s f e m i n i n e and they t h i n k o f i t t h a t way.
The m i s t a k e i n t h i s type o f assumption i s t h a t t h e Igbos do not
74
j u s t l o o k a t the mask as a h e a d p i e c e . I t i s not a s e p a r a t e e n t i t y ,
d i s t i n c t from i t s costume.. As one who has p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e s e
r i t u a l p l a y s and a l s o as o b s e r v e r ; my r e s e a r c h p o i n t s u n m i s t a k a b l y t o
the f a c t t h a t when an Igbo t h i n k s o f a mask, he g e n e r a l l y c o n c e i v e s o f
i t as an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f a costume r a t h e r than i n i s o l a t i o n , and as
b e l o n g i n g w i t h a p a r t i c u l a r d r e s s s t y l e and forms o f p l a y and dance.
The name o f the mask may a l s o be the name o f the costume worn w i t h i t
or the p l a y o r the dance i n which i t i s used. The Igbo agbogho mmuo
("female s p i r i t mask") (see p l a t e I X ) , r e f e r s not p a r t i c u l a r l y t o the
headpiece but a l s o t o the b e a u t i f u l d r e s s ( s i g n i f y i n g f e m i n i n e
q u a l i t i e s ) as w e l l as the music and dance t h a t accompany i t . The
mask i s an element i n a l a r g e r whole. The symbolism o f the mask v a r i e s
a c c o r d i n g t o , i t s p a r t i c u l a r use i n a p a r t i c u l a r c o n t e x t . The f a c e o f
agbogho can be used i n . a n o t h e r c o n t e x t t o r e p r e s e n t Onukwu ( " f o o l " ) .
Thus, the meaning o f the " f a c e " depends upon the whole.
The form o f the mask i s o r d e r e d by r e l i g i o u s c o n c e p t s which p e r m i t s
the a r t i s t o r the c a r v e r a l a t i t u d e o f i n d i v i d u a l e x p r e s s i o n i n h i s
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f the s p i r i t , d e i t y o r a n c e s t o r , but u s u a l l y w i t h i n
t r a d i t i o n a l l i m i t s . T h i s c o u l d be seen i n c a r v i n g s o f I g r i masks w i t h
the t r a d i t i o n a l A f i k p o g e o m e t r i c p a t t e r n s , r e c o g n i z a b l e as d i s t i n c t l y
A f i k p o but showing i n d i v i d u a l a r t i s t i c e x p r e s s i o n o f the c a r v e r . A l s o ,
c a r v i n g s o f the agbogho masks o f the N o r t h e r n Igbo show t h i s t r a d i t i o n a l
a r t s t y l e s i n c o r p o r a t i n g i n d i v i d u a l c r e a t i v i t y . In the e x h i b i t "The
World o f S p i r i t s " , one n o t i c e s i n d i v i d u a l e x p r e s s i o n w i t h i n t r a d i t i o n a l
s t y l e s . See d e t a i l s i n the photographs accompanying the documentation
o f e x h i b i t i n C h a p t e r I I .
75
P l a t e IX. L i v e performance o f the Igbo agbogho masquerade a t the
G r e a t H a l l o f the Museum on J u l y 17, 1977.
(Photograph was taken by W i l l i a m McLennan, U.B.C. Museum o f
A n t h r o p o l o g y ) .
76
In one r e s p e c t , the mask has, f o r the Westerner, the same c l a i m
t o e x i s t e n c e as a work o f a r t such as the c a r v e d o r p a i n t e d Madonna
o f F l o r e n c e and V e n i c e . However, the mask i n i t s Igbo frame o f the
c a r v e d h e a d p i e c e , costume, dance, r i t u a l and ceremony, has not the
same s e p a r a t e e x i s t e n c e as the I t a l i a n Madonna surrounded by a g i l d e d
moulding. The Igbo mask i s not so d e t a c h a b l e from i t s f r a m e w o r k s u c h
as the c h u r c h i n the c a s e o f the Madonna. The mask i s not an i d o l ;
i t may be thought o f as an i d e n t i t y o f the d e i t y o r a n c e s t o r , but
m o s t l y i t i s r e c o g n i z e d as a c a r v e d r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o r countenance.
I t i s f u r t h e r a f o c u s on the broader e f f e c t i n i t s e l a b o r a t e framework
o f r i t u a l , , i n which myth and b e l i e f a r e c e r e m o n i a l l y e x p r e s s e d i n
music, dance, pageant, drama and s c u l p t u r e .
The dancer who wears the mask i s c a l l e d mmuo or mma, meaning the
s p i r i t o r g h o s t . He i s supposed by i t s a i d and h i s s k i l l t o evoke the
p r e s e n c e o f the s u p e r n a t u r a l . H i s b o d y . i s m o s t l y c o m p l e t e l y c o v e r e d
by costume, a l t h o u g h t h e r e a r e l o c a l v a r i e t i e s . In A f i k p o , the hands
and l e g s may be l e f t uncovered, but i n O n i t s h a the e n t i r e body and
l i m b s a r e c o v e r e d . . The reason f o r the complete c o v e r i n g o f the body
i s to make the d i s g u i s e complete. The dancer even t a l k s i n s t r a n g e
tongue t o d i s g u i s e h i s n a t u r a l v o i c e . A n o t h e r r e a s o n f o r the complete
d i s g u i s e i s t h a t o f t e n men v e r s e d i n " m e d i c i n e " may d e c i d e to " t r y o u t "
the dancer by c a u s i n g him b o d i l y harm i n an e f f o r t t o t e s t h i s manhood
o r to d i s g r a c e him i f he i s n o t p o w e r f u l . To s a f e g u a r d a g a i n s t such an
o c c u r e n c e , the dancer i n the costume i s f o r t i f i e d w i t h t r a d i t i o n a l
p r o t e c t i v e s .
Even to the c a s u a l t r a v e l l e r i n Igbo c o u n t r y ( o r i n A f r i c a g e n e r a l l y ) ,
77
unversed in'Jthe b e l i e f s and customs o f ' t h e p e o p l e , music and d a n c i n g
s t a n d out as the r u l i n g p a s s i o n s . I t i s the form i n which both
v i s u a l and a u r a l e x p r e s s i o n has p l a c e and o r i g i n o r i s i n some way
c o n n e c t e d . Head w o r s h i p or the c u l t o f the head which i s p r e s e n t i n
v a r i o u s forms a l l o v e r A f r i c a , g i v e s t h e mask a p r e d o m i n a t i n g i m p o r t a n c e .
The head, r e g a r d e d by the Igbos as the s e a t o f a l l human wisdom, i s
s y m b o l i c . Igbos say t h a t one's head ".isnrioteeorEect^^ -
the person has been a t t a c k e d by e v i l s p i r i t s o r i s p o s s e s s e d , i . e . the
person i s mad.- In t h i s way,,the mask r e p r e s e n t s the countenance o f
wisdom and i n the case o f e v i l masks, i n v e r t e d o r d i a b o l i c a l wisdom.
T h i s i s l o g i c a l because the mask i s s p i r i t , and a c c o r d i n g t o Igbo
b e l i e f , the s p i r i t s a r e o m n i p r e s e n t and o m n i s c i e n t i n world a f f a i r s .
On a c c o u n t o f t h i s importance o f the head, the mask, as the p i e c e de
r e s i s t a n c e o f dance and ceremony, i s o f t e n times g i v e n g r o t e s q u e p r o p o r -
t i o n s d e p e n d i n g , o f c o u r s e , on c i r c u m s t a n c e s .
Underwood (1951:1), i n comparing Greek a n d . A f r i c a n s c u l p t u r e ,
noted t h a t both have a s t r o n g a l l i a n c e i n myths and b e l i e f . However,
i n Greek s c u l p t u r e the body dominated the head because, w i t h t h e i r g r e a t
a d m i r a t i o n f o r p h y s i q u e , the Greeks c e n t e r e d t h e i r e x p r e s s i o n i n the
m u s c u l a r f e a t u r e s o f the body.. The countenance o f the d e i t y became
s u p p r e s s e d and h i s f a c e or mask g a i n e d more'and more an e x p r e s s i o n o f
i m m o b i l i t y . But the masks o f A f r i c a g e n e r a l l y , and t h o s e o f t h e Igbos
i n p a r t i c u l a r , . m a i n t a i n e d l i v e l i e r e x p r e s s i o n s . T h i s v i t a l i t y o f t h e
A f r i c a n ' s d i r e c t e x p r e s s i o n i n h i s a r t c o n t i n u e d to d e v e l o p u n t i l i t met
the c a t a c l y s m from the West,
The p o i n t has a l r e a d y been made t h a t masks a n d m a s q u e r a d e s a r e
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f a c t s o f l i f e among the Igbos; what needs to be emphasized f u r t h e r i s
t h a t t o the Igbos, t h e y a l s o r e p r e s e n t a symbol o r f o c i f o r the
s p i r i t u a l f o r c e s t h a t l o a n e d t h e i r a u t h o r i t y to the e d i c t s and a c t s
t h a t emanated t h e r e f r o m . T h i s f a c t had and t o some e x t e n t s t i l l has,
v a r i o u s s o c i a l consequences f o r which the mask i s i n d i s p e n s a b l e t o
Igbo s o c i e t y .
To u n d e r s t a n d t h i s , and i n o r d e r t o use y o u r i m a g i n a t i o n to p a r -
t i c i p a t e i n the e x p e r i e n c e o f masking, one i s asked t o c o n s i d e r how
the mask t r a n s f o r m s the man who wears i t :
(a) I t h i d e s h i s f a c e and i d e n t i t y from t h e p u b l i c ;
(b) I t f r e e s him from the r u l e s o f c o n d u c t which govern e v e r y d a y
l i f e ;
(c) I t a l l o w s him to become the o t h e r b e i n g t h a t i t r e p r e s e n t s . In
t h i s c a s e , i t r e p r e s e n t s the s p i r i t s and a n c e s t o r s who keep
watch as g u a r d i a n s and c u s t o d i a n s o f m o r a l i t y i n Igbo s o c i e t y .
T h e i r d e c i s i o n i s s u b j e c t t o no a p p e a l . :
T h i s i s where the mask d e r i v e d i t s power i n Igbo s o c i e t y and t h i s
a u t h o r i t y took r o o t i n Igbo p h i l o s o p h y and r e l i g i o n . A p a r t from t h e
r i t u a l s n e c e s s a r y f o r masking,,the mask a l s o a c t e d d i r e c t l y t o make
s u r e t h a t s o c i e t y does not t r a n s g r e s s . Because a man c o v e r s h i m s e l f
w i t h a mask which t h e r e f o r e i n v e s t s him w i t h powers o u t s i d e the o r d i n a r y ,
he takes l i b e r t i e s which he o t h e r w i s e c o u l d n o t , and may c r i t i c i z e t h a t
which i s c o n s i d e r e d obnoxious i n and t o the s o c i e t y . In t h i s way, the
e x c e s s e s o f the e l d e r s , y o u t h s , women and c h i l d r e n , are checked. By
c h e c k i n g p o s s i b l e t r a n s g r e s s i o n s , the Igbos hope t o a v o i d the anger
and hence harness the p r o t e c t i o n o f the s u p e r n a t u r a l .
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In the A f i k p o Okumkpa p l a y , p e r f o r m e r s r i d i c u l e d members o f
the p u b l i c . In t h i s way, t h e masks a c t as check on p u b l i c m o r a l i t y .
A boy o f twenty wearing a mask c o u l d t a l k d i r e c t l y t o a drunken and
l a z y g r a n d f a t h e r o f f i f t y who does not c a r e f o r h i s w i f e , c h i l d r e n
and r e l a t i v e s . People would l a u g h a t the man i n p u b l i c and because
the mask i s s p i r i t , the young p e r f o r m e r who had taken such a l i b e r t y
would not be p e n a l i z e d as would have been the c a s e had he done so i n
normal l i f e . T h i s i s an example o f the mask a c t i n g i n r o l e r e v e r s a l .
In the o l d e n days and t o some e x t e n t t o d a y , the mask a c t e d as the
e x e c u t i v e arm o f the Oha (Igbo l e g i s l a t i v e a s s e m b l y ) . I t was the mask
t h a t p u n i s h e d o f f e n d e r s by c o l l e c t i n g f i n e s f r o m t c u l p r i t s , c h a s i n g out
from the community t h o s e who committed i n c e s t and hanging m u r d e r e r s .
In t h i s r e g a r d the mask a c t e d as the p o l i c e o f the community. I t d i d
a r r e s t rogues and p r o t e c t community p r o p e r t y . I t undertook to c o n s u l t
d i v i n e r s to f i n d out what s i n the community had committed and t o o f f e r
a p p r o p r i a t e p r o p i t i a t o r y s a c r i f i c e s . - I t was the g u a r d i a n and p r o t e c t o r
o f the weak. H a r l e y ( 1950:VIII) d i d r e p o r t , s u c h p o l i c e f u n c t i o n o f
masks o f the go ge ("god s p i r i t " ) masks o f the Poro t r i b e s o f N o r t h e a s t e r n
L i b e r i a . A l s o , W i s s l e r (1966:238) noted s i m i l a r p o l i c e f u n c t i o n o f the
Kachina s p i r i t s o f the P u e b l o , i n d i a n s i n the U n i t e d S t a t e s . I t does
appear, t h e r e f o r e , t h a t the p o l i c e f u n c t i o n o f masks i s w i d e s p r e a d .
I t was the s p i r i t s and a n c e s t o r s t h a t performed the p o l i c e f u n c t i o n
through the mask and so t h e i r a c t i o n was never c h a l l e n g e d .
A l t h o u g h t h i s has changed w i t h the i n t r o d u c t i o n o f modern c o u r t s
o f law, the p o l i c e f o r c e and the p r i s o n system,.yet i n some Igbo com-
m u n i t i e s the mask i s r e q u i r e d t o c o l l e c t f i n e s from r e c a l c i t r a n t o f f e n d e r s .
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T h i s happens when an o f f e n d e r has been found g u i l t y by the assembly
and has r e f u s e d to pay.- The mask goes t o c o l l e c t the f i n e by con-
f i s c a t i n g some o f h i s p r o p e r t y which the o f f e n d e r would come t o redeem
by p a y i n g y e t an a d d i t i o n a l f i n e . I f t h i s f a i l s , the o f f e n d e r i s
s u b j e c t e d to s o c i a l o s t r a c i s m . He i s t o l d " t o go and buy some matches"
which means t h a t he s h o u l d never e n t e r anybody's compound f o r f i " r e o r
any o t h e r form o f s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n and v i c e v e r s a .
In the o l d e n days, the mask a l s o performed a d i r e c t j u d i c i a l
f u n c t i o n n o t o n l y w i t h i n and among members o f t h e mmuo s o c i e t y but t o
the e n t i r e community. T h i s t y p e o f judgement i s b e t t e r r e f e r r e d t o as
a r b i t r a t i o n because the mask was brought i n when a c a s e was a t an
impasse. I t s d e c i s i o n was u s u a l l y s u b j e c t t o no appeal because the
s p i r i t s a r e o m n i s c i e n t . However,.secret s o c i e t y members made e v e r y
e f f o r t t o a s c e r t a i n the t r u t h o f the m a t t e r so t h a t the d e c i s i o n o f
the mask would be j u s t .
A l t h o u g h more w i l l be w r i t t e n on t h i s l a t e r , i t i s o n l y n e c e s s a r y
here t o p o i n t o u t / t h a t i n i t i a t i o n i n t o the mmuo s o c i e t y i s both a
r e l i g i o u s and f e s t i v e o c c a s i o n which the e n t i r e v i l l a g e l o o k s f o r w a r d
to w i t h g r e a t a n t i c i p a t i o n .
1
. I t i s a way i n which boys graduate i n t o
men and take up r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s i n t h e i r communities.. I n i t i a t i o n i s a
c l e a r example o f the o v e r l a p o f the r e l i g i o u s and s o c i a l f u n c t i o n s o f
masquerades. In f a c t , the v e r y n o t i o n o f community u n d e r l i n e s the
4
i n s e p e r a b l e n a t u r e o f the two , because t h e r e i s no c l e a r d e m a r c a t i o n
between the s a c r e d and s e c u l a r f u n c t i o n s o f masks i n t r a d i t i o n a l Igbo
communities.
Some masks p e r f o r m f o r b u r i a l o r f u n e r a l ceremonies t o e x p r e s s
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anger and sorrow a t the death o f a member o f the community. They
a l s o p e r f o r m r i t u a l s t o a s s u r e the deceased s a f e passage i n t o the
underworld and a c c e p t a n c e by the s p i r i t s . By g i v i n g ' a f i t t i n g f a r e -
w e l l to the dead,.they c r e a t e peace and harmony f o r the l i v i n g . S i n c e
t h e s e masks p e r f o r m on such sad and solemn o c c a s i o n s , t h e y a t times
are g i v e n the b o l d f e a t u r e s the Igbo a t t r i b u t e t o d e a t h , who i s a l s o
known as the Rogue. For example, some o f such masks a r e the odogu
o r okpoka, and w h i l e t h e y a r e p e r f o r m i n g , the a u d i e n c e s t a y s a t a s a f e
d i s t a n c e away,.for t h e r e i s no p r e d i c t i n g what dangerous a c t i o n s t h e y
may do.
Masks a l s o p e r f o r m on f e s t i v e o c c a s i o n s such as the New Yam
f e s t i v a l and i n t h i s case they g l o r i f y the e a r t h - g o d d e s s a l a f o r
g i v i n g f r u i t to the l i v i n g . Such masks a r e u s u a l l y g e n t l e and b e a u t i f u l ;
t h e i r d a n c i n g i s g r a c e f u l and accompanied by melodious music. One o f
such masks i s the agbogho which r e p r e s e n t female a n c e s t r a l s p i r i t s .
What i s b e i n g h i g h l i g h t e d here i s the s o c i a l f u n c t i o n o f e n t e r -
tainment and a e s t h e t i c s s u r r o u n d i n g masquerade ceremonies. When masks
perform i n the v i l l a g e square on eke days, t h e y e n t e r t a i n the v i l l a g e r s
and make them happy. Thompson (1974) w r i t e s t h a t " a r t and goodness
are combined". The mask i s an attempt o f man t o come to g r i p s w i t h
the powerful f o r c e s which he c a n n o t command, w h i l e a t the same time
g i v i n g e x p r e s s i o n t o man's i n n a t e d e s i r e t o c r e a t e p l e a s u r e and goodness.
One cannot h e l p but admire the r a p t a t t e n t i o n w i t h which the community,
the a u d i e n c e , watches masquerade performances.. The a e s t h e t i c s o f
masquerades i s i n p a r t i c i p a t i o n . . When the drum beats i n t o a c r e s c e n d o ,
a l o n g w i t h the gong and sound o f f l u t e s r e a c h i n g the h i g h heavens,
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everyone around the obimmuo f i n d s h i m s e l f f o l l o w i n g the i n v i t i n g
rhythm. Igbos have a s a y i n g t h a t "when the gong o f the mask sounds,
eyen the c r i p p l e walks to the obimmuo--the v i l l a g e ' s p i r i t s q u a r e ' " .
And so may i t be f o r a l l t i m e s .
The Making o f Masks
The p o i n t has b e e n . s u f f i c i e n t l y made t h a t Igbos c o n s i d e r the
mask v e r y s e r i o u s l y . In the same l i g h t , the making o f the mask i s
taken e q u a l l y s e r i o u s l y . The t r a d i t i o n a l a r t i s t i s u s u a l l y a t r a i n e d
c r a f t s m a n , not o n l y i n h i s t r a d e ' p r o p e r , but a l s o may undertake
p r i e s t l y or r e l i g i o u s f u n c t i o n s i n the c o u r s e o f h i s j o b . . T h i s i s so
because the v e r y wood he c u t s from a t r e e f o r - h i s work i s c o n s i d e r e d
to c o n t a i n . s p i r i t u a l f o r c e s . There i s b e l i e f i n the s a c r e d n e s s o f the
t r e e among the Igbos and t h i s i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the a n c e s t o r c u l t .
The r i t u a l p r e p a r a t i o n s f o r s c u l p t u r e i n t r a d i t i o n a l c i r c u m -
s t a n c e s r e f l e c t e d t h i s m y s t i c a l a t t i t u d e toward t h e t r e e . . The Igbo
a r t i s t would f i r s t l y s e l e c t what p a r t o f a t r e e he i n t e n d s to use f o r
h i s work. T h i s i s u s u a l l y determined by h i s a n t i c i p a t e d outcome.
When he c u t s down the t r e e , . a r i t u a l i s performed t o p a c i f y the s p i r i t
o f the t r e e . T h i s i s a c h i e v e d by a s a c r i f i c e o f k o l a , g i n and c h a l k ;
sometimes t h i s i n c l u d e s c h i c k e n . He might invoke a more powerful
s p i r i t t o p r o v i d e p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t t h e s p i r i t o f the t r e e but t h i s
r e q u i r e s the s e r v i c e s o f a p r o f e s s i o n a l , the d i b i a - - m e d i c i n e man.' The
l o g might be l e f t l y i n g i n the bush f o r a w h i l e , t o g i v e the s p i r i t time
to l e a v e i t ; but m o s t l y the c u t p i e c e i s immediately hauled t o a
83
s e c l u d e d p l a c e , where the s c u l p t o r g i v e s i t a crude p r e l i m i n a r y
s h a p i n g . T h i s f e e l i n g t h a t the wood t o be c a r v e d c o n t a i n e d a
s p i r i t u a l o r l i f e f o r c e , c o n t r i b u t e s to the c a r v e r ' s deep f e e l i n g f o r
h i s m a t e r i a l s . For him i t was a l r e a d y endowed w i t h power b e f o r e he
even shaped i t i n t o a mask.
The I g b o . s c u l p t o r working on a mask, a d d r e s s e s h i m s e l f t o h i s
t a s k d i r e c t l y w i t h o u t p r e l i m i n a r y s k e t c h e s . He has a remarkable v i s i o n
o f the e n d - p r o d u c t from the time o f making the f i r s t c u t . I t i s an
amazing e x p e r i e n c e to watch a c a r v e r c u t an e l a b o r a t e i n t e r l a c e
d e s i g n c o v e r i n g a l a r g e panel o r c u t t i n g out the f i n e s t y l i z e d d e s i g n s
i n a mask w i t h o u t e v e r h a v i n g t o change l i n e , o r modify the s i z e o f
the d e s i g n to make the whole t o f i t . T h i s must have t o do w i t h the
l o n g p e r i o d o f a p p r e n t i c e s h i p r e q u i r e d f o r t h i s t r a d e . An acknowledged
c r a f t s m a n o f the community t r a i n s young a p p r e n t i c e s who may be h i s
c h i l d r e n or r e l a t i v e s o r o t h e r v i l l a g e y o u t h s who, a t an e a r l y age,
demonstrate p o t e n t i a l a p t i t u d e and s k i l l and a s e r i o u s n e s s o f purpose
i n such a v o c a t i o n . The p e r i o d o f t r a i n i n g ranged from f i v e t o t e n
y e a r s , d u r i n g which time t r a i n e e s l i v e d w i t h t h e i r master. A t the
end o f t h i s p e r i o d the t r a i n e e a r t i s t has a c h i e v e d t h e motor s k i l l s
n e c e s s a r y to match h i s v i s i o n .
F a t h e r C a r o l l (1967:94) w r i t e s : "No m a t t e r how c o m p l i c a t e d a work
may be and though he has no drawing t o a i d him, Bandele never c u t s
away by a c c i d e n t any wood he may need l a t e r ; he would be ashamed t o
have to add a n o t h e r p i e c e " . Though r e f e r r i n g t o Bandele, a Yoruba, h i s
remarks are e q u a l l y a p p l i c a b l e t o Igbo c a r v e r s as w e l l , f o r the o n l y
Igbo s c u l p t u r e I know o f i n which an e r r o r was made i n c u t t i n g was the
84
work o f a young a p p r e n t i c e . The m a s t e r d e s t r o y e d i t even b e f o r e i t
was f i n i s h e d as v e r y shameful .
T r a d i t i o n a l l y , the s c u l p t o r o r c a r v e r working on a mask must do
h i s work i n s e c r e t e i t h e r i n the bush o r i n an e n c l o s e d hut. T h i s i s
so because the knowledge o f the mask i s the e x c l u s i v e p r e s e r v e o f t h e
mmuo s o c i e t y members. H a l p i n (1975) noted a s i m i l a r s e r i o u s n e s s i n
the c a r v i n g o f m a s k s among the North West C o a s t I n d i a n s . She wrote:
"Barbeau (1930:789) r e c o r d e d "... the g i t s o n t k ( p e o p l e s e c l u d e d )
c a r v e d masks and o t h e r naxnox p a r a p h e r n a l i a . I f an o u t s i d e r u n e x p e c t e d l y
came upon them w h i l e they were a t work, the o n l y outcome was d e a t h . . .
No m i s t a k e s were t o l e r a t e d and the p e n a l t y f o r any l a p s e was d e a t h " ^ .
T h i s s e r i o u s n e s s a t t a c h e d t o the c a r v i n g o f masks a l s o appears to be
w i d e s p r e a d .
The Igbo mask i s c a r v e d or hewn out o f a s i n g l e b l o c k o f wood,
i . e . i t i s monoxylous. The s c u l p t u r e emerges out o f a mass o f m a t e r i a l
by s u b t r a c t i v e t e c h n i q u e . The f o r c e o r l i f e o r s p i r i t which the wood
was supposed to have, seems t o show i n the m a s s i v e n e s s o f the wood and
i t s b e a u t i f u l g r a i n . The c a r v e r t a k e s p a i n s t o keep t h i s i n t a c t w h i l e
c u t t i n g out the shape o f the mask. The c o n t o u r s f o l l o w the c y l i n d r i c a l
form o f the l o g , t o which a l l p a r t s a r e ' k e p t s u b o r d i n a t e . T h i s
emphasis on v e r t i c a l l i n e s g i v e s most masks a v e r t i c a l a x i s to which
the d i f f e r e n t p a r t s o f the s c u l p t u r e have an o r g a n i c c o n n e c t i o n . Segy
(1975:81) notes t h a t " i f d i v i d e d a l o n g t h i s v e r t i c a l axis,.many A f r i c a n
o
s t a t u e s (and masks) would s e p a r a t e i n t o two symmetrical h a l v e s " .
When the a r t i s t has f i n i s h e d h i s work on the wood, b r i n g i n g f o r t h
as i t were, a "new l i f e " , h e . c o l o u r s h i s p r o d u c t . The most o u t s t a n d i n g
85
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f a l l Igbo masks, as c o u l d be seen from the e x h i b i t ,
i s t h a t they are a l l p a i n t e d e i t h e r c h a l k w h i t e (which i s the t r a d -
i t i o n a l c o l o u r f o r p u r i t y , beauty and peace),ccamwood r e d ( s i g n i f y i n g
d a n g e r ) , orange o r y e l l o w ( p o r t r a y i n g l i f e ) and b l a c k made from u n y i
("pot b l a c k " ) and which was meant t o d e p i c t u g l i n e s s o r e v i l . Masked
dancers wore e l a b o r a t e costumes and t h i s i s i n agreement w i t h our
d e f i n i t i o n o f masks. Sometimes the costumes a r e ornamented w i t h
m i r r o r s t o c r e a t e e f f e c t and awe.
P a i n t i n g i s not o n l y t o b e a u t i f y the mask. Horton (1966:21)
has p o i n t e d out t h a t p a i n t i n g i s not s i m p l y an e n r i c h m e n t o f the
s c u l p t u r e ( i n t h i s case the mask), but i s a means whereby the a p p r o p r i a t e
s p i r i t i s brought to occupy i t . Thus a f t e r c a r v i n g an agbogho mask,
i t i s p a i n t e d white to b r i n g i n t o i t the female a n c e s t r a l s p i r i t s o r
t h a t o f the e a r t h goddess. The costume i s then a t t a c h e d t o the new
c r e a t i o n and i t i s ready f o r performance a f t e r the n e c e s s a r y r i t u a l s .
U n t i l r e c e n t l y , the a e s t h e t i c judgement o f t r a d i t i o n a l people
has u s u a l l y been i g n o r e d i n l i t e r a t u r e . Achebe (1965:250-1), an Igbo
:
w r i t e r , shows v e r y c l e a r l y i n h i s novel t h a t Igbos judge works o f a r t .
One o f h i s c h a r a c t e r s , E d o g o , , i s a c a r v e r . "When he had f i n i s h e d
c a r v i n g the f a c e and head he had been a l i t t l e d i s a p p o i n t e d . . . b u t the
owners o f the work had not complained; i n f a c t t h e y had p r a i s e d i t
v e r y h i g h l y . Edogo knew, ..however,. t h a t he must see the mask i n a c t i o n
t o know whether i t was good o r bad". To a p p r e c i a t e the mask.as i t was
c o n c e i v e d and c a r v e d by the a r t i s t , one needs t o see i t w i t h a l l the
n e c e s s a r y attachments and i n movement. I emphasize a g a i n t h a t masks
are i n t e n d e d to be seen i n movement, perhaps above the eye l e v e l , and
i n a dance, b e f o r e the q u a l i t y c o u l d be j u d g e d . T h i s i s what the Igbos
86
do.
The a r t i s t i s as we have seen, a p r o f e s s i o n a l - - h i r e d on com-.
m i s s i o n t o c r e a t e a mask e i t h e r out o f w o o d , . f i b r e , c l o t h , r a f f i a
o r any o t h e r t y p e s o f costume f o r masked drama. H i s c l i e n t o r p a t r o n
i s u s u a l l y an Igbo e l d e r , a l e a d e r o r a spokesmen f o r the community
o r group t h a t needs h i s s e r v i c e s . A l t h o u g h the a r t i s t i s h e l d i n .
high esteem, he has no e x t r a p r i v i l e g e s . He i s supposed to c r e a t e
w i t h i n t r a d i t i o n a l s t y l e s . T h i s e x e r c i s e o f , r e s t r a i n t and c o n t r o l o f
the a r t i s t by h i s s o c i e t y o r h i s c l i e n t s , means t h a t the t r a d i t i o n a l
a r t s t y l e s i n e v e r y a r e a a r e p e r p e t u a t e d and h e l d f a s t by the c o n s e r -
v a t i s m o f the group t h a t m a i n t a i n e d the a p p r e n t i c e s h i p t r a d i t i o n .
T h i s i s v e r y academic and i s v e r y c l e a r l y seen i n A f i k p o masks.
I t must h o t be construed,.however, t h a t the t r a d i t i o n a l Igbo
a r t i s t was so c o m p l e t e l y r e s t r i c t e d by the t r a d i t i o n a l i s m o f h i s
t r a i n i n g t h a t he becomes t r e d u c e d ilbjp*Sbr^fceadtpy.iiisllisifiMbtigb-..shape'si "
forms and p a t t e r n s a r e f i x e d by c u s t o m , . i t i s e v i d e n t t h a t most o f the
p r e s s u r e s f o r the i n v e n t i o n and development o f new forms a r e s e l f -
i n d u c e d , coming from an i n n a t e a e s t h e t i c d e s i r e r a t h e r than by group
o r - s o c i e t a l demand. The master c a r v e r c o u l d endow the t r a d i t i o n a l Igbo
forms w i t h h i s own i n t e r p r e t a t i o n and i n s i g h t ; and t h e s e s p r i n g from
h i s p e r s o n a l genius as a p e r c e p t i v e and c r e a t i v e a r t i s t .
T h i s f a c t i s b e t t e r a p p r e c i a t e d when i t i s remembered t h a t the
a r t i s t a l s o p a r t i c i p a t e s i n the s o c i a l and c e r e m o n i a l f u n c t i o n s o f h i s
mask. H i s p a r t i c i p a t i o n has s p e c i a l s i g n i f i c a n c e because h i s forms
a r e s u b s t a n t i a l l y d e r i v e d from human and animal forms. By o b s e r v i n g
h i s fellowmen d u r i n g moments o f p h y s i c a l and e m o t i o n a l s t r e s s a t r i t u a l s
87
and c e r e m o n i e s , he i s b e t t e r a b l e t o endow the t r a d i t i o n a l a r t - f o r m s
w i t h h i s p e r c e p t i o n and s e n s i t i v i t y . In Ozubulu, one e a s i l y r e c o g -
n i z e s the work o f such g i f t e d c a r v e r s such as Obi (two o f h i s Odogu
masks a r e d i s p l a y e d i n the e x h i b i t ) .
L i k e a r t i s t s everywhere, Igbo c a r v e r s o f masks g i v e form and
r e a l i t y to a b s t r a c t i o n w i t h i n t h e i r s o c i a l m i l i e u . The famous dancer
I s a d o r a Duncan was once asked to e x p l a i n what her d a n c i n g meant. She
r e p l i e d t h a t " i f I c o u l d say i t , I would not have t o dance i t " . A l s o
the famous a r t i s t P i c a s s o s a i d t h a t i f he knew, i f he were c o n s c i o u s
o f what he i n t e n d e d t o e x p r e s s i n h i s work, he would not have t o
g
c r e a t e i t . So i t i s w i t h the Igbo mask-maker. He cannot e x p l a i n i t ,
i t i s the t e n s i o n o f e x p r e s s i n g what i s as y e t unknown to him, but
a s t i r w i t h i n h i s i n n e r - s e l f , t h a t d r i v e s him, as c r e a t o r t o a c t i o n . '
For t h i s he may perhaps be exempted from some o t h e r hazardous communal
a c t i v i t y ( a l t h o u g h t h i s i s an e x c e p t i o n r a t h e r than the r u l e ) . He
would then have as much time as he needs f o r the l o n g and p a t i e n t
c a r v i n g o r f a s h i o n i n g o f the masks and o t h e r r i t u a l o b j e c t s needed f o r
the w e l l - b e i n g o f h i s community.
I n i t i a t i o n i n t o the Mmuo
The "mask b u s i n e s s " i s a guarded s e c r e t o f o n l y those.men who have
been sworn i n t o i t . T h i s i s what i n i t i a t i o n i s a l l about, and t h i s i s
a c u l t u r a l t r a i t o f a l l the Igbos. There a r e l o c a l v a r i a t i o n s i n i t s
a d m i n i s t r a t i o n but s t i l l i t s c o n c e p t and c o n t e n t a r e l a r g e l y the same.
Oath i s a d m i n i s t e r e d to new i n i t i a t e s t o p r o t e c t the r u l e s and s e c r e t
88
o f the mmuo. No one dares c o n t r a v e n e t h i s r u l e o f s e c r e c y because
o f the punishments a t t a c h e d t h e r e t o . In the o l d e n . d a y s , anyone who
l e a k e d out the s e c r e t s o f the mmuo was e i t h e r k i l l e d , e x i l e d o r s o l d
i n t o s l a v e r y . Today such a person i s never e n t r u s t e d w i t h s e r i o u s
r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s and i s a l a u g h i n g s t o c k o f the community.
I n f o r m a t i o n w i t h i n t h e s o c i e t y i s d i s e m i n a t e d o n l y through i n t e r -
p e r s o n a l communication. Messages are passed from the e l d e r s o r l e a d e r s
9
o f the s o c i e t y through a p p o i n t e d messengers t o members d i r e c t l y .
Members c o u l d a l s o g i v e such i n f o r m a t i o n to o t h e r members'only.
A l l male youths i n I g b o l a n d must be i n i t i a t e d i n t o the v i l l a g e
s e c r e t s o c i e t y . T h i s event marks the t r a n s i t i o n from the time when the
boys use c h i l d r e n ' s masks and i m i t a t e a d u l t ceremonies, to the p e r i o d
when they p a r t i c i p a t e i n a d u l t s o c i e t y and i t s masquerades. A f t e r the
i n i t i a t i o n , ; t h e y cease b e i n g e m u l a t o r s and o b s e r v e r s o f the a c t i v i t i e s
o f the s e c r e t s o c i e t i e s and become a c t i v e members not o n l y o f the
mmuo s o c i e t y but o f the e n t i r e v i l l a g e community.
I t i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t i n the i n i t i a t i o n ceremonies
the boys are i n d i r e c t c o n t a c t w i t h some o f the a d u l t masks and costumes
and wear them f o r the f i r s t t i m e .
Boys are i n i t i a t e d u s u a l l y between the ages o f t h i r t e e n and t h e i r
e a r l y t w e n t i e s . The age o f e n t r a n c e depends upon:
a) Whether the f a t h e r o f the n o v i c e i s a l i v e ; i f not h i s i n i t i a t i o n
might be d e l a y e d ;
b) The w e a l t h o f the f a t h e r o f the n o v i c e ;
c) Whether the boy i s the e l d e s t son, and
d) How many b r o t h e r s he has.
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Most Igbo communities have one, though c o s t l y , i n i t i a t i o n ceremony;
o t h e r s have more than one. type o f i n i t i a t i o n . One f e a t u r e seems t o
be u n i v e r s a l however--the i n i t i a t i o n o f the f i r s t son o f a man appears
t o be a c o s t l y a f f a i r throughout I g b o l a n d . T h i s i s s i m p l y a p r e s t i g e
a f f a i r because a man i s supposed t o s i g n i f y h i s p l a c e - i n s o c i e t y not
o n l y by the number o f wives and t i t l e s he has p e r s o n a l l y t a k e n , but
a l s o the s u c c e s s w i t h which he e s t a b l i s h e s h i s sons, most e s p e c i a l l y
h i s f i r s t son, okpa!a o f Qkpara, who i s t o take o v e r and c a r e f o r him
i n h i s o l d age and g i v e him a b e f i t t i n g b u r i a l a t h i s d e a t h .
Masks a r e used i n most types o f i n i t i a t i o n among the Igbos.
There i s s t r e s s on p h y s i c a l h a r d s h i p and c o m p e t i t i o n and the o b s e r v a t i o n
o f numerous t a b o o s , such as a v o i d i n g c e r t a i n f o o d s , not t o u c h i n g the
ground w i t h y o u r back, not showing one's t e e t h , e t c . . A l l forms o f
i n i t i a t i o n i n v o l v e the s e p a r a t i o n o f the n o v i c e from h i s home, p a r e n t a l
c a r e and normal l i f e a c t i v i t i e s f o r a p e r i o d o f time. There i s a
p e r i o d o f i n s t r u c t i o n and t e s t .
Simon O t t e n b e r g (1975) has w r i t t e n e x t e n s i v e l y on i n i t i a t i o n i n t o
the masquerade s o c i e t y o f A f i k p o Igbo. What I am about t o d e s c r i b e i s
the i n i t i a t i o n i n t o the mmuo s o c i e t y i n Ozubulu.
Ozubulu, which I use as c a s e - s t u d y , . i s about ten m i l e s south o f
O n i t s h a and has a r i c h masquerade t r a d i t i o n . Here, the i n i t i a t i o n t a k e s
p l a c e between October and March, i . e . t h e d r y season. A f t e r the
u f e j i o k u . o r i i i j i . c e r e m o n y , (meaning " e a t i n g o f the new yam"), p e o p l e
get t h e i r yams from the farms.. I t i s time now f o r h u n t i n g , f i s h i n g
and o t h e r s o c i a l a c t i v i t i e s aimed a t e n t e r t a i n i n g the v i l l a g e r s .
I n i t i a t i o n and masquerades p r o v i d e one o f such e n t e r t a i n m e n t s . - Every
90
e f f o r t i s made t o p r o v i d e masquerade e n t e r t a i n m e n t . B u r i a l ceremonies
are o f t e n postponed t o t h i s time so t h a t the r a i n would not d i s t u r b
the appearance o f masquerades.
In Ozubulu t h e r e a r e two main types o f i n i t i a t i o n a unique
c h i l d i n i t i a t i o n and the r e g u l a r Igbo a d u l t i n i t i a t i o n . The c h i l d
i n i t i a t i o n i s t h a t i n which a c h i l d o f about f i v e t o t h i r t e e n y e a r s i s
i n i t i a t e d i n t o the mmuo s o c i e t y and the burden o f t h i s i s e n t i r e l y . b o r n e
by. h i s f a t h e r . Only a i r i i c h f a t h e r undertakes t h i s i n i t i a t i o n f o r h i s
sons, m o s t l y h i s f i r s t son ( d i - o k p a l a ) . The u n c e r t a i n t i e s o f l i f e
compel f a t h e r s t o do t h i s i n case o f death. He would then have
a c h i e v e d the a m b i t i o n o f most p a r e n t s , and would t h e r e f o r e r e s t i n peace
i n the l a n d o f the dead.. I t i s then l e f t t o t h i s d i - o k p a l a t o take
o v e r from h i s f a t h e r , and make s u r e t h a t h i s b r o t h e r s a r e i n i t i a t e d .
T h i s type i s a token one and the i n i t i a t e i s not supposed t o
p a r t i c i p a t e i n s e n i o r s masquerades u n t i l he i s an a d o l e s c e n t . He may
r e c e i v e t r a d i t i o n a l r e t u r n s from the proceeds o f f u r t h e r i n i t i a t i o n s
a f t e r h i s , but u n t i l he p a r t i c i p a t e s i n the o r d e a l s o f i n i t i a t i o n
which e n t i t l e him t o l o o k a t ' t h e mask i n the f a c e , h e . i s not c o n s i d e r e d
a d u l t .
The o t h e r type which I have c a l l e d a d u l t i n i t i a t i o n i s the most
s e r i o u s one. Every man-in Ozubulu must go through t h i s i n i t i a t i o n
because i t i s a means o f t r a n s i t i o n from c h i l d h o o d t o m a t u r i t y ^ I t i s
not by chance t h a t one goes through t h i s between the ages o f t h i r t e e n
and twenty, the a d o l e s c e n t , p u b e r t a l p e r i o d . G i r l s o f t h i s same age
group are c a l l e d the Umueleke ( " v i r g i n s " ) and t h e y have t h e i r own
i n i t i a t i o n which p r e p a r e s them f o r the l i f e o f w i f e and mother. Any
91
a d u l t male who r e f u s e s t o be i n i t i a t e d i n t o the mmuo i s s u b j e c t e d
t o r i d i c u l e o r s o c i a l o s t r a c i s m .
The e l d e r s o f the community d e c i d e on a date f o r i n i t i a t i o n and
p r e p a r a t i o n s b e g i n . T h i s i s a y e a r l y a f f a i r aimed a t u p - g r a d i n g
y o u t h s , i . e . i n i t i a t e s , i n t o c i v i c p o s i t i o n s i n the community, t o
r e p l a c e the dead o r a g e i n g members o f the community. The p e r i o d o f
p r e p a r a t i o n i s u s u a l l y about two weeks. To q u a l i f y f o r a d m i s s i o n i n t o
t h i s " s c h o o l o f wisdom", one must f i r s t l y be o f age; n a t u r e must approve
o f h i s a d m i s s i o n . S e c o n d l y , he must be known t o be r e s p e c t f u l , honest
and hard-working. T h i s i s a s e l e c t i v e p r o c e s s because the s o c i e t y
demands i t s f u t u r e l e a d e r s t o be men o f proven i n t e g r i t y . T h i s a l s o
a c c o u n t s p a r t l y f o r t h e d i s p a r i t y i n t h e ages o f i n i t i a t e s . I have
seen boys o f t h i r t e e n and o t h e r s o f : e i g h t e e n b e i n g i n i t i a t e d a t the
same time. Wealth i s the o t h e r p a r t o f t h i s s e l e c t i o n p r o c e s s . The
f a t h e r o f the n o v i c e ( i n i t i a t e - t o - b e ) has t o pay a s t i p u l a t e d amount
o f money. I f the f a t h e r i s dead, then a g u a r d i a n , b r o t h e r o r the
i n i t i a t e h i m s e l f has t o pay. . The mother a l s o c o u l d pay t h i s sum through
a p a t e r n a l u n c l e o f the boy i f she i s r i c h enough. However, the d e c i s i o n
on who i s to be i n i t i a t e d r e s t s w i t h the e l d e r s .
In a d d i t i o n t o t h i s s t i p u l a t e d sum o f money, t h e r e a r e o t h e r items
which e v e r y i n i t i a t e must p r o v i d e . These a r e :
a) Two kegs o f wine; one keg c o n t a i n s nkwu from the palm t r e e w h i l e
the o t h e r c o n t a i n s ngwo.wine from r a f f i a palm and i s , m i l d e r
than the f i r s t .
b) Four k o l a nuts c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o the f o u r days o f the n a t i v e week.
c) A l i v e c h i c k e n , p r e f e r a b l y abuke ("white c h i c k e n " ) .
92
d) A head o f t o b a c c o .
e) Some yams, coco-yams; e t c .
f ) Some t r a d i t i o n a l c o l o u r s l i k e u l i i ( " b l a c k " ) , u f i e ( " y e l l o w " ) ,
nzu ("white").
These a r e d i s t r i b u t e d as f o l l o w s : some o f the k o l a , fowl
( e s p e c i a l l y the a b u k e ) , . t o b a c c o and wine a r e g i v e n t o the p r i e s t o f
the v i l l a g e s h r i n e , N d i e k w i l i . He d i s t r i b u t e s some o f t h e s e to o t h e r
p r i e s t s who a t t e n d t o o t h e r d u t i e s . . With t h e s e they a r e supposed t o
o f f e r p r a y e r s t o the gods and a n c e s t o r s a s k i n g f o r b l e s s i n g s on the
i n i t i a t e s and f o r peace and p r o s p e r i t y f o r the e n t i r e community. P a r t
o f the k o l a , wine, c h i c k e n and t o b a c c o are a l s o g i v e n t o the e l d e r s o f
the v i l l a g e . As l e a d e r s , they s e l e c t those'who a r e t o i n s t r u c t the
new i n i t i a t e s and guide them i n t o s p i r i t u a l l i f e . The remainder o f
the t o b a c c o , wine,, fowl and k o l a
:
n u t s a r e g i v e n t o the s e l e c t e d i n s t r u c -
t o r s , the " f i r s t among e q u a l s " . T h e i r number depends on the number o f
people t o be i n i t i a t e d . I t c o u l d range from f i v e t o f i f t e e n , . The yams,
coco-yams and o t h e r f o o d items a r e . u s e d by the boys themselves d u r i n g
t h i s p e r i o d o f s e p a r a t i o n from home.
The money p a i d by the i n i t i a t e s i s used t o purchase any new
costumes t h a t may be r e q u i r e d , t o p r e p a r e the framework f o r new masks,
and t o pay f o r o t h e r s e r v i c e s such as t h o s e o f a d i v i n e r . He chooses
the m o s t - f a v o u r a b l e s p o t and date f o r i n i t i a t i o n . U s u a l l y t h i s f a l l s
on the eke day.
When the m a t e r i a l s have been d i s t r i b u t e d a c c o r d i n g t o custom, and
the d i v i n e r has l o c a t e d a s p o t f a v o u r a b l e t o the a n c e s t o r s f o r p r e p a r - .
a t i o n , the i n i t i a t e s assemble a t the obimmuo. They get t h e r e i n the
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morning and the o l d e s t o f the i n s t r u c t o r s prays and s a c r i f i c e s to
the a n c e s t r a l t r e e ( u s u a l l y i r o k o ) and s h r i n e a t the obimmuo. He
c a l l s f o r b l e s s i n g s , and i n f o r m s the a n c e s t o r s o f the i n t e n t i o n o f
the boys, t h e i r f a t h e r s and the v i l l a g e a t l a r g e t h a t i n i t i a t i o n
s h o u l d take p l a c e . A t the end o f h i s p r a y e r s , he s a n c t i f i e s h i m s e l f
by r u b b i n g white c h a l k on h i s f o r e h e a d e v e r y b o d y does the same. He
then l e a d s the boys to the bush which the d i v i n e r has s e l e c t e d . One
f e a t u r e o f t h i s s p o t i s t h a t i t c o n t a i n s a t e r m i t e - h i l l . I t i s the
b e l i e f t h a t masquerades appear from underground t h r o u g h the t e r m i t e -
h i l l . The p r i e s t prays as f o l l o w s :
Enu t a o j i , ani t a o j i - ("We o f f e r k o l a nuts t o the sky and the
e a r t h " )
Ndu nwoke, ndu nwanyi - ( " L i f e o f everybody male and female o f the
v i l l a g e " )
Anyi na erne omenani - ("We a r e p e r f o r m i n g t r a d i t i o n a l r i t e s " )
Ukwu akponafa, i s i awanafa - ("Let t h e r e be n e i t h e r broken l e g s nor
headache f o r the i n i t i a t e s " )
Ka a n y i me ka nnanyi f a - ("Let us do l i k e our f o r e f a t h e r s " )
Pi ka ndi mbu - ("Like the f i r s t p e o p l e " )
[ E v e r y b o d y ] I h i a - ("Let i t be so")
A goat i s r o a s t e d and e a t e n by the p r i e s t , the e l d e r s and the
i n s t r u c t o r s . The n o v i c e s do not p a r t a k e , t h e y have y e t t o e a t w i t h
the s p i r i t s . The wine i s s h a r e d i n a s i m i l a r f a s h i o n . A f t e r t h i s
r i t u a l , the a r e a f o r the i n s t r u c t i o n i s d e l i n e a t e d and Omu ("palm
f r o n d s " ) a r e used t o mark out the e n t i r e area as h o l y . Omu i s a
r e l i g i o u s symbol o f h o l i n e s s among t h e Igbos.. A t the c e n t r e o f t h i s
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h o l y s p o t s t a n d s the a n t h i l l . Around t h i s the i n i t i a t e s e r e c t
s t r u c t u r e s to house themselves d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d o f i n i t i a t i o n .
A f t e r the area has been marked out and a l l n e c e s s a r y r i t u a l s
performed, the p r i e s t and e l d e r s take l e a v e . Immediately the i n i t i a t e s
g e t i n t o work; They c l e a r the a r e a o f bush and t r e e s and g e t busy
c u t t i n g s t i c k s t o b u i l d s h e l t e r . They u s u a l l y come,with u b e j i l i ,
the f i r s t g i f t o f a man t o h i s son. U b e j i l i i s a s t r o n g k n i f e w i t h
s h e a t h and s y m b o l i z e s s t r e n g t h . A f t e r b u i l d i n g s h e l t e r , f i r e i s made
by one group on which yam and o t h e r e d i b l e s a r e r o a s t e d . . A n o t h e r
group goes to f e t c h s p r i n g water because i n i t i a t e s n e v e r d r i n k water
t h a t f l o w s on the ground. They d r i n k water from a s p r i n g . T h i s i s
c o n s i d e r e d v e r y o r i g i n a l and pure water. I t i s not p o l l u t e d and
t h e r e f o r e h o l y .
When t h e y have s e t t l e d down, the i n i t i a t e s b e g i n t o r e c e i v e
i n s t r u c t i o n s on how t o p r e p a r e f o r a masked performance. They are-
i n s t r u c t e d on the language o f the mask and how t o r e a d meaning from
the sounds o f a gong. For example*, the masked p e r f o r m e r uses igwe (a
wind i n s t r u m e n t ) t o speak. O u t s i d e r s , e x c e p t t h o s e who have been
t u t o r e d , do not u n d e r s t a n d t h i s language. The boys learn-how to dance
to v a r i o u s types o f masquerade music.
In between p e r i o d s , t h e y p r a c t i c e by g o i n g t o n e i g h b o u r i n g v i l l a g e s
t o watch performance o r put on a performance themselves which the
nearby v i l l a g e a u d i e n c e a p p r a i s e s . But u n t i l the f i n a l day o f i n i t i a t i o n , .
they never put on a p u b l i c performance i n Ozubulu. During t h i s p e r i o d
t o o , i n i t i a t e s p r e p a r e o t h e r p a r a p h e r n a l i a used i n masquerading such
as p r e p a r i n g agwo ( " r a f f i a " ) and making o f igwe. They a l s o l e a r n how
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t o compose masquerade music and here s p e c i a l i z a t i o n o c c u r s . There
may be those g i f t e d i n drumming, t h o s e g i f t e d i n blowing the f l u t e ,
t h o s e g i f t e d w i t h r a t t l e s , e t c . There a r e a l s o g i f t e d d a n c e r s and
s i n g e r s . A l l t h e s e p r e p a r a t i o n s a r e geared towards p u t t i n g on an
i m p r e s s i v e performance; These boys a l s o l e a r n v i l l a g e r u l e s , p r o v e r b s ,
myths and meanings o f s i g n s and cues.. Through s t o r i e s they l e a r n
about the v i r t u e s o f honesty, l a b o u r and h a p p i n e s s , . a n d r e s p e c t f o r
e l d e r s and t r a d i t i o n s . Above a l l , they come t o v a l u e group l i f e
when they w r e s t l e , f i g h t or d i s a g r e e , but s t i l l must l i v e t o g e t h e r
as b r o t h e r s . The f o o d i s m o s t l y r o a s t e d yam; i t i s a most t r y i n g
p e r i o d i n which one i s c o m p e l l e d t o l i v e i n s c a r c i t y and i n an impov-
e r i s h e d environment. A t n i g h t a huge f i r e i s l i t and here v a r i o u s
d e v i c e s a r e used to f r i g h t e n the i n i t i a t e s . One o f such i s t h a t w i t h o u t ,
warning, a f r i g h t f u l mask'may appear when the f i r e i s d y i n g out and
chase the boys about. I n i t i a t e s a r e not supposed to b e . t e r r i f i e d but
stand t h e i r ground.
As the weeks pass and t h e y p e r f e c t , the day o f the i n i t i a t i o n i s
chosen. I n i t i a t i o n t a k e s p l a c e u s u a l l y between m i d n i g h t and morning.
N o t i c e i s s e n t through to f a m i l i e s t e l l i n g them o f the day o f i n i t i a t i o n .
T h i s i s a day o f r e j o i c i n g . Nearby v i l l a g e r s a r e o f t e n i n v i t e d t o
come and watch; however, i n v i t a t i o n i s u s u a l l y t h r o u g h f r i e n d l y f a m i l y
and a g n a t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p s . Mothers make f o o d ready f o r f e s t i v i t y .
F a t h e r s get as much palm wine as p o s s i b l e f o r f r i e n d s and r e l a t i v e s .
In the morning the f a t h e r must s a c r i f i c e t o the f a m i l y s h r i n e t o g i v e
h i s thanks t o the gods'sfor keeping him a l i v e t o . w i t n e s s the event o f
h i s son's i n i t i a t i o n and f o r p r o t e c t i n g t h e y o u n g s t e r throughout the
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p e r i o d .
In the bush the i n i t i a t e s a r e b u s i l y g e t t i n g ready f o r t h e i r
e n c o u n t e r w i t h the s p i r i t . On t h i s day,.they e a t an e a r l y supper and
then make a b i g f i r e . A f t e r a l i t t l e w h i l e the gong sounds and
chants b e g i n . There might be d a n c i n g . Towards m i d n i g h t a mask c a l l e d
ukwu-mmuo ("the l e g o f the s p i r i t " ) , appears and b e g i n s to chase the
boys about. He may f l o g them but not too s e v e r e l y ; one i s supposed
t o take i t l i k e a man*.no c r y i n g o r s h i v e r i n g or showing o f any s i g n s
o f p h y s i c a l d i s c o m f o r t . A l i t t l e a f t e r , the Nne-mmuo o r ozoebunu
("king o f masquerades") appears i n i t s m a j e s t y . There i s h i l a r i o u s
s i n g i n g and d a n c i n g but the i n i t i a t e s a r e not supposed t o . l o o k a t i t s
f a c e . T h i s ozoebunu and the c h i e f i n s t r u c t o r , . i n the p r e s e n c e o f the
p r i e s t o f the v i l l a g e s h r i n e , q u e s t i o n s everybody whether t h e y wish
t o know the mmuo. The answer i s u s u a l l y y e s . One by one the i n i t i a t e s
take o a t h , h o l d i n g an a l u s i ( " s h r i n e f i g u r e " ) i n t h e i r hands. They
promise the f o r e f a t h e r s and the ozoebunu t h a t what t h e i r eyes have
seen t o n i g h t w i l l never be u t t e r e d t o any l i v i n g s o u l ; t h a t t h e i r
mouths w i l l remain s i l e n t a g a i n s t f l i p a n c y . They end by s a y i n g okuku
t o f i e onu g b a j i e ya ( " i f a fowl does n o t peck w e l l , l e t i t s neck
b r e a k " ) . The s y m b o l i c meaning o f t h i s i s t h a t s h o u l d one break h i s
o a t h , death awaits him. The s h r i n e f i g u r e i s r o t a t e d from person t o
person f o r the oath and i s f i n a l l y g i v e n t o the p r i e s t .
When everybody has taken o a t h , the tempo o f the music i n c r e a s e s .
The two masquerades ukwu-mmuo and nne-mmuo b e g i n to dance to the
rhythm o f the music. Everybody who i s t o be i n i t i a t e d watches c a r e f u l l y .
G r a d u a l l y the f i r e b e g i n s t o down, a n d , s i m u l t a n e o u s l y the masked
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p e r f o r m e r s b e g i n t o remove t h e i r masks and costumes. The boys s t a n d
w i t h t h e i r mouths open w a t c h i n g the g i a n t ozoebunu remove i t s a p p a r e l
and r e v e a l the man i n s i d e . The aim o f the i n i t i a t i o n i s thus accom-
p l i s h e d . The i n i t i a t e s a r e made to r e a l i z e t h a t a f t e r a l l i t i s a
human b e i n g who puts on the mask. Y e t ' t h e y a r e r e q u i r e d not t o d i s c u s s
t h i s o u t s i d e t h e i r new c i r c l e .
By t h i s t i m e i t i s g e t t i n g t o morning. The mask d r e s s e s up
a g a i n t o a v o i d any u n a u t h o r i z e d i n t r u s i o n o r i n t e r r u p t i o n . Everybody
b e g i n s to p r e p a r e f o r the f i n a l r i t u a l . The mask and the boys dance
t o the obimmuo and t h e r e perform a r i t u a l o f i n t e g r a t i o n by s a c r i f i c i n g
an ebunu ("he g o a t " ) t o the s h r i n e t h e r e . The body o f the s l a i n
animal i s taken back t o the bush, i . e . where the i n s t r u c t i o n s took
p l a c e . The mask a l s o goes w i t h them and t h e r e everybody h e l p s to
unmask the dancer.
Meals are p r e p a r e d w i t h the c a r c a s s o f the s a c r i f i e d g o a t . '
Everybody p a r t a k e s o f t h i s meal u n l i k e the b e g i n n i n g when the n o v i c e s
were f o r b i d d e n from e a t i n g such meals. The boys then s a c r i f i c e any-
t h i n g t h e y wish t o the gods and a r e happy t h a t the end has come. I t
i s now a f t e r n o o n and the wooden gong i s sounded a g a i n t o announce t o
the community t h a t a performance must take
-
p l a c e i n the e v e n i n g . : People
b e g i n t o g a t h e r a t the obom. Meanwhile, the boys d e s t r o y the camp and
e v e r y t h i n g i s burned. They then f o l l o w the mask t o the s q u a r e ,
wearing o n l y emblems. Here top performance i s put.on because everybody
i n the a u d i e n c e i s w a t c h i n g t o see how h i s o r her r e l a t i v e i s p e r f o r -
ming. Mothers a r e e s p e c i a l l y a n x i o u s because on the one hand they a r e
happy f o r t h e i r sons but on the o t h e r hand, they a r e a f r a i d o f what
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must have happened i n the bush. Everyone i s happy and the i n i t i a t e s
are proud.
A t the end o f t h i s p u b l i c performance which l a s t f o r about t h r e e
hours, everybody d i s p e r s e s t o t h e i r homes, r e j o i c i n g . There i s
f e a s t i n g i n the v i l l a g e . F a m i l i e s whose sons were i n i t i a t e d , d e c l a r e
open house and f e a s t n e i g h b o u r s , f r i e n d s and r e l a t i v e s . In t h i s way
the v i l l a g e i s . a c h i e v i n g the i d e a l s t a t e ' o f mankind which i s to l i v e
i n a s t a t e o f community.
The i n i t i a t e s have become one w i t h the s p i r i t s - - t h e y have been
t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o men. As a m a t t e r o f f a c t , the song w i t h which t h e y
approach the v i l l a g e s q u a r e ' i s s i g n i f i c a n t . They s i n g : o j i j e mmanwu
a d i ka Una y a . T h i s means l i t e r a l l y t h a t " g o i n g t o the s p i r i t i s
q u i t e d i f f e r e n t from r e t u r n i n g from t h e s p i r i t " . In o t h e r words,
they a r e s a y i n g t h a t the n o v i c e t h a t went i n t o the bush a few weeks
ago has been t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o a n o t h e r p e r s o n .
They a r e now mature by.the r i t e s o f which t h e y were p a r t . I t
i s v e r y s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t a f t e r i n i t i a t i o n , the "boy-man" r e c e i v e s a
second g i f t from h i s f a t h e r . He can own an i k e n g a . . He may purchase
a c a r v e d one but the f i r s t o f f e r i n g to t h i s " s t r e n g t h o f man" i s
performed by.the boy w i t h the a s s i s t a n c e o f h i s f a t h e r . The boy c o u l d
now own a house and c o u l d marry.
I t would be a p p r o p r i a t e t o comment on t h i s p a r a d o x , : i n i t i a t i o n ; .
namely, the unmasking o r showing t h a t the mask i s a f t e r a l l a human
b e i n g i n d i s g u i s e . One would suppose t h a t t h i s r e v e l a t i o n s h o u l d d i s -
enchant o r d i s i l l u s i o n the i n i t i a t e s . On the c o n t r a r y , i t r e i n f o r c e s
o r appears to r e i n f o r c e t h e i r b e l i e f i n the power o f the s p i r i t and
the mask. Perhaps they keep s e a r c h i n g f o r the u l t i m a t e answer o r
m a i n t a i n t h e i r s i l e n c e so t h a t o t h e r s coming a f t e r them would be
as c u r i o u s as themselves were b e f o r e the i n i t i a t i o n . However, the
former o b s e r v a t i o n i s i n agreement w i t h the c o n c l u s i o n o f G i l l a f t e r
a s t u d y o f a number o f c r o s s - c u l t u r a l i n i t i a t i o n , r i t e s . Wrote G i l l
(1976:7):
"In t h e s e few examples from a broad spectrum o f r e l i g i o u s
c o n t e x t s , t h e r e appears the common-structure o f a
t e c h n i q u e o f disenchantment used t o i n i t i a t e the mature
r e l i g i o u s p e r s p e c t i v e and t o promote a u t h e n t i c appre-
h e n s i o n o f the s a c r e d .
:
The a p p a r e n t e f f e c t o f d i s e n -
chantment i s i t s e l f i l l u s o r y . A c t s b w h i c h seem t o s p e l l
the end o f r e l i g i o n have been found t o be t e c h n i q u e
t h a t t h r u s t the i n i t i a t e i n t o the a r e a o f a d u l t r e l i g i o u s
l i f e w i t h i n c e n t i v e s t o plumb i t s f u l l d e p t h s . They l a y
bare the l i m i t a t i o n s o f n a i v e views o f r e a l i t y so t h a t
through deepened p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n a r e l i g i o u s community
and c e l e b r a t i o n o f the day-to-day e v e n t s o f l i f e i n
r e l i g i o u s r i t u a l , the i n d i v i d u a l may i n c r e a s i n g l y
e x p e r i e n c e the m y s t e r i o u s ' f u l l n e s s o f the s a c r e d , s u s -
t a i n i n g realm. And a n a t i v e sense emerges t h a t the s a c r e d
symbols can r e v e a l the s a c r e d w i t h o u t e v e r e x h a u s t i n g
i t s r e a l i t y " .
Commentary
The i n i t i a t i o n ceremonies have s u r v i v e d among the Igbos f o r so
many r e a s o n s . They s a t i s f i e d b a s i c human d r i v e s ; . t h e y cemented t h e
s o c i a l o r d e r w i t h b l o o d and s u f f e r i n g ; they r e s t e d on s a c r e d , a n c i e n t
custom. L a s t , but not the l e a s t , the r a r e male who evaded i n i t i a t i o n
i n t o the masquerade s o c i e t y found h i m s e l f a s o c i a l o u t c a s t . I t i s
d i f f i c u l t t o d i s c u s s t h e masquerade elements o f t h e s e c r e t s o c i e t y
i n i t i a t i o n w i t h o u t . d i s c u s s i n g t h e s e a s p e c t s o f the r i t e s and f e a t u r e s
o f i n i t i a t i o n . ; Throughout Igboland and i n e v e r y form o f i n i t i a t i o n , .
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the boys are i n t r o d u c e d t o some types o f masks and a s s o c i a t e d c o s -
tumes; Net, c a l a b a s h , f i b r e , and wooden f a c e c o v e r i n g s are i n v o l v e d . .
The n e t forms a r e most common, s u g g e s t i n g t h e i r g r e a t e r a n t i q u i t y .
A f t e r i n i t i a t i o n the y o u t h i s f r e e t o use any o f the s e c r e t s o c i e t y
masks a p p r o p r i a t e t o h i s s k i l l s and age. While the i n i t i a t e d boys no
l o n g e r p l a y i n the back o f the compounds w i t h the u n i n i t i a t e d boys i n
t h e i r p l a y s and masquerades, t h e y b r i n g t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f t h a t time
to bear i n t h e i r own i n i t i a t i o n and i n t h e i r a d u l t masquerading l i v e s .
They have worn masks and costumes and l e a r n e d how to- dance and t o p l a y .
I n i t i a t i o n , t h e r e f o r e * does not r e p r e s e n t a sharp break w i t h the p a s t
but a t r a n s i t i o n , w i t h r i t e s , from n o n - s a c r e d masks o f the boys to
the s p i r i t u a l l y more powerful ones o f the s e c r e t s o c i e t y . The p o i n t
to note i s t h a t i t i s q u i t e c l e a r t h a t t h e i n i t i a t e d does not p e r f o r m
f o r a l i m i t e d audience ( l a r g e l y o f t h e i r own age arid o f t e n i n the back
o f the compound), but b e f o r e 1arge
1
numbers o f the g e n e r a l p u b l i c and
on o c c a s i o n s such as a f t e r i n i t i a t i o n b e f o r e v i r t u a l l y the e n t i r e
v i l l a g e p o p u l a t i o n , as w e l l as s t r a n g e r s .
When, b e f o r e the i n i t i a t i o n i n t o s e c r e t s o c i e t i e s , . the u n i n i n i a t e d
youths o p e r a t e , they do s o . l a r g e l y on t h e i r own, w i t h o u t p a r e n t a l
s u p p o r t . T h i s i s t r u e i n a sense o f the y o u t h ' s a c t i v i t i e s w i t h i n
the r e a l s e c r e t , s o c i e t i e s . But, i n a n o t h e r s e n s e , i n the i n i t i a t i o n
ceremonies, r i t u a l s and masquerades, t h e r e i s a s t r o n g sense o f f a m i l y
support,- o f the i n t e r e s t o f the f a t h e r and mother, and o t h e r r e l a t i v e s
o f the boys, p a r t i c u l a r l y a g n a t i c ones. The i n i t i a t i o n i s sponsored by
the f a t h e r , backed by h i s p a t r i k i n s and p r o v i d e s s t a t u s f o r the s p o n s o r .
I t i s the one time i n the masqueraders
1
l i f e when t h e r e i s a c l o s e
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a s s o c i a t i o n o f masquerading and f a m i l y .
S o c i a l I m p l i c a t i o n s o f I n i t i a t i o n
A s i d e from the e a r l i e r comments, i t i s q u i t e c l e a r t h a t i n i t i a t i o n
performed-and s t i l l performs c e r t a i n i m p o r t a n t f u n c t i o n s among the
Igbos.
B e r g e r and Luckmann (1966:27) have p o s i t e d t h a t i n i t i a t i o n i s one
o f those secondary s o c i a l i z a t i o n p r o c e s s e s o f s o c i e t y . The p r i m a r y
s o c i a l i z a t i o n i s t h a t which t u r n s the human organism i n t o a n . i n d i v i d u a l .
But t h i s i n d i v i d u a l needs to undergo o t h e r c u l t u r a l l y p a t t e r n e d
p r o c e s s e s to be a c c e p t a b l e t o the community. Secondary s o c i a l i z a t i o n
t a k e s p l a c e when youths are i n i t i a t e d i n t o the mmuo s o c i e t y . T h i s i s
the a c q u i s i t i o n o f r o l e - s p e c i f i c knowledge. The mmuo s o c i e t y o r the
masquerade s o c i e t y has a s p e c i f i c duty. I t i s the e x e c u t i v e arm o f
the p o l i t i c a l l e a d e r s o f the Igbos, the mask a c t e d as p o l i c e i t drove
out t h o s e who committed Nso a n i , i . e . a b o m i n a t i o n , i t e x e c u t e d
murderers and p u n i s h e d minor o f f e n d e r s . T h e r e f o r e , t o i n i t i a t e one
i n t o the
- 1
mmuo s o c i e t y i s a s e r i o u s a f f a i r . I t i s as i f one were
b e i n g commissioned i n t o a p o l i c e f o r c e .
Furthermore, secondary s o c i a l i z a t i o n r e q u i r e s the a c q u i s i t i o n
o f r o l e - s p e c i f i c v o c a b u l a r i e s , which means, f o r one t h i n g , the i n t e r -
n a l i z a t i o n o f semantic f i e l d s s t r u c t u r i n g r o u t i n e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s and
conduct w i t h i n an i n s t i t u t i o n i n t h i s case the s e c r e t mmuo s o c i e t y .
The s o c i e t y has t o l e a r n and u n d e r s t a n d the language o f the m a s k a
knowledge p r e s e r v e d w i t h i n the s o c i e t y and guarded j e a l o u s l y . T h e r e f o r e ,
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t a c i t u n d e r s t a n d i n g s , . e v a l u a t i o n s and a f f e c t i v e c o l o r a t i o n o f the
s e m a n t i c f i e l d are a l s o a c q u i r e d . ' The "subworlds" i n t e r n a l i z e d i n
i n i t i a t i o n a r e p a r t i a l r e a l i t i e s i n c o n t r a s t to the "base-world"
a c q u i r e d i n p r i m a r y s o c i a l i z a t i o n . Y e t t h e r u l e s o f the s e c r e t
s o c i e t y are more o r l e s s c o h e s i v e r e a l i t i e s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by.normative
and a f f e c t i v e as w e l l as c o g n i t i v e components. T h i s i s why s e c o n d a r y
s o c i a l i z a t i o n , . i . e . i n i t i a t i o n , r e q u i r e s the rudiments o f l e g i m a t i n g
apparatus and must g e n e r a l l y be accompanied by r i t u a l which a c h i e v e s
t h i s end. I . w i l l argue f u r t h e r t h a t the aim o f the r i t u a l i s not
o n l y a r i t e o f i n c o r p o r a t i o n i n t o a group.but a l s o a r i t e o f s e p a r a t i o n ,
accompanying the t r a n s i t i o n from p r i m a r y t o secondary s o c i a l i z a t i o n ,
i . e . from y o u t h t o . a d u l t h o o d . The ceremony which f o l l o w s , a t which
the; i n i t i . a t e s e a t w i t h the gods ( e a t i n g s a c r i f i c e d a n i m a l ) , and the
l i t t l e masks they r e c e i v e as emblems,, i s s o c i e t y ' s f u r t h e r a c c e p t a n c e
o f t h i s l e g i t i m i z a t i o n .
B e r g e r and Luckmann f u r t h e r o b s e r v e d t h a t secondary s o c i a l i z a t i o n
i n v o l v e s the i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f an e l a b o r a t e i n i t i a t i o n p r o c e s s , ,
such as we d i s c u s s e d e a r l i e r i n the c a s e o f the mmuo s o c i e t y , w i t h the
aim o f g e t t i n g i n d i v i d u a l s to commit themselves i n a comprehensive
way to a new r e a l i t y . Why i s t h i s so? We s h o u l d examine the advantages
t o the Igbos o f i n i t i a t i o n i n t o the masquerade s o c i e t y to answer t h i s
q u e s t i o n .
The s u b m i s s i v e r o l e o f the i n i t i a t e d i n t o the s e c r e t s o c i e t y and
h i s f a m i l y i s good f o r the s o c i e t y . H i s t r a i n i n g i n t r a d i t i o n a l
customs makes t h i s n a t u r a l f o r him. The new-phase o f h i s l i f e , i n the
group, c o n s e c r a t i o n among i t s mature males, appears to him a phase o f
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d e s t i n y i n which he w i l l be a b l e t o e x p r e s s h i s w i l l and h i s p o t e n c y
upon n a t u r e . In t h i s e x a l t e d imagery, so c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f the
g r e a t n o n - m a t e r i a l c u l t u r e o f A f r i c a n s g e n e r a l l y , one can u n d e r s t a n d
the r o l e the Igbo y o u t h sees f o r h i m s e l f and the meaning o f i n i t i a t i o n
ceremony t o him.
The p s y c h o l o g i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s o f i n i t i a t i o n a r e enormous. I
b e l i e v e - t h a t the ceremonies c o u l d not have been i n v e n t e d w i t h o u t
such knowledge o f t h e i r advantages on the p a r t o f our f o r e f a t h e r s who
o r i g i n a t e d the r i t u a l s , and who t h e r e b y showed deep i n s i g h t i n t o the
d r i v e s which m o t i v a t e human b e h a v i o u r . S i m i l a r u n d e r s t a n d i n g under-
l i e s o t h e r customary r e g u l a t i o n s .
The r o l e o f the s e c r e t s o c i e t y i s t h a t o f an i n s t i t u t i o n where
i n n a t e impulses a r e o r g a n i z e d and t h i s has advantages f o r the i n i t i a t e s .
The r i t u a l e n a b l e s them t o e x p r e s s and a c t o u t , under the mask, t h e i r
most hidden i m p u l s e s . A t t h e same t i m e , the r i t u a l s f i x t h e r e s t r i c -
t i o n s and t a b o o s , and g u i d e s a c t i o n i n t o t r a d i t i o n a l l y a c c e p t e d
customs. In the f i r s t phase o f the i n i t i a t i o n , he f a c e s h a r d s h i p and
l i v e s t h r o u g h t h e s e f r e e l y , and i n the second, h i s a c t i o n s a r e t r a n s -
formed i n the t r a d i t i o n a l manner, i n t o customs s a n c t i f i e d by Igbo
s o c i e t y . T h e - f a c t . - t h a t the i n i t i a t e d underwent t h e s e p s y c h o l o g i c a l
p r o c e s s e s communally and i n a group g i v e s the p r o c e s s e s the power o f
i n t e g r a t e d s o c i a l forms;
By the p u r i f i c a t i o n i t a f f o r d s , the i n i t i a t i o n p r o v i d e s a b s o l u t i o n
f o r the e x p r e s s i o n o f the tabood b a s i c i n s t i n c t s . , which, a t the end o f
the ceremony, w i l l l e a d i n t o s o c i a l s u b l i m a t i o n . T h i s i s s o c i a l sanc-
t i f i c a t i o n f o r the i n d i v i d u a l ; the r i t u a l b e i n g communal, the i n i t i a t e
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does not f e e l i s o l a t e d w i t h h i s problems but f e e l s t h a t h i s e m o t i o n a l
e x p e r i e n c e s . a r e s h a r e d . The s a n c t i f i e d t r a d i t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r o f
the r i t u a l s , t h e i r sense o f c o n t i n u i t y w i t h the p a s t , and the f u t u r e ,
saves the a d o l e s c e n t from l o n e l i n e s s . The Igbo i n i t i a t e emerges from
the r i t u a l s w i t h a c l e a r c o n s c i e n c e and a new l i b e r a t e d i d e n t i t y .
He i s now s e c u r e as a member o f a v a l u e d s o c i a l group t o whose r u l e s
and t r a d i t i o n s he must adhere. Moreover, he g a i n s a d m i s s i o n i n t o ,
t h i s s o c i e t y on an e x a l t e d emotional l e v e l . He now knows f o r sure
t h a t a human b e i n g t r a n s f o r m s i n t o o t h e r f o r c e s by wearing the mask.
The j o y o f a l l h i s s u f f e r i n g i n the camp i s t h a t the i n i t i a t e i s now
an a c t o r i n a drama t h a t becomes the most memorable e v e n t i n h i s
l i f e t h e p a r t i c i p a t i o n p u b l i c l y i n a masquerade performance.
The i n i t i a t i o n ceremony i s , among o t h e r t h i n g s , an i n t e n s i v e
e d u c a t i o n a l c o u r s e i n the h i s t o r y and i n s t i t u t i o n s o f the s o c i e t y .
T h i s i s not w r i t t e n h i s t o r y but o r a l mythology, t r a n s m i t t e d w i t h an
amazing f a c u l t y o f memory, from g e n e r a t i o n to g e n e r a t i o n . ' Myths and
t h e i r p s y c h o l o g i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e have been the s u b j e c t o f e x t e n s i v e
s t u d i e s
1 0
. Here I o n l y wish to p o i n t o u t t h a t myths form a p a r t o f
the i n s t r u c t i o n s i n the i n i t i a t i o n . M o s t l y the myths r e l a t e how
s u p e r n a t u r a l f o r c e s i n s t r u c t e d the a n c e s t o r s i n v a r i o u s c r a f t s and
ways o f l i f e .
The i n s t r u c t o r s a t the i n i t i a t i o n " s c h o o l " a l s o r e l a t e t o the
n o v i t i a t e s myths which r e c o r d the g l o r i o u s t r i b a l p a s t t h e deeds,,
o f t e n c o n n e c t e d w i t h s u p e r n a t u r a l f o r c e s and a n i m a l s , o f the f o u n d i n g
f a t h e r s , and i n c a l c u l a t e s the i d e a i n t o the Igbo y o u t h t h a t the human
r a c e (seen as an e x t e n s i o n o f h i s s o c i e t y ) , owes i t s e x i s t e n c e t o the
105
g r e a t f o r e f a t h e r s . T h i s m y t h o l o g y , g i v e s the youths an e x a l t e d
o p i n i o n o f t h e m s e l v e s . Huxley (1950) p o i n t e d out t h a t t h i s evokes
a concept o f d i s t i n c t i v e n e s s , "which a l m o s t always r a t i o n a l i z e s i n t o
s u p e r i o r i t y - f e e l i n g s " . T h i s f e e l i n g i s u n i v e r s a l and not p a r t i c u l a r
t o Igbos a l o n e . The e a r l y Jews and the Greeks d i s m i s s e d a l l non-,
Jews and non-Greeks as g e n t i l e s and b a r b a r i a n s , r e s p e c t i v e l y .
The i n i t i a t e f e e l s t h a t by f o l l o w i n g customary laws, he would
be s p a r e d a g o n i z i n g p e r s o n a l d e c i s i o n s . He has no need t o r e v o l t
a g a i n s t a c c e p t e d customs which h a v e b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d by the s a c r e d
a n c e s t o r s , and which have s a c r e d and i n f a l l i b l e meaning.
1
He f e e l s
p a r t o f a community i n d i r e c t c o n t a c t w i t h s u p e r n a t u r a l f o r c e s . As
a member, he too has e n t e r e d i n t o the w o r l d o f s p i r i t s . T h i s i s
emphasized by the s e c r e t language used o n l y by members o f the mmuo
s o c i e t y . T h i s d e s i r e t o b e l o n g i n . a group t h a t can p r o t e c t , t o be
among the e l e c t who e n j o y honour, i s a deep human d r i v e . Even the
Western s o c i e t y . h a s p r e s e r v e d o r g a n i z a t i o n s which a l s o impose s e c r e c y
and p r a c t i c e i n i t i a t i o n ceremonies w i t h s y m b o l i c o b j e c t s .
I n i t i a t i o n ceremony,is used t o t e a c h the laws o f the s o c i e t y . a n d
t h i s d r a m a t i c o c c a s i o n was w e l l chosen t o impress the i n i t i a t e w i t h
i t s c a n o n i c f o r c e . A l s o , r e s p e c t f o r the e l d e r s i s g i v e n s p e c i a l s t r e s s .
I t i s thus an i n s t i t u t i o n a l d e v i c e to overcome the r e v o l t a g a i n s t the
f a t h e r , and c o n n e c t e d w i t h the e m o t i o n a l complex o f the f a t h e r - s o n
r e l a t i o n s h i p . We e a r l i e r noted t h a t Igbos r e g a r d a f i g h t between a
c h i l d and h i s f a t h e r as an a b o m i n a t i o n and t h a t the son i s r e q u i r e d t o
o f f e r a s a c r i f i c e t o the e a r t h goddess t o c l e a n the e a r t h o f t h i s s i n .
I n s t i t u t i n g such i n s t r u c t i o n a t the i m p r e s s i o n a b l e p e r i o d when the
106
y o u t h i s r i t u a l l y a d m i t t e d i n t o the group, i s f u r t h e r e v i d e n c e o f
the g r e a t i n s i g h t i n t o the b a s i c human d r i v e s shown by the f o u n d e r s
o r f o r e f a t h e r s . Respect f o r the aged, f o r the f a t h e r and the dead,,
has d e v e l o p e d i n t o a v a s t i n s t i t u t i o n c a l l e d a n c e s t o r worship o r
c u l t and t h i s e n g r o s s e s the whole a d u l t l i f e o f the Igbos.. T h i s
p o w e r f u l , a l l - e m b r a c i n g r e l i g i o u s c o n c e p t , gave b i r t h to an.amazing
r i c h n e s s o f s c u l p t u r e s i n wood, i v o r y and bronze not o n l y among the
Igbos but w i t h i n the e n t i r e c o n t i n e n t o f A f r i c a .
C o l l e c t i v e work i n the i n i t i a t i o n camp had been noted e a r l i e r .
A s i d e from the immediate m a t e r i a l advantage such as the s a v i n g i n
time and l a b o u r when twenty men, i n s t e a d o f one, b u i l t a house, i t
g i v e s an added f e e l i n g o f s e c u r i t y i n o t h e r d i m e n s i o n s . The youth
knows t h a t s h o u l d s i c k n e s s o r a c c i d e n t b e f a l l him, members o f - h i s
s e c r e t s o c i e t y would s t a n d by; i f he t r a v e l l e d he c o u l d f i n d welcome
i n the home o f a member s o c i e t y o r - o f an a f f i l i a t e d s o c i e t y . From
t h i s i n s t i t u t i o n t h a t s a t i s f i e d b a s i c human d r i v e s , s y m b o l i c and h i g h l y
d e v e l o p e d r i t u a l s have e v o l v e d . T h i s r i t e s t r e s s e s p u r i f i c a t i o n and
the achievement o f a new l i f e , a new i d e n t i t y . By e a t i n g s a c r e d f o o d ,
c o n t a i n i n g the energy o f the s p i r i t s , the i n i t i a t e s a c h i e v e d communion
w i t h the w o r l d o f s p i r i t s .
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CHAPTER IV
1. Eke i s Igbo sabbath and the h o l i e s t o f the f o u r days t h a t make
up the Igbo week. L i t t l e o r no work i s done on t h i s day
r e s e r v e d f o r w o r s h i p o f the gods and a n c e s t o r s .
2. Ikenga f i g u r i n e s r e p r e s e n t t h e "gods o f f o r t u n e " . They a r e
symbols o f achievement, prowess and i n t e l l i g e n c e and are a s s o c i a t e d
w i t h a man's r i g h t - h a n d . A t t h e a t t a i n m e n t o f a d u l t h o o d , a
young man a c q u i r e s an ikenga t o s y m b o l i z e both h i s i n i t i a t o r y
achievement and t o i n s p i r e him t o g r e a t e r a c t i o n s i n the f u t u r e .
When such a c t i o n s ' a r e a c h i e v e d , he makes s a c r i f i c e s o f c h i c k e n j
k o l a n u t s , o r palm wine t o h i s i k e n g a . An i k e n g a - i s a l s o g i v e n
t o a w a r r i o r g o i n g i n t o o r . r e t u r n i n g from b a t t l e o r t o any man.
who has a c h i e v e d o r i s a b o u t t o a c h i e v e a brave a c t i o n .
3. There are a number o f p o s s i b l e r e a s o n s why women a r e never
i n i t i a t e d i n t o the mmuo s o c i e t y . As a m a t t e r o f f a c t , masking
i s a male a f f a i r ' i n I g b o l a n d . These r e a s o n s may be any o r
c o m b i n a t i o n o f the f o l l o w i n g :
a) To keep women i n t h e i r p l a c e ,
b) A d i v i s i o n o f l a b o u r i n s o c i e t y i n which women and o t h e r
males come t o be e n t e r t a i n e d by men o f . t h e s e c r e t s o c i e t y ,
c) S i n c e women ensure the g e n e t i c c o n t i n u i t y o f s o c i e t y and
s i n c e masks a r e s p i r i t s , who might be good o r e v i l , men do
not wish to endanger the s u r v i v a l o f the r a c e by l e t t i n g
women gamble w i t h s u p e r n a t u r a l f o r c e s . A l t h o u g h t h e r e a r e '
women n a t i v e d o c t o r s who d e a l w i t h s p i r i t s , the number i s
i n s i g n i f i c a n t l y s m a l l compared w i t h the f a c t . t h a t e v e r y male
i s supposed t o be i n i t i a t e d i n t o the mmuo ( s p i r i t ) s o c i e t y .
d) Masquerade o r masking r e q u i r e s f o r c e , f e a r l e s s n e s s , courage,,
e t c . , e s p e c i a l l y d u r i n g i n i t i a t i o n . . Men do not wish to
torment o r expose women t o p h y s i c a l dangers.
e) Because o f t h e i r monthly m e n s t r u a l p e r i o d s , i t i s f e a r e d t h a t
women might p o l u t e the s p i r i t u a l p u r i t y o f masks.-
4. T h i s i s a p o i n t t h a t r e q u i r e s f u r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n . I o b t a i n e d
the i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t the mmuo s o c i e t y e v o l v e d from a . g u i l d o f
masked a c t o r s a t Awka.
5. There i s no c l e a r d e m a r c a t i o n between the s a c r e d and the s e c u l a r
a c t i v i t i e s i n r u r a l communities. For a d e e p e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f
the c o n c e p t o f the community, p l e a s e r e f e r t o N i s b e t (1968:2).
6. I o b s e r v e d t h i s i n Umahia i n December o f 1975 i n the workshop o f
Nduka. C a r v e r s o f s k i l l a c c o r d i n g t o Nduka never c u t t w i c e ,
n e i t h e r do they add p i e c e s t h a t had been c u t away.
108
7. c f H a l p i n (1975) u n p u b l i s h e d seminar p a p e r , , e n t i t l e d "Masks
As Metaphor o f A n t i - S t r u c t u r e " .
8. The b r a c k e t and e n c l o s u r e a r e mine..
9. P i c a s s o made the statement i n a c o n v e r s a t i o n w i t h the famous a r t .
c o l l e c t o r and c r i t i c , Segy. c f Segy (1975).
10. Messengers may be i n masks such as the okpa.. However, they a r e
s e l e c t e d because o f t h e i r m a t u r i t y i n h a n d l i n g such s e c r e t
r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s . They a r e men o r youths o f proven i n t e g r i t y .
11. For a b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the p s y c h o l o g i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n o f
myths, r e f e r t o Campbell (1949).
109
CHAPTER V ,
MASKS AS RITUAL THEATRETHEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS
In t h i s c h a p t e r * I w i l l argue t h a t Igbo masquerade i s both
r i t u a l and t h e a t r e by showing how masks c o r r e s p o n d t o t h e o r e t i c a l
models o f both r i t u a l and t h e a t r e . The model I w i l l use f o r the
s t r u c t u r e o f t h e a t r e i s t h a t d e v e l o p e d by Elmer R i c e (1955), w h i l e
t h a t o f r i t u a l i s the one d e v e l o p e d by Edmund Leach (1963). While
combining the i d e a s o f t h e s e two, I w i l l a l s o a p p l y E l i a d e ' s (1959)
f o r m u l a t i o n on f e s t i v a l s t o demonstrate t h a t d u r i n g masquerades,
Igbos r e c r e a t e and l i v e i n the s a c r e d time o f t h e i r a n c e s t o r s .
The problem o f the t h e s i s , which i s o f prime m u s e o l o g i c a l s i g -
n i f i c a n c e * i s t h a t the mask as seen i n museum d i s p l a y s i s a l i f e l e s s
p i e c e o f c a r v e d and p a i n t e d wood. But to the Igbos i t has a f o r c e o f
i t s own.- I t i s c o n s i d e r e d a b e i n g . The paradox i s how t o c o n v e r t the
p i e c e o f wood i n t o a s p i r i t u a l f o r c e . One i s t h e r e f o r e c o m p e l l e d t o
examine the r e l a t i o n s h i p between i l l u s i o n and r e a l i t y , i n terms o f the
models f o r t h e a t r e and r i t u a l , two o f the c o n t e x t s w i t h i n which masks
a r e o f t e n worn, and which c o n t a i n w i t h i n themselves the same paradox;
e s p e c i a l l y the paradox t h a t r i t u a l can b o t h . c r e a t e and r e v e r s e time.>
T h i s i n i t s e l f i s a l s o i l l u s o r y . In o r d e r t o s o l v e t h e s e m u s e o l o g i c a l
problems, one must put masks and'masquerades i n t o an a p p r o p r i a t e ethno-
g r a p h i c c o n t e x t which I have done i n d e t a i l i n the p r e c e d i n g c h a p t e r s .
B r i e f l y , t h e s e c o n s i s t o f the v a r i o u s r i t u a l s - i n v o l v e d i n c a r v i n g
no
the mask i t s e l f , those r i t u a l s i n v o l v e d i n i n i t i a t i n g n o v i t i a t e s
i n t o the s e c r e t s o c i e t i e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h masks, and f i n a l l y , those
r i t u a l s n e c e s s a r y f o r p u t t i n g on.the mask.- T h i s l a s t p a r t needs
f u r t h e r e l a b o r a t i o n . When the o c c a s i o n i s r i g h t f o r masquerade p e r -
formance, the l e a d e r s i n the men's s e c r e t masquerade s o c i e t y assemble
i n the men's r e s t house o r the obimmuo and d e c i d e which mask i s to
appear.' Then t h e y make s u r e t h a t the mask and i t s a s s o c i a t e d costumes
a r e i n good shape. F i n a l l y , they announce t h e i r d e c i s i o n t o o t h e r
members, e s p e c i a l l y those a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h i s p a r t i c u l a r mask t h r o u g h
a p e c u l i a r sounding o f the ekwe (wooden gong). Only t h o s e a s s o c i a t e d
would u n d e r s t a n d t h i s s e c r e t language and would t h e r e f o r e assemble a t
the a p p r o p r i a t e p l a c e . Here a r i t u a l i s performed t o g i v e l i f e f o r c e
to the l a t e n t mask. T h i s i s done, by o f f e r i n g some k o l a nuts t o the
a n c e s t o r s and t h r o w i n g o f w h i t e c l a y o r c h a l k (nzu) t o s i g n i f y t h a t
members a r e pure. Then an egg i s thrown on the f a c e o f the mask to
r i t u a l l y put l i f e i n t o i t . A l i v e c h i c k e n i s s a c r i f i c e d t o the a n c e s t o r s
t o p r o t e c t the mask. Members r o a s t and e a t - t h e meat o f the c h i c k e n .
T h i s s h a r i n g o f f o o d w i t h the s u p e r n a t u r a l i s what a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s ,
would r e f e r t o as commensality o r communion. The mask i s then put on
and goes on d i s p l a y to the a u d i e n c e . T h i s happens anytime the mask
i s to appear f o r whatever r e a s o n t h r o u g h o u t t h e Igbo c o u n t r y , a l t h o u g h
forms may v a r y depending on l o c a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s .
I w i l l now begin my d i s c u s s i o n on the r i t u a l t h e a t r i c a l i t y o f
Igbo masks by f i r s t p r e s e n t i n g masks as t h e a t r e . '
m
Igbo Masquerade as T h e a t r e
Basden (1966:117) wrote c o n c e r n i n g t h e Igbos as he saw them
i n the e a r l y 1900's: " H o l d i n g t h e most p r o f o u n d b e l i e f s i n , t h e s u p e r -
n a t u r a l , the Ibo i s d e e p l y c o n s c i o u s o f h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e unseen
w o r l d , and e v e r y p r e c a u t i o n must be o b s e r v e d i n o r d e r t o keep the
s p i r i t o f the d e p a r t e d i n a s t a t e o f p e a c e f u l contentment". One o f
t h e s e i n t r i c a t e and e l a b o r a t e d e v i c e s f o r k e e p i n g t h e s p i r i t o f the
d e p a r t e d i n a s t a t e o f p e a c e f u l contentment i s t o g i v e a dead r e l a t i v e
a p r o p e r b u r i a l , and i n t h i s the mask p l a y s an i m p o r t a n t p a r t . > When
a " f u l l grown" man d i e s , , h e i s supposed t o be b u r i e d w i t h a p p r o p r i a t e
r i t e s . Perhaps one needs to d e f i n e a f u l l grown man as the Igbos see
him. He i s a person who was born a f r e e c i t i z e n o f h i s community, has
l i v e d a u s e f u l and s u c c e s s f u l l i f e (by j o i n i n g the s e c r e t s o c i e t i e s ,
t a k i n g t i t l e s , e t c . ) , has a house, a w i f e and perhaps c h i l d r e n * ' When
such a man d i e s , the community i s sad t o l o s e a r e a l "son o f the s o i l " .
Youths d r e s s e d i n masks must appear to wish him, who has been a member
o f the s o c i e t y , a f i n a l f a r e w e l l t o the l a n d o f the dead. Being
s p i r i t s , the masks show t h a t he i s welcome t o t h e i r domain. T h i s has
always been the g e n e r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n g i v e n t o the masquerade p e r f o r -
mance o f y o u t h s a t b u r i a l s . T h i s t r u l y r e i n f o r c e s t h e r e l i g i o u s
n a t u r e o f the Igbo masks.
What has o f t e n been o v e r l o o k e d i n l i t e r a t u r e i s the f a c t t h a t
t h e s e masked performances d u r i n g b u r i a l s a r e a l s o t o T i g h t e n the mood o f
p e o p l e deep i n g r i e f . W r i t i n g on death and b u r i a l r i t e s o f the Igbos,,
Basedn ( l o c . c i t . ) c o n t i n u e d , "These q u a i n t a p p a r i t i o n s , n e e d l e s s t o
112
s a y , . a r e men d i s g u i s e d i n g r o t e s q u e f a s h i o n , w i t h t h e i r bodies
c o m p l e t e l y e n v e l o p e d i n c l o t h , and u t t e r i n g p e c u l i a r sounds by
means o f a i r i n s t r u m e n t s f i x e d between the t e e t h . To the e x c i t e d
a u d i e n c e t h e s e are v e r i l y b e l i e v e d t o be f i g u r e s animated by s p i r i t s
from the underworld". He f a i l e d t o examine the mask as e x c i t i n g
an a u d i e n c e i n . g r i e f but d w e l t i n h i s work on the r e l i g i o u s i m p l i c a t i o n
o f the masked appearance.' My argument i s t h a t masquerade performance
a t b u r i a l ceremonies o f the Igbos a r e as w e l l drama e n a c t e d t o c r e a t e
p l e a s u r e and d i v e r s i o n and t h e r e b y l i g h t e n the mood o f an a u d i e n c e
i n a "death house".
F o r t u n a t e l y , contemporary s t u d i e s o f Igbo masquerades have begun
t o examine t h i s c u l t u r a l ' t r a i t i n a t h e a t r i c a l framework, f o c u s s i n g
a t t e n t i o n s p e c i f i c a l l y on the r e l a t i o n s h i p between the a c t o r s (masked
p e r f o r m e r s ) and t h e i r a u d i e n c e (the community). O t t e n b e r g (1973:32),
who must be seen as one o f the p i o n e e r s , commented t h a t "a f u l l under-,
s t a n d i n g o f the performance r e q u i r e s v e r y c l o s e ' o b s e r v a t i o n o f the
a c t i v i t i e s o f the a u d i e n c e as w e l l as the p l a y e r s " . Because he saw
masks as t h e a t r e , he d e s c r i b e d some o f the A f i k p o masquerade p e r f o r -
mances he had observed as p l a y s , w i t h a c t s and scenes (see O t t e n b e r g ,
1975).
T h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f mask as t h e a t r e i s shown by the f a c t t h a t
s i n g i n g , d a n c i n g and j e s t i n g a r e , s u b j e c t s on which i n s t r u c t i o n s a r e '
g i v e n i n i n i t i a t i o n camps,in the f o r e s t . Music and d a n c i n g a r e most
i m p o r t a n t t o the Igbos because e v e r y s t e p has t o be,mastered and
r e p e a t e d w i t h o u t f a u l t a t masquerade p e r f o r m a n c e s . T r a d i t i o n a l i s m had
a s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t here s i n c e i t was the b e l i e f among the Igbos, t h a t
113
i f t h e r e i s a change, the e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f the dance would be l o s t .
We.have now a r r i v e d a t the i s s u e o r c o r e o f the t h e s i s ; namely,
t h a t masks among the Igbos c o u l d a l s o be i n t e r p r e t e d o r l o o k e d . a t
as t h e a t r e .
But l e t us examine the n a t u r e o f t h e a t r e t o see i f our c o n c e p t i o n
o f the mask as t h e a t r e i s c o r r e c t . - Whether o r not a r t can be d e f i n e d ,
e v e r y a r t i s t knows o r would know i f he thought about i t , t h a t the
a r t i s t i c impulse i s compounded o f two e l e m e n t s . One i s a need f o r
s e l f r e x p r e s s i o n i n whatever c o n t e x t , and the second element i s a
d e s i r e t o communicate what i s e x p r e s s e d . In o t h e r words, the purpose
o f a r t - - b e i t s c u l p t u r e , p a i n t i n g , d a n c i n g , p o e t r y , music o r whatever--
i s not complete e x c e p t when i t i s communicated t o o t h e r s who u n d e r s t a n d
and a p p r e c i a t e what the a r t i s t has done. I w i l l say f u r t h e r t h a t t h i s
p r o c e s s o f a r t i s t i c communication l i k e most o t h e r human-phenomenon,
f o l l o w s c u l t u r a l p a t t e r n s , and t h a t a r t i s t i c t r a d i t i o n depends upon a
c o l l e c t i v e body o f a p p r e c i a t o r s . T h i s i s what drama and t h e a t r e mean
and are a l l about. There must be an a u d i e n c e . With r e s p e c t t o
drama, t h e e s s e n t i a l r e q u i r e m e n t o f communication i s s i m p l y s t a t e d :
p l a y s a r e to be performed before-<an a u d i e n c e . C o l l e c t i v e l y , the
performance, the a u d i e n c e , the a u d i t o r i u m and many o t h e r elements
c o n s t i t u t e an i n s t i t u t i o n which i n t h e modern sense i s c a l l e d the
t h e a t r e . The t h e a t r e , one may say, i s t h e r e f o r e an i n s t r u m e n t f o r
the communication o f drama,.much as i t has today an independent s o c i a l
and a r t i s t i c e x i s t e n c e o f i t s own.,
In t r a d i t i o n a l o r r a t h e r p r e - l i t e r a t e s o c i e t i e s , the problems
o f communication o f the work o f a r t a r e f u s e d . , But i n today's Western
114
s o c i e t y , the p r o c e s s e s o f c r e a t i o n and o f communication a r e w h o l l y
d i s s i m i l a r . One i s the spontaneous or p l a n n e d , s e l f o r group i n i t i a t e d
a c t i v i t y o f an i n d i v i d u a l , group o r community; the o t h e r , an o r g a n i z e d
i n d u s t r i a l o r t e c h n o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s , a b u s i n e s s . R i c e (1955:2)
w r i t e s t h a t " i n p r i m i t i v e s o c i e t i e s t h i s d i s p a r i t y may not be e v i d e n t ,
but i t widens r a p i d l y as the s o c i a l t e x t u r e becomes more i n t r i c a t e
and complex; so t h a t i n the modern w o r l d , the machinery o f communi-
c a t i o n has a l m o s t a c q u i r e d an i d e n t i t y o f i t s own, w i t h a r e l a t i o n s h i p
to the a r t i s t i c t h a t i s m e c h a n i s t i c r a t h e r than o r g a n i c "
1
.
W r i t i n g on the e s s e n t i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f the t h e a t r e whether
p r o f e s s i o n a l , amateur, c o m m e r c i a l , . s u b s i d i z e d o r academic, R i c e
m a i n t a i n s q u i t e r i g h t l y t h a t t h e a t r e i s a c o l l e c t i v e p r o c e s s , t o
which I add t h a t the Igbo masquerade performance i s a c l a s s i c example.
To R i c e , the c o l l e c t i v e n a t u r e o f the t h e a t r e i s a p p a r e n t i n t h r e e
2
r e s p e c t s . In the f i r s t p l a c e , p l a y s a r e performed i n the p r e s e n c e o f
a c o l l e c t i v e e n t i t y t h e a u d i e n c e . He m a i n t a i n s t h a t p l a y s a r e supposed
t o be communicated t o a numerous group g a t h e r e d i n one p l a c e a t one
time. In the c o n t e x t . o f t h i s s t u d y , the Igbo a u d i e n c e g a t h e r s a t the
obimmuo or v i l l a g e square o r the market square to watch the r i t u a l
and m y t h i c a l drama t h a t i s masquerade'performance. The o r g a n i z a t i o n
and.assemblage o f the group c a l l s f o r a s p e c i a l s e t o f p r o c e d u r e s , ,
because the d i f f e r e n c e between a c o l l e c t i v e r e s p o n s e and an i n d i v i d u a l
response i s not o n l y one o f degree, but one o f k i n d . T h i s temporal and'
p h y s i c a l c o l l e c t i v e assemblage make i t i m p e r a t i v e t h a t the p l a y , both'
i n c r e a t i o n and i n performance, be immediately a p p r e h e n s i b l e . There
i s no l i n g e r i n g , no t u r n i n g back. The a u d i e n c e must move.forward w i t h
115
the p e r f o r m e r s because what i s not i n s t a n t l y g r a s p e d may be l o s t .
I t i s noteworthy t h a t Igbo a u d i e n c e s , as O t t e n b e r g (1975) has shown,
a r e a c t i v e o b s e r v e r s a t the masquerade p l a y s . They c l a p and o f t e n
move t o the rhythm o f the music, they j o i n i n s i n g i n g a t t i m e s , and
3
t h e y c h e e r top performance but j e e r a poor show .
R i c e c o n t i n u e s t h a t s e c o n d l y t h e r e can be no d i r e c t communication
between the d r a m a t i s t and the a u d i e n c e . The p r o j e c t i o n o f h i s p l a y
e n t a i l s the s e r v i c e s o f a d i r e c t o r and a c t o r s , d e s i g n e r s o f costumes
and s c e n e r y , stagehands, e t c . A l l t h e s e must be c o - o r d i n a t e d i n t h e
c a r r y i n g o u t o f an o r g a n i z e d p l a n . I n d i v i d u a l ism must both e x p r e s s
i t s e l f and be&-tooa l a r g e e x t e n t s u b o r d i n a t e d t o the o v e r a l l scheme.
T h i s c r e a t e s c o r d i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s and a l s o a t times c o n f l i c t s . We
have examples o f t h i s c o - o r d i n a t i o n from the Igbo masquerade p e r f o r -
mance. In the Okumkpa p l a y o f the A f i k p o Igbos, t h e r e . i s a l e a d e r
a n d . a s s i s t a n t l e a d e r who a c t as d i r e c t o r s o f the p l a y . These a r e
c a r v e r s , makers o f costumes, e t c . , whose c o l l e c t i v e i n d i v i d u a l s k i l l s
make the masquerade.play p o s s i b l e . In t h i s c o n n e c t i o n , one must t a k e
c o g n i s a n c e o f the f a c t t h a t the e s s e n c e o f drama i s not words but
a c t i o n . P l a y s are w r i t t e n to b e , a c t e d . In A r i s t o t l e ' s c l a s s i c d e f i n -
i t i o n , f o r example, a t r a g e d y ( t h a t i s , a p l a y ) , i s an i m i t a t i o n o f an
a c t i o n . Comedy means a f e s t i v i t y w i t h music and d a n c i n g o r a f e s t a l
p r o c e s s i o n . A revue i s . a r e - s e e i n g , i . e . a re-enactment o f t o p i c a l
i n c i d e n t s . Such words as a c t , p l a y , show and s p e c t a c l e put the
emphasis upon d o i n g and s e e i n g , so do d i r e c t o r , p r o d u c e r , a c t o r , p e r -
former, mime, e t c . Scene, s t a g e , and t h e a t r e a l l r e f e r t o a b u i l d i n g
o r s t r u c t u r e d e s i g n e d f o r p e r f o r m e r s and s p e c t a t o r s , w h i l e a u d i e n c e
116
i n d i c a t e s t h a t p e o p l e come t o see and t o hear. I t i s s u b m i t t e d
h e r e , t a k i n g i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n e a r l i e r a c c o u n t s o f masquerade p e r -
formance i n t h i s s t u d y , . t h a t Igbo masquerades q u a l i f y as t h e a t r e
i n t h e i r own r i g h t .
T h i r d l y , R i c e s t a t e s t h a t the two c o l l e c t i v e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f
the t h e a t r e shown e a r l i e r , i . e . the a u d i e n c e and the e x e c u t a n t s ,
produce the next c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f the t h e a t r e which i s i t s p u b l i c
n a t u r e . Other works o f a r t may be e n j o y e d not o n l y by i n d i v i d u a l s ,
but i n p r i v a t e . F a i l i n g a p u b l i s h e r o r an e x h i b i t o r , a poem o r a
p a i n t i n g may be passed from hand t o hand. Or, i f i t i s c o n s i d e r e d sub-
v e r s i v e o r i n d e l i c a t e , and hence u n a c c e p t a b l e , i t may be read o r d i s -
p l a y e d i n a l o c k e d room b e h i n d drawn b l i n d s . But the f u r t h e r essence
o f a . d r a m a t i c performance i s t h a t i t i s p u b l i c . I t i s p r a c t i c a l l y
i m p o s s i b l e t o keep s e c r e t an a c t i v i t y t h a t demands the f a c i l i t i e s and
the number o f p a r t i c i p a n t s r e q u i r e d f o r the showing o f a p l a y . I must
q u a l i f y t h i s l a s t statement by p o i n t i n g out t h a t a l t h o u g h i n the mas-
querade p e r f o r m a n c e , , i n t e r n a l knowledge o f the o r g a n i z a t i o n o f the p l a y
i s s e c r e t w i t h i n the s e c r e t s o c i e t y and i t s members, t h e i r performance
i s done in. the open; o t h e r w i s e i t would be.meaningless t o the community.
The t h e a t r e by i t s v e r y n a t u r e i s o u t . i n the open. T h i s makes i t
s u b j e c t t o many forms o f t r a d i t i o n a l and/or p u b l i c s c r u t i n y , . i n f l u e n c e ,
s u p e r v i s i o n and r e g u l a t i o n , c o v e r i n g m a t t e r s t h a t a r e f i s c a l , p o l i t i c a l ,
r e l i g i o u s , s o c i a l and governmental by n a t u r e . The masquerade p l a y o f
the Igbos, as i n d e e d such performance e i t h e r by the Kwakiutl or the
M e l a n e s i a n s , q u a l i f y i n t h i s c a t e g o r y a l s o . A l l t h a t has been w r i t t e n
i n e a r l i e r c h a p t e r s f i t s i n n i c e l y .
117
We can t h e r e f o r e summarize t h a t t h e t h e a t r e can t r u l y be s a i d t o
have form, a s t r u c t u r e , an i d e n t i t y o f i t s own. I t e x i s t s , even i n
the modern sense, f o r the purpose o f s e r v i n g drama and v i c e v e r s a .
In a l a r g e r sense, drama and t h e a t r e n a r r o w l y d e f i n e d a r e the same.
T h i s i s the case w i t h the masquerade performance o f the Igbos. I t
s h o u l d be a p p r o p r i a t e t o use an Igbo example t o demonstrate t h i s .
O t t e n b e r g has w r i t t e n on the Okumkpa p l a y s o f the A f i k p o i n which he
showed t h a t the p l a y has f o u r a c t s . I d i d w r i t e on the Ozoebunu p e r -
formance o f the Ozubulu when I d i s c u s s e d i n i t i a t i o n ceremony. L e t us
t h e r e f o r e examine f u r t h e r a n o t h e r Igbo community and'the a c c o u n t o f
the i j e l e masquerade as r e c o r d e d by Boston . Boston (1960), wrote o f
the masquerades o f the Nri-Awka Igbos. I t s h o u l d be noted i n p a s s i n g
5
t h a t N r i i s c o n s i d e r e d the c r a d l e and a n c e s t r a l home o f the Igbos .
His w r i t i n g can be summarized as f o l l o w s .
A l l masks among the Nri-Awka Iqbos a r e c r e d i t e d w i t h s u p e r n a t u r a l
powers, but i n some c a s e s t h i s importance i s a l s o founded on the
s o c i a l f a c t s , such as t h e i r c o s t o r the impact o f t h e i r performance on
t h e l o c a l i t y . The summit o f masquerading i n terms o f o s t e n t a t i o n and
s o c i a l p r e s t i g e i s o c c u p i e d by a mask c a l l e d i j e l e and i s owned by a l l
t h e f o u r c l a n s , T h i s mask r e q u i r e s y e a r s o f e f f o r t t o purchase and
meet t h e c o s t o f u n d e r t a k i n g i t s performance. In i t s s o c i a l a s p e c t ,
the i j e l e i s not u n l i k e the p o t l a t c h , s i n c e the p r o d i g a l e x p e n d i t u r e i s
c a l c u l a t e d t o make an i m p r e s s i o n o v e r a wide a r e a . The aim o f the
i j e l e i s m o s t l y r e l i g i o u s , s i n c e i t i s a symbol o f c o n t i n u i t y and r i t u a l
w e l l - b e i n g i n the community o f i t s owners. The mask i t s e l f , l i k e the
Ozoebunu o f Ozubulu, i s t r e a t e d w i t h g r e a t r e s p e c t , and, a f t e r use when
P l a t e X. The i j e l e masquerade.
(Photograph by E.C. Onwuzolum).
119
i t s p a r t s a r e d i s m a n t l e d , t h e y a r e c a r e f u l l y p r e s e r v e d as r i t u a l
o b j e c t s w i t h powerful a n c e s t r a l s a n c t i o n s a g a i n s t d i s p o s i n g them t o
anyone o u t s i d e the umunna ( " c l a n " ) . The i j e l e i s t h e r e f o r e p u b l i c
p r o p e r t y .
The mask, i j e l e , i s a t a b l e a u o f f i g u r e s w i t h t r a p p i n g s hanging
from i t s bottom edge t o c o n c e a l t h e p e r f o r m e r who c a r r i e s the s t r u c t u r e
on h i s head (see p h o t o g r a p h ) . The t a b l e a u i s s u p p o r t e d by a framework
made o f cane and s l a t s o f palm m i d r i b which c o n s i s t s o f a c i r c u l a r
base about s i x f e e t a c r o s s , a p a i r o f a r c h e s s p a n n i n g t h e base and
i n t e r s e c t i n g a t r i g h t a n g l e s some e i g h t f e e t above i t s c e n t r e , and a
l i g h t open work cone f i t t e d t o the base, w i t h i t s apex a t t a c h e d t o the
j u n c t i o n o f the a r c h e s . No p a r t o f t h e framework i s v i s i b l e when the
mask i s f i n i s h e d , as the cone i s c o v e r e d w i t h r e d c l o t h and t h e
s t r u t s o f the a r c h e s a r e bound a l s o i n r e d c l o t h and f i n i s h e d o f f w i t h
t a s s e l s . The theme o f the t a b l e a u t h a t o c c u p i e s the upper s e c t i o n o f
the i j e l e i s the l i f e o f a t y p i c a l Igbo community. Human f i g u r e s a r e
i n the m a j o r i t y and a r e a r r a n g e d t o d e p i c t e i t h e r s a c r i f i c e o f a n i m a l s
o r the p l a y i n g o f m u s i c a l i n s t r u m e n t s , e t c . R e a l i s t i c f i g u r e s o f
l o c a l a n i m a l s and b i r d s a r e a l s o d e p i c t e d , so a l s o a r e some masks o f
the a r e a .
I j e l e i s made by p r o f e s s i o n a l men who work i n an e n c l o s u r e e s p e c i -
a l l y p r e p a r e d f o r them a t the edge o f the c l e a r i n g i n which the mask
w i l l e v e n t u a l l y perform. The c o m p l e t i o n o f the work i s u s u a l l y i n
time f o r the m i d d l e o f t h e d r y season f e a s t p e r i o d and i n v i t a t i o n s
a r e s e n t out t o persons o f both sexes o v e r a wide a r e a t o come and watch.
Much o f t h e time o f the a c t u a l performance i s taken up by the owners and
120
t h e i r male r e l a t i v e s , i n s i n g i n g and d a n c i n g and d i s p l a y i n g the
cows, goats and yams, and money t h a t a r e b e i n g p r e s e n t e d t o the i j e l e .
But from time t o time the f i e l d i s c l e a r e d and t h e i j e l e o r c h e s t r a
t a k e s command w h i l s t the mask dances out o f i t s h i d i n g p l a c e , f o l l o w i n g
i t s g u i d e who i s the d i r e c t o r o f t h e p l a y , swaying and t u r n i n g g r a c e -
f u l l y as i t goes t o v i s i t each s e c t i o n o f the huge a u d i e n c e .
We need not b e l a b o u r the p o i n t t h a t the i j e l e p l a y and performance
i s t h e a t r e because.the d e s c r i p t i o n demonstrates q u i t e c l e a r l y the t h r e e
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f the t h e a t r e which R i c e p o s t u l a t e s . R i c e (1955:12)
has h i m s e l f shown t h a t t h e a t r e l i k e o t h e r human a c t i v i t i e s i s shaped
and d e v e l o p e d by the s o c i a l environment. He used t h e examples o f r u r a l
Mexico and i n d u s t r i a l i z e d Germany t o demonstrate t h i s , and f o r the
purpose o f our a n a l y s i s i t i s q u i t e n e c e s s a r y t o quote h i s Mexican
example:
"The t h e a t r e . . . i s a v i l l a g e a f f a i r , a communal e n t e r p r i s e
known as f i e s t a , i n which the e n t i r e p o p u l a t i o n u s u a l l y
p a r t i c i p a t e s e i t h e r as p e r f o r m e r s o r as s p e c t a t o r s . O f t e n
t h e s e f i e s t a s t a k e on the a s p e c t o f a f a i r , l a s t i n g f o r
s e v e r a l days, and combining w i t h the t h e a t r i c a l performance
a market, r e l i g i o u s o b s e r v a n c e s w i t h v a r i o u s forms o f d i v e r -
s i o n . . . U s u a l l y the d r a m a t i c f e a t u r e o f the f i e s t a i s performed
by a group o f v i l l a g e r s who s p e c i a l i z e i n the s k i l l s o f
d a n c i n g , s i n g i n g or p l a y i n g m u s i c a l i n s t r u m e n t s . These
s k i l l s a r e f r e q u e n t l y handed down from f a t h e r t o s o n , so t h a t
the p e r f o r m e r s have a l m o s t a p r o f e s s i o n a l s t a t u s , though o f
c o u r s e p e r f o r m i n g i s an a v o c a t i o n w i t h them. Many o f them
have g r e a t t h e a t r i c a l t a l e n t and p e r f o r m most a r t f u l l y . . .
The dramas a r e s i m p l e . . . a r e s i m i l a r t o t h e medieval m y s t e r y
and m i r a c l e p l a y s w i t h a s t r o n g emphasis on t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l " .
R i c e c o n c l u d e d h i s e x a m i n a t i o n o f the Mexican v i l l a g e t h e a t r e by
p o i n t i n g o u t t h a t such a t h e a t r e can f l o u r i s h i n a p r e - i n d u s t r i a l
s o c i e t y among p e o p l e who a r e r o o t e d i n the v i l l a g e and d e e p l y imbued
w i t h t r a d i t i o n . T h i s i s the c a s e w i t h Igbo masks and p l a y s ; i n f a c t ,
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h i s o b s e r v a t i o n s a r e apt f o r our p r e s e n t s t u d y and f o r most o t h e r
s o c i e t i e s t h a t have masks. For example, Machon (1966:39-46) d e s c r i b e d
the drama o f the Kwakiutl masked ceremonies t h u s : "Songs and rhythm
were i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r s i n t h e c r e a t i o n o f a . t h e a t r i c a l mood. Each
p e r f o r m e r r e q u i r e d a number o f s e c r e t songs which s t r e s s e d h i s s p i r i t u a l
powers, and t h e s e were composed-by the song-maker. The c h o r u s l e a r n e d
the songs i n s e c r e c y , p u b l i c p r e s e n t a t i o n o c c u r r i n g f o r the f i r s t time
d u r i n g the i n i t i a t i o n ceremony. The beat o f the song was kept w i t h a
drum and w i t h batons which were beaten upon a board. The b e a t i n g o f
time and the words o f the songs s e r v e d t o impress upon t h e s p e c t a t o r s
the s u p e r n a t u r a l powers o f t h e performance".
Igbo Masquerade as R i t u a l
I t has been demonstrated t h a t Igbo. masquerade i s t h e a t r e . However,
t h i s i s o n l y p a r t o f t h e s t o r y because, t o t h e Igbos, the masquerade
has r e l i g i o u s i m p l i c a t i o n s . I t was noted e a r l i e r t h a t t h e Igbos b e l i e v e
t h a t t h e mask i s imbued w i t h r e a l meaning and c a r r i e d v e r y r e a l s u p e r -
n a t u r a l powers which i n v e s t e d power i n t h e wearer, the costume, and
t h e mask i t s e l f d u r i n g (and even a f t e r ) such times as i t was brought
f o r t h i n r i t u a l ceremony and t h e a t r i c a l performance. Even the p r e p a r -
a t i o n o r c a r v i n g o f the mask seems t o agree w i t h C o l e ' s c o n c e p t o f
" a r t - f o r - 1 i f e sake; s i n c e i n most c a s e s the mask was c l o s e l y a l l i e d t o
t h o s e c u l t u r a l mechanisms d e d i c a t e d t o the maintenance o f o r d e r and
w e l l - b e i n g among the Igbos" . The mask i s o r i e n t e d t o t h o s e s o c i a l
v a l u e s upon which depend t h e sense o f i n d i v i d u a l and community s e c u r i t y .
122
.There is.-.a-puzzle'to be s o l v e d . A l l o v e r the w o r l d men mark
out t h e i r c a l e n d a r s by means o f f e s t i v a l s , which a r e forms o f t r a n s -
f o r m a t i o n , and i n a l l t h e s e f e s t i v a l s , r i t e s o f passage a r e used t o
mark s o c i a l development o f both i n d i v i d u a l s and the s o c i e t y . Why
s h o u l d time be demarcated i n t h i s way? Why s h o u l d i t be a p p r o p r i a t e
t o wear t o p h a t s a t Western f u n e r a l s , and masks on i f e j i o k u ceremony
among the Igbos? F r a z e r e x p l a i n e d such b e h a v i o u r by t r e a t i n g them as
s u r v i v a l o f p r i m i t i v e magic. His e x p l a n a t i o n i s q u i t e i n a d e q u a t e . I t
i s not good enough t o e x p l a i n a world-wide phenomenon i n terms o f p a r -
t i c u l a r , l o c a l i z e d , a r c h a i c b e l i e f s . The o d d e s t t h i n g about time i s
s u r e l y t h a t men have such a c o n c e p t a t a l l . We e x p e r i e n c e i t , but not
w i t h our s e n s e s . We do n o t see time o r t o u c h i t , o r smell i t , o r t a s t e
i t o r hear. i t .
A c c o r d i n g t o Leach (1963:132-6), human b e i n g s e x p e r i e n c e time i n
t h r e e ways. F i r s t l y , we r e c o g n i z e r e p e t i t i o n which b r i n g s out time
i n t e r v a l s . Time i n t e r v a l s - - d u r a t i o n s - - a l w a y s b e g i n and end w i t h the
same t h i n g , e.g. a p u l s e b e a t , New Year's day, e t c . S e c o n d l y , we r e c o g -
n i z e e n t r o p y , a g e i n g . L i v i n g t h i n g s a r e b o r n , grow, o l d and d i e . Ageing
i s the i r r e v e r s i b l e f a t e o f us a l l , but a g e i n g and i n t e r v a l a r e s u r e l y
two q u i t e d i f f e r e n t k i n d s o f e x p e r i e n c e , We lump t h e s e two e x p e r i e n c e s
t o g e t h e r and d e s c r i b e them both by one name--time--because a c c o r d i n g
t o Leach (1963:133), "We would l i k e t o b e l i e v e t h a t i n some m y s t i c a l
way b i r t h and death a r e r e a l l y t h e same t h i n g " . T h i r d l y , our e x p e r i e n c e
o f time c o n c e r n s t h e r a t e a t which time p a s s e s . There i s e v i d e n c e t o
show t h a t the i n d i v i d u a l ages a t a pace t h a t i s e v e r s l o w i n g down i n
r e l a t i o n t o the sequence o f s t e l l a r t i m e . The f e e l i n g t h a t the f i r s t
123
ten y e a r s o f c h i l d h o o d " l a s t e d much l o n g e r " may not be an i l l u s i o n .
B i o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s such as wound h e a l i n g o p e r a t e much f a s t e r ( i n
terms o f s t e l l a r time) d u r i n g c h i l d h o o d than i n o l d age. T h i s
i r r e g u l a r f l o w o f time i s o b s e r v a b l e i n p l a n t s ; t h e y grow much f a s t e r
i n t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e i r l i f e c y c l e .
Such f a c t s show t h a t the r e g u l a r i t y o f time i s not an i n t r i n s i c
p a r t o f n a t u r e ; i t i s a man-made n o t i o n which human b e i n g s p r o j e c t i n t o
the environment f o r t h e i r own p u r p o s e s . Men t r y t o f i x a "chronometer"
by which t o measure t h e a f f a i r s o f l i f e . I t i s t h e annual sequence o f
a c t i v i t i e s which p r o v i d e s the measure o f t i m e . F o r . p e o p l e who do not
p o s s e s s c a l e n d a r s o f t h e n a u t i c a l almanac t y p e , t h e p r o g r e s s o f t i m e ,
e s p e c i a l l y the y e a r ' s p r o g r e s s , i s marked by a s u c c e s s i o n o f f e s t i v a l s .
Each f e s t i v a l r e p r e s e n t s a temporary s h i f t from the "normal - p r o f a n e "
o r d e r o f e x i s t e n c e i n t o the "abnormal - s a c r e d " o r d e r , and back a g a i n .
The t o t a l f l o w o f time then has a p a t t e r n which might be r e p r e s e n t e d
as shown below.
/
\
A S a c r e d ,C A
r
Sacred C
V
^
s n s n
s u ' /
u
5
Fig.- VI. R i t u a l S e p a r a t i o n
(Taken w i t h m o d i f i c a t i o n s from Leach (1963:134)).
124
Such f l o w o f time as shown above i s man-made. I t i s o r d e r e d i n
t h i s way by the s o c i e t i e s ( t h e "moral p e r s o n " t o use Durkheim's t e r -
m i n o l o g y ) , which p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e f e s t a l r i t e s , and t h i s a g r e e s
w i t h the d e f i n i t i o n o f comedy. The r i t e s t h e m s e l v e s , e s p e c i a l l y
s a c r i f i c i a l ones ( a f t e r which masquerades may appear among many p e o p l e s ,
t h e Igbos i n the c o n t e x t o f our a n a l y s i s ) , a r e t e c h n i q u e s f o r c h a n g i n g
the s t a t u s o f the moral person from p r o f a n e t o s a c r e d , o r from s a c r e d
t o p r o f a n e . Viewed i n t h i s Durkheimian way, t h e t o t a l sequence
embraces f o u r d i s t i n c t phases, o f s t a t e s o f the community.
Phase A. These a r e r i t e s and r i t u a l s o f s a c r a l i z a t i o n and/or
s e p a r a t i o n . The moral person i s t r a n s f e r r e d from the s e c u l a r t o the
s a c r e d w o r l d . T h i s i s most s y m b o l i c o f i n i t i a t i o n i n t o t h e Igbo mmuo
o r masquerade s e c r e t s o c i e t i e s . The whole s o c i e t y i s o f f e r i n g s a c r i f i c e s
t o make the t r a n s f e r s u c c e s s f u l and b e n e f i c i a l t o a l l .
Phase B. The m a r g i n a l s t a t e . The moral person i s i n a s a c r e d
c o n d i t i o n , a k i n d o f suspended a n i m a t i o n , O r d i n a r y time has s t o p p e d .
T h i s i s s y m b o l i c o f f e s t i v i t y - - m a s q u e r a d e s among the Igbos. Both the
p e r f o r m e r s and the a u d i e n c e ( i . e . c o m p r i s i n g the community), a r e i n a
s t a t e o f suspended a n i m a t i o n . P r a y e r s and s a c r i f i c e s have made the
s o c i e t y p e a c e f u l and pure. The masks ( s p i r i t s - m m u o ) appear t o shower
b l e s s i n g s on t h e p e o p l e and t o d r a m a t i z e the m y t h i c a l f o u n d a t i o n and
b e l i e f s o f the a n c e s t o r s and t h e i r p r e s e n t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s t h e community.
The s o c i e t y i s r e v e r s e d t o the time o f t h e a n c e s t o r s . We s h a l l r e t u r n
t o t h i s l a t e r .
Phase C. The r i t e o f d e s a c r a l i z a t i o n . The moral p e r s o n , t h e
community, i s brought back from the s a c r e d t o the p r o f a n e w o r l d . He
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i s r e b o r n , s e c u l a r time s t a r t s anew. The community has r e a f f i r m e d
i t s e l f through r i t u a l and accompanying masked performance.
Phase D. T h i s i s the phase o f normal s e c u l a r l i f e , t h e i n t e r v a l
between s u c c e s s i v e masquerade p e r f o r m a n c e s .
So much f o r Leach, but l e t me draw a t t e n t i o n t o c e r t a i n f e a t u r e s
i n t h e f o r e g o i n g t h e o r e t i c a l argument. F i r s t l y , i t s h o u l d be emphasized
t h a t , among the v a r i o u s f u n c t i o n s which the h o l d i n g o f masquerade p e r -
formance o r s o c i a l drama may f u l f i l l t o the Igbos, one v e r y i m p o r t a n t
f u n c t i o n i s the o r d e r i n g o f c a l e n d r i c a l time, The i n t e r v a l between
such masquerade and/or i n i t i a t i o n ceremonies and f e s t i v a l s o f the
same type i s a p e r i o d , u s u a l l y a named one, e,g. i z u ("Igbo week"),
a f o , ( " y e a r " ) , e t c . Without the f e s t i v a l s , such p e r i o d s would not
e x i s t , and a l l o r d e r would go out o f s o c i a l l i f e .
S e c o n d l y , t h e r e i s the m a t t e r o f r o l e r e v e r s a l . I f we a c c e p t
Leach's a n a l y s i s o f the s t r u c t u r e o f r i t u a l which I have o u t l i n e d
above, then one might argue t h a t the r i t u a l s o f Phase A and the r i t u a l s
o f Phase C ought, i n some s e n s e , t o be the r e v e r s e o f one a n o t h e r .
S i m i l a r l y , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e diagram, Phase B ought somehow t o be t h e
l o g i c a l o p p o s i t e o f Phase D. These o p p o s i t e s o r r e v e r s a l s a r e exem-
p l i f i e d i n Igbo masquerade performance,
We may d i s t i n g u i s h t h r e e s e e m i n g l y c o n t r a d i c t o r y t y p e s o f b e h a v i o u r
i n masquerades a s , i n f a c t , on most r i t u a l o c c a s i o n s . On the one
h a n d a n d t h i s c o r r e s p o n d s t o Phase A i n F i g . V I - - t h e r e a r e b e h a v i o u r s
i n which f o r m a l i t y i s i n c r e a s e d . D i f f e r e n c e s o f s t a t u s a r e p r e c i s e l y
demarcated by e t i q u e t t e ; moral r u l e s a r e v i g o r o u s l y and o s t e n t a t i o u s l y
obeyed. T h i s i s e s p e c i a l l y the c a s e w i t h r i t e s and r i t u a l s d u r i n g
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i n i t i a t i o n and/or b e f o r e the mask i s "brought f o r t h i n t o l i f e " , i . e .
put on a dancer f o r p u b l i c performance. In c o n t r a s t , t h e second
b e h a v i o u r (Phase B) i s t h a t i n which the i n d i v i d u a l seeks t o d i s g u i s e
h i s s o c i a l p e r s o n a l i t y and h i s o f f i c i a l s t a t u s . The w o r l d goes i n t o
a mask ( s a c r e d t i m e ) and t h e f o r m a l r u l e s o f o r t h o d o x l i f e a r e f o r -
g o t t e n . F i n a l l y , i n some i n s t a n c e s o f Igbo masquerades, we f i n d an
extreme form o f r e v e l r y i n which p a r t i c i p a n t s p l a y - a c t a t b e i n g
p r e c i s e l y the o p p o s i t e o f what t h e y r e a l l y a r e ; men d r e s s up and a c t
as women, e.g. t h e agbogho mmuo o f the N o r t h e r n Igbos and the n j e n j e
parade o f the A f i k p o . In such s i t u a t i o n s , normal s o c i a l l i f e i s p l a y e d
i n r e v e r s e . The y o u t h s m i g h t ' o p e n l y d i s r e s p e c t and c h a s t i s e the
e l d e r s , t a k i n g l i c e n c e from the mask. T h i s i s p a r t o f Phase B and
a l s o Phase C. I t becomes Phase C towards the end o f the masquerade
ceremony when t h e a c t s a r e about t o engage i n r i t u a l s f o r s t o p p i n g the
c e l e b r a t i o n s . They may j o k e and behave i n c o n t r a s t t o e t i q u e t t e .
L e t us r e c a l l t h a t t h e s e t h r e e t y p e s o f r i t u a l b e h a v i o u r found
i n Igbo masquerade drama, i . e . f o r m a l i t y , masks, and r o l e r e v e r s a l , a r e
i n p r a c t i c e c l o s e l y a s s o c i a t e d even though t h e y a r e c o n c e p t u a l l y
d i s t i n c t s p e c i e s o f b e h a v i o u r . A r i t e which begins w i t h f o r m a l i t y
ends i n masquerades and r o l e r e v e r s a l , and v i c e v e r s a .
E l i a d e has w r i t t e n f u r t h e r on the n a t u r e o f time i n a n o t h e r
d i m e n s i o n . For him, annual p e r i o d s o f f e s t i v i t i e s and accompanying
r i t u a l s such as masquerades, a r e ways o f c r e a t i n g not o n l y c a l e n d r i c a l
time but s a c r e d p r i m o r d i a l t i m e . W r i t i n g o f such t i m e , E l i a d e (1959:
68) commented:
"For r e l i g i o u s man, time t o o , l i k e s p a c e , i s n e i t h e r
homogeneous nor c o n t i n u o u s . On t h e one hand t h e r e a r e
the i n t e r v a l s o f s a c r e d t i m e , t h e time o f f e s t i v a l s
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(by f a r t h e g r e a t e r p a r t o f which a r e p e r i o d i c a l ) ;
on t h e o t h e r t h e r e i s p r o f a n e t i m e , o r d i n a r y temporal
d u r a t i o n , i n which a c t s w i t h o u t r e l i g i o u s meaning have
t h e i r s e t t i n g . Between t h e s e two k i n d s o f time t h e r e i s ,
o f c o u r s e , s o l u t i o n o f c o n t i n u i t y ; but by means o f r i t e s
r e l i g i o u s man can pass w i t h o u t danger from o r d i n a r y
temporal d u r a t i o n t o s a c r e d t i m e " .
One e s s e n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e between t h e s e two q u a l i t i e s o f time
s t r i k e s i m m e d i a t e l y : by i t s v e r y n a t u r e s a c r e d time i s a p r i m o r d i a l
m y t h i c a l time made p r e s e n t . Every r e l i g i o u s f e s t i v a l , any l i t u r g i c a l
t i m e , r e p r e s e n t s the r e a c t u a l i z a t i o n o f a s a c r e d time t h a t took p l a c e
i n a m y t h i c a l p a s t - - i n t h e " b e g i n n i n g " . R e l i g i o u s p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n
a f e s t i v a l i m p l i e s emerging from o r d i n a r y temporal d u r a t i o n and r e i n -
t e g r a t i o n o f the m y t h i c a l t i m e , r e a c t u a l i z e d by the f e s t i v a l i t s e l f .
Hence, s a c r e d time i s i n d e f i n i t e l y r e c o v e r a b l e , i n d e f i n i t e l y r e p e a t a b l e .
From one p o i n t o f view, i t c o u l d be s a i d t h a t i t does not p a s s , t h a t
i t does not c o n s t i t u t e an i r r e v e r s i b l e d u r a t i o n . I t i s an o n t o l o g i c a l
t i m e ; i t always remains equal t o i t s e l f , i t n e i t h e r changes nor i s
e x h a u s t e d . With each p e r i o d i c f e s t i v a l , such as annual i f e j i o k u ,
i n i t i a t i o n ceremonies and masquerade p l a y s , the p a r t i c i p a n t s f i n d the
same s a c r e d t i m e - - t h e same t h a t had been m a n i f e s t e d i n the f e s t i v a l o f
the p r e v i o u s y e a r or t h a t o f a c e n t u r y e a r l i e r . I t i s the time t h a t
was c r e a t e d and s a n c t i f i e d by the gods. In o t h e r words, the p a r t i c i p a n t s
i n t h e f e s t i v a l meet i n i t s f i r s t appearance, i . e . t h e f i r s t appearance
o f s a c r e d t i m e , as i t appeared ab o r i g i n e , i n i l l o tempore. In such
annual Igbo f e s t i v a l s , i t i s o n l y n a t u r a l and l o g i c a l t h a t masquerades
which a r e t h e d r a m a t i z a t i o n o f t h e myths o f the p e o p l e , s h o u l d be put
i n t o performance. My argument hence f o l l o w s c l o s e l y the f i r s t , t h a t
masquerades a t annual f e s t i v a l s a r e t o c r e a t e not o n l y the r e l i g i o u s
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framework f o r the f e s t i v a l i t s e l f , but a l s o t o c r e a t e a d d i t i o n a l
p l e a s u r e and amusement f o r a p e o p l e i n a s t a t e o f r e l i g i o u s j o y .
I t i s a means o f g e t t i n g the community t o g e t h e r as an a u d i e n c e t o
move i n t o sacred: t i m e t h e time o f the a n c e s t o r s ,
Igbo Masquerade as R i t u a l - T h e a t r e
Thus f a r I have p r e s e n t e d two a s p e c t s o f t h e m a s q u e r a d e n a m e l y ,
t h e a t r i c a l i t y and r i t u a l . The r i t u a l o f the mask e n a b l e s the Igbos
t o s e p a r a t e space and time and t e m p o r a r i l y l i v e i n the m y t h i c a l
b e g i n n i n g s o f t h e i r s o c i e t y , the time o f the a n c e s t o r s . The paradox
o f t h e mask w i t h i t s r i t u a l and t h e a t r i c a l i t y becomes the same as the
paradox o f the p r e s e n t and the p a s t . The mask i s t h a t p o t e n t symbol
t h r o u g h which d e v i c e the Igbos l o o k a t the p a s t . T h i s i s v e r y i m p o r t a n t
because the mask i s not j u s t an a r t i s t i c e x p r e s s i o n , but a much b i g g e r
phenomenon. Through i t s t h e a t r i c a l i t y , Igbos r e l a x and e n t e r t a i n
t h e m s e l v e s . Through i t s r i t u a l s they a l s o r e l i v e t h e i r h i s t o r i c
p a s t , i n t h e company o f t h e i r a n c e s t o r s , t h e f o u n d i n g f a t h e r s o f the
s o c i e t y who have been evoked and g i v e n form. The mask r e p r e s e n t s the
paradox o f man and t h e unseen o r a b s t r a c t f o r c e s . Through i t , man
communicates w i t h t h e s e unseen but s u p e r n a t u r a l and s u p e r p o w e r f u l
f o r c e s . The wood t h a t i s mask i s g i v e n power t h r o u g h r i t u a l , and t h i s
i s a v e r y i m p o r t a n t and powerful medium o f communication w i t h the
p a s t . The mask i s t h e r e f o r e not the wood we hang on museum w a l l s but
an i m p o r t a n t r i t u a l and t h e a t r i c a l agent.
My argument o r t h e s i s then i s t h a t Igbo masquerade performance i s
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not o n l y drama or t h e a t r e i n i t s own r i g h t , but i s s y m b o l i c o f a
complete t r a n s f e r from the s e c u l a r - p r o f a n e w o r l d o f e v e r y d a y l i f e t o
t h e s a c r e d f e s t a l time o f the a n c e s t o r s d u r i n g which time the myths
o f Igbo s o c i e t i e s a r e d r a m a t i z e d . F u r t h e r , masquerades e n a b l e the
Igbos t o l i v e o t h e r t y p e s o f l i f e , i . e . l i v e i n the p a s t , and h e l p s
them t o overcome monotony. By so d o i n g , t h e y r e a f f i r m the c o n t i n u i t y
o f t h e i r s o c i e t y , because the mask h e l p s them r e t a i n the i n d i v i s i b i l i t y
o f t h e i r a c t i o n s , purposes and v a l u e s , a l l o f which a r e n e c e s s a r y f o r
t h e maintenance o f the community. Community r e p r e s e n t s the y e a r n i n g s
o f men " f o r a commonality o f d e s i r e , a communion w i t h t h o s e around us,
an e x t e n s i o n o f the bonds o f k i n and f r i e n d t o a l l t h o s e who s h a r e a
common f a t e w i t h us" (Minar and G r e e r , 1970:IX).
Because t h e masquerade performance a c h i e v e s t h i s , i t i s a p r o p e r
r i t u a l - f e s t i v a l . In the a r t i s t i c sense i t i s a l s o t h e a t r e . One i s
t h e r e f o r e r i g h t t o i n t e r p r e t masks and masquerades as r i t u a l - f e s t i v a l
and t h e a t r e , o r r i t u a l t h e a t r e f o r s h o r t .
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CHAPTER VI
CONCLUSION
In t h i s s t u d y j u s t c o n c l u d e d , we have t r i e d t o p r e s e n t the
masquerade p l a y s o f the Igbos i n a r i t u a l - t h e a t r i c a l c o n t e x t . But
why s h o u l d one devote a t t e n t i o n t o . t h e o s t u d y o f masks i n the f i r s t
p l a c e ? What a r e the advantages t h a t come from the s t u d y o f masquerade
as t h e a t r e ?
F i r s t l y , I b e l i e v e t h a t p r e s e n t i n g the mask as r i t u a l t h e a t r e has
o b v i o u s m u s e o l o g i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s . We now know t h a t the mask i s not
j u s t a f a c e c o v e r i n g , but a l s o has a s s o c i a t e d costumes and i s used as
s o c i a l drama. F u r t h e r , as S i e b e r (1962) has r i g h t l y p o i n t e d o u t ,
d i s p l a y i n g a mask i n a museum as an i s o l a t e d p i e c e , c o n s t i t u t e s a g r o s s
m i s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n not o n l y o f t h e s o c i a l v a l u e s i n h e r e n t i n t h e mask,
but a l s o o f the a e s t h e t i c component o f the mask i n i t s o r i g i n a l c o n -
t e x t . Masquerade performance, l o o k e d a t i n terms o f r i t u a l t h e a t r e ,
i n c l u d e s music, dance, s c e n e r y , e t c . , as w e l l as the r i t u a l s c o n n e c t e d
t h e r e t o . These a r e i d e a s c u r a t o r s , d e s i g n e r s and o t h e r museum o f f i c i a l s
s h o u l d bear i n mind i n d i s p l a y i n g Igbo, any A f r i c a n , o r masks from any
o t h e r c u l t u r e s . We d i d i n t e n d t o put the mask i n i t s p r o p e r c o n t e x t
i n the e x h i b i t "The World o f S p i r i t s " which preceeded t h i s t h e s i s .
Having s t u d i e d the mmuo s o c i e t y , one i s i n c l i n e d t o b e l i e v e t h a t
t o the Igbos, t h e s e c r e t s o c i e t y remains an i n d i s p e n s a b l e i n s t i t u t i o n .
I t i s so t o the Yorubas, K a l a b a r i s and I b i b i o s , a l l o f whom a r e the
131
n e i g h b o u r s o f the Igbos. The Egungun masks o f the Yorubas "brought
back t h e s p i r i t o f i m p o r t a n t a n c e s t o r s and gods t o the towns'
1
^.
Among the K a l a h a r i , t h e e k i n e dance s o c i e t i e s p e r f o r m e l a b o r a t e mask
p l a y s , whose purposes a r e not o n l y t o r e f l e c t the l i f e o f K a l a h a r i
towns and v i l l a g e s , but a l s o t o c r e a t e e n t e r t a i n m e n t f o r t h e p e o p l e .
o
I t had the o t h e r f u n c t i o n o f e s t a b l i s h i n g the p r e s e n c e o f the s p i r i t s .
The mask as an i n s t i t u t i o n i s t h e r e f o r e not unique t o the Igbos a l o n e
but i s common t o most o t h e r s o c i e t i e s i n N i g e r i a , A f r i c a and the w o r l d
a t l a r g e . I, t h e r e f o r e , c o n s i d e r i t n e c e s s a r y t h a t s i n c e s i m i l a r
a t t r i b u t e s a r e found i n masks o f o t h e r s o c i e t i e s , the mask i s a
s u b j e c t t h a t r e q u i r e s d e t a i l e d s t u d y as a human i n s t i t u t i o n . T h i s
s t u d y . t h e r e f o r e h e l p s t o answer the s o c i o - c u l t u r a l q u e s t i o n s r e l a t e d
t o why men d i s g u i s e themselves i n masks, and why they behave d i f f e r -
e n t l y when they put on the mask^. A l t h o u g h the s t u d y i s p r i m a r i l y
c o n c e r n e d w i t h the Igbos, as a humble b e g i n n i n g , i t n e v e r t h e l e s s
c o u l d be used t o s t u d y t h i s i n s t i t u t i o n i n o t h e r s o c i e t i e s and c r o s s -
c u l t u r a l l y . I t h i n k t h a t t h i s i s what a n t h r o p o l o g y i s a l l about, i . e .
h e l p i n g us, a c c o r d i n g t o Sanday (1976:XV), " t o seek a g r e a t e r under-
s t a n d i n g o f how the c u l t u r e i n which we l i v e a f f e c t s our l i v e s " . I
wish to p o i n t out t h a t t h i s i s even more demanded i n a n t h r o p o l o g y t o d a y ,
because o f the need t o study and d e s c r i b e c u l t u r e s , and i n o r d e r t o
b u i l d a body o f knowledge and t h e o r y t h a t p o r t r a y s and e x p l a i n s "both
the s i m i l a r i t i e s and t h e d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e c o n d i t i o n o f mankind, t o
g e t a t what' i s common t h r o u g h the d i f f e r e n c e s t h a t have a r i s e n t h r o u g h
an i n t e r a c t i o n o f men w i t h e x t e r n a l n a t u r e and each o t h e r i n d i f f e r e n t
s e t t i n g s " (Hymes, 1969:12).
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S t u d i e s o f t h i s type have become i n d i s p e n s a b l e t o the emergent
c o u n t r i e s o f t h e t h i r d w o r l d , o f which N i g e r i a i s one. The a u t h o r
o f t h i s s t u d y i s h i m s e l f from N i g e r i a where he has worked and may
c o n t i n u e t o work i n a museum. The museums a r e p a r t o f t h o s e
mechanisms through which s o c i e t i e s p r o t e c t t h e i r c u l t u r a l h e r i t a g e .
The advantages t o s o c i e t i e s o r c o u n t r i e s t o p r o t e c t t h e i r c u l t u r e can
be seen from the d e f i n i t i o n o f t h a t t e c h n i c a l a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l term
i t s e l f as g i v e n by Belshaw (1969:12). To him, c u l t u r e has t h r e e
a s p e c t s :
a) "That a s p e c t i n which i t i s c o n s i d e r e d as the end r e s u l t o f s o c i a l
a c t i o n " .
b) " I t s n a t u r e as a s t o c k o f r e s o u r c e s and c a p a b i l i t i e s which can be
used f o r f u r t h e r a c t i o n " .
c) " I t s n a t u r e as an o p e r a t i o n a l system which i n f l u e n c e s a c t i o n , t h a t
i s , as a c u l t u r a l o r g a n i z a t i o n o r the a n o l o g y o f s o c i a l o r g a n -
i z a t i o n " .
Masquerade performances i n the p a s t and p r e s e n t d e p i c t some i f
n o t a l l o f t h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . o r a s p e c t s o f c u l t u r e as I have shown.
I t i s not an i n s t i t u t i o n t h a t s h o u l d be a l l o w e d t o d i s a p p e a r w i t h
s o c i a l change, and h a p p i l y the mmuo s o c i e t y o f t h e Igbos has adapted
t o change and t h i s has made i t f u n c t i o n a l l y dynamic. T h i s mmuo s o c i e t y
c o u l d be u t i l i z e d f o r development i n such a r e a s as i n community
e f f o r t s and development. But t h i s i s a p o l i t i c a l q u e s t i o n .
; We i n the museums have the p r i e s t l y duty t o :
a) P r e s e r v e both o b j e c t s o f c u l t u r a l h e r i t a g e and i n f o r m a t i o n p e r t i n e n t
t o them.
133
b) To s y s t e m a t i c a l l y and d e l i g h t f u l l y p r e s e n t what the museum has
p r e s e r v e d t o t h e p u b l i c .
c) To i n t e r p r e t what i t has p r e s e n t e d i n d i f f e r e n t ways f o r t h e v a r i o u s
s e c t i o n s o f t h e community; hence I b e l i e v e t h a t l a b e l s , diagrams
and photographs s h o u l d be so used i n d i s p l a y t h a t the v i s i t o r s
c o u l d r e l a t e them t o the a r t e f a c t s on e x h i b i t .
d) To s t i m u l a t e and encourage r e s e a r c h and s t u d y i n t o c u l t u r e , and
a l s o t o p r o v i d e e n t e r t a i n m e n t and enjoyment i n an atmosphere o f
beauty and r e l a x a t i o n .
The d e c i s i o n t o encourage the u t i l i z a t i o n o f our c u l t u r a l o b j e c t s
and the i n f o r m a t i o n c o n n e c t e d w i t h them f o r t h e purpose o f d e v e l o p -
ment, may be the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f p o l i t i c a l l e a d e r s . N e v e r t h e l e s s ,
I t h i n k t h a t e d u c a t i o n and development t h a t does not take i n t o a c c o u n t
t h e c u l t u r a l r e a l i t i e s o f the s o c i e t y i s l i k e b u i l d i n g a house w i t h o u t
a f o u n d a t i o n . Such a house w i l l s u r e l y c o l l a p s e w i t h time and
e x t e r n a l p r e s s u r e . I t i s i n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n t h a t a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s can
come t o be h e l p f u l , i f a l l o w e d t o be, i n development p l a n n i n g . When
museums i n N i g e r i a undertake and p u b l i s h works such as t h i s one,
d e a l i n g w i t h the masks o f a p a r t o f N i g e r i a , i t c o u l d be c o r r e c t l y
s a i d t h a t N i g e r i a ' s government i s t a k i n g c a r e o f i t s c u l t u r a l h e r i t a g e .
The advantages o f such a measure a r e f o u r f o l d :
1. To i n c u l c a t e a sense o f p r i d e among i t s c i t i z e n s , t h e r e b y promoting
n a t i o n a l p r i d e and i d e n t i t y ;
2. The p r e s e r v a t i o n o f c u l t u r a l h e r i t a g e i s the f o u n d a t i o n on which
t o b u i l d adequate and e v e r l a s t i n g p o l i t i c a l frameworks, because
t h e p r e s e n t has i t s b a s i s i n i t s p a s t , and the f u t u r e w i l l have
134
i t s b a s i s i n the p r e s e n t . I t i s i m p o r t a n t , t h e r e f o r e , t o p r e s e r v e
the i n s t i t u t i o n s o f s o c i e t y so t h a t the youths w i l l be b e t t e r
a b l e t o i n t e r p r e t the s o c i a l happenings i n the c o u n t r y o f t h e i r
b i r t h ;
3. There i s , o f c o u r s e , the i n d i s p u t a b l e advantage o f both the edu-
c a t i o n a l and h i s t o r i c a l importance o f c u l t u r e . As s a i d e a r l i e r ,
e d u c a t i o n i s not meaningful which does not r e f l e c t i t s c u l t u r a l
s e t t i n g ;
4. I t i s t h r o u g h t h e museum, w i t h i t s f u n c t i o n as a p l a c e where o b j e c t s
a r e p r e s e r v e d , t h a t such i n t e r n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s as the
UNESCO and ICOM d e r i v e p a r t o f t h e i r f u n c t i o n . I t i s i n t h i s
r e s p e c t t h a t c u l t u r e h e l p s t o f o s t e r the u n i v e r s a l o r i n t e r n a t i o n a l
b r o t h e r h o o d o f mankind, which the w o r l d r e q u i r e s so much i n t h i s
n u c l e a r age i f i t i s t o s u r v i v e .
I t i s hoped t h a t t h i s s t u d y o f Igbo masks f i t s i n t o the g e n e r a l
attempt t o p r e s e r v e the p a s t o f not o n l y N i g e r i a , but s h o u l d form a
s t a r t f o r such s t u d i e s e l s e w h e r e . I t may not have a l l the answers,
e s p e c i a l l y when i t i s noted t h a t Igbo s o c i e t y , . T i k e most A f r i c a n
s o c i e t i e s , has undergone a l o t o f change r e c e n t l y because o f the urge
t o modernize and t h e r e i s the t e m p t a t i o n t o f o r g e t t r a d i t i o n as
a r c h a i c and c o n c e n t r a t e on i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n . R i c e b e l i e v e s t h a t
t h e a t r e o f t h e s o r t demonstrated i n t h i s study can f l o u r i s h o n l y i n a
p r e - i n d u s t r i a l s o c i e t y , among p e o p l e who a r e r o o t e d i n the v i l l a g e and
d e e p l y imbued w i t h t r a d i t i o n . As i n d u s t r i a l i z e d urban c e n t r e s m u l t i p l y
and v i l l a g e r s a r e drawn t o them by b e t t e r means o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n and
o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r employment, the v i l l a g e u n i t y and t h e h e r i t a g e o f
135
s k i l l s w i l l be weakened, and g r a d u a l l y the machinery o f mass com-
m u n i c a t i o n m o v i e s , r a d i o , t e l e v i s i o n m i g h t push the f i e s t a o r
masquerades i n t o o b s o l e s c e n c e . I s i n c e r e l y hope t h a t t h i s does n o t
happen t o Igbo t r a d i t i o n , because t h i s i s too i m p o r t a n t f o r r e a s o n s
a l r e a d y demonstrated. In the words o f Njoku, " t h i s a s p e c t o f the
Igbos and N i g e r i a n c u l t u r e s h o u l d never be a l l o w e d t o be f o r g o t t e n ,
9
e l s e p o s t e r i t y w i l l not f o r g i v e t h e i r p r e d e c e s s o r s " , i . e . o u r s e l v e s .
I w i l l end t h i s t h e s i s w i t h a statement by Edmund Leach (1963:5).
He wrote:
" G e n e r a l i z a t i o n i s i n d u c t i v e ; i t c o n s i s t s i n p e r c e i v i n g
g e n e r a l laws i n the c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f s p e c i a l c a s e s , i t
i s guesswork, a gamble, you may be r i g h t o r wrong, but i f
you happen t o be r i g h t you have l e a r n t something a l t o g e t h e r
new. In c o n t r a s t , a r r a n g i n g b u t t e r f l i e s a c c o r d i n g t o
t h e i r t y p e and sub-types i s t a u t o l o g y . I t m e r e l y r e a s s e n t s
something you know a l r e a d y i n a s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t form".
136
CHAPTERS V & V I
1. Elmer R i c e i s an a r t i s t and has w r i t t e n e x t e n s i v e l y on drama and
t h e a t r e . A l s o , F r e e d l e y and Reeves (1941) have w r i t t e n on
drama and t h e a t r e , e s p e c i a l l y t h e i r o r i g i n and communal n a t u r e .
2. c f R i c e (1955:14-28) f o r a d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s on the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
o f t h e a t r e . A l s o c f F r e e d l e y and Reeves (1941:8).
3. c f O t t e n b e r g ' s a n a l y s i s o f t h e A f i k p o Okumkpa p l a y (1975:104).
4. Boston (1960). "Some N o r t h e r n Ibo Masquerades". R e p r i n t e d from
the J o u r n a l o f the Royal A n t h r o p o l o g i c a l I n s t i t u t e . V o l . 90,
P a r t I.
5. T h i s f a c t has a l r e a d y been made i n C h a p t e r II on Igbo h i s t o r y .
c f Basden, 1966; I s i c h e i , 1973 and .1976.
6. c f H.M. C o l e , A f r i c a n A r t s o f T r a n s f o r m a t i o n , 1970.
7. c f H o r t o n - W i l l i a m i n Forde (1971:672-3).
8. c f Horton i n Forde (1971:605).
9. c f Njoku (1974) "Death and B u r i a l Customs, B e f o r e C u l t u r e Change
i n T r a d i t i o n a l Ibo S o c i e t y " .
137
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Emmanuel C. Onwuzolum - The Ritual Theatricality of Igbo Masks and Masquerades

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Emmanuel C. Onwuzolum - The Ritual Theatricality of Igbo Masks and Masquerades

Transféré par

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

THE RITUAL-THEATRICALITY OF

IGBO MASKS AND MASQUERADES

shows t h a t i t s s i g h t , b r e a t h and words a r e dangerous

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