Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) - Industrial Wiki - ODESIE® by Technology Transfer

5/22/2014 Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) - Industrial Wiki - ODESIE by Technology Transfer
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A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y
PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER (PLC)
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Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs) have become an integral part of the industrial environment. As a technician involved with the
processes controlled by PLCs, it is important to understand their basic functionalities and capabilities.
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1 PLC Overview
1.1 What is a Programmable Logic Controller?
1.2 History of the PLC
1.2.1 Advantages of PLCs
1.2.2 Components of a PLC
1.2.2.1 Input/Output Modules
1.2.2.2 Power Supply
1.2.2.3 Central Processing Unit CPU
1.2.2.4 Co-processor Modules
1.2.2.5 Software
1.2.2.6 Peripheral Device
1.3 Basic Operation of a PLC
1.3.1 Ladder Logic of a Hardwired System
1.3.2 Simple Ladder Diagram of a Hardwired Circuit
2 PLC Operations
2.1 Basic Operation
2.1.1 Operational Sequence
2.1.2 The Scan Cycle
2.2 Logic Scan
3 PLC Hardware
3.1 PLC Components
3.2 Power Supply
3.3 Input/Output Modules
3.3.1 Input Modules
3.3.2 Input Module Wiring
3.3.3 Input Indicators
3.4 Output Module
3.4.1 Output Module Wiring
3.5 Discrete Modules
3.5.1 Discrete Module Wiring
3.6 Numerical Data Modules
3.7 AC/DC Input Modules
3.7.1 AC Input Modules
3.7.2 DC Input Discrete Modules
3.7.3 DC Input Analog Modules
3.8 AC/DC Output Modules
3.8.1 AC Output Modules
3.8.2 DC Output Modules Discrete
3.8.3 DC Output Modules Analog
3.8.4 Proportional Integral and Derivative PID Processor Module
3.9 Controls and Indicators
3.10 Scanning
3.11 User Program
4 Addressing and Number Systems
4.1 Number Systems
4.2 Types of Number Systems
4.2.1 Binary
4.3 Octal
4.3.1 Decimal to Octal/Octal to Decimal Conversion
4.3.2 Binary to Octal/Octal to Binary Conversion
4.4 Hexadecimal
4.4.1 Binary Coded Decimal
4.5 Addressing
4.5.1 Addressing Terminology
4.5.1.1 Chassis
4.5.1.2 Group
4.5.1.3 Rack
4.5.1.4 Slot
4.5.1.5 Elements
4.5.1.6 Words
4.5.1.6 Words
4.5.1.7 Bit
4.5.1.8 Bytes
4.5.2 Rack Addressing Rules
4.5.3 Addressing Examples
5 PLC Communications
5.1 PLC Communication Description
5.2 PLC Communication Protocols
5.3 PLC Networking
5.3.1 Device Net
5.3.2 Control Net
5.3.3 Ethernet
5.3.4 Data Highway Plus DH+
5.3.5 PLC Terms
5.3.5.1 ASCII
5.3.5.2 ASCII Module
5.3.5.3 Bus Topology
5.3.5.4 CPU
5.3.5.5 Daisy Chain
5.3.5.6 Distributed Control
5.3.5.7 Host Computer
5.3.5.8 Intelligent Device
5.3.5.9 I/O
5.3.5.10 Kbps
5.3.5.11 Mbps
5.3.5.12 Node
5.3.5.13 Protocol
5.3.5.14 Ring Topology
5.3.5.15 RS232
5.3.5.16 Serial
5.3.5.17 Serial Port
5.3.5.18 Star Topology
5.3.5.19 Topology
5.3.5.20 Transparent
5.4 Remote I/O Configurations
5.5 Peer-to-Peer Configurations
5.6 Host Computer
6 PLC Software
6.1 Software vs. Firmware
6.2 HMI Human Machine Interface
6.3 Ladder Logic Diagrams
6.4 Logic Instructions
6.5 Relays
6.5.1 Examine If Closed XIC
6.5.2 Examine If Open XIO
6.5.3 Output Energized OTE
6.5.4 Output Latched OTL
6.5.5 Output Unlatched OTU
6.6 Timers
6.6.1 Timer On Delay TON
6.6.2 Timer Off Delay TOF
6.6.3 Retentive Timer On RTO
6.7 Counters
6.7.1 Count Up Counter CTU
6.7.2 Count Up Counter CTD
6.8 Reset Command RES
6.9 Data Transfer Instructions
6.10 Arithmetic Commands
6.11 Data Manipulation Instructions
6.11.1 Master Control Reset
6.12 Program Control Instructions
6.12.1 Subroutines
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PLC Overview
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What is a Programmable Logic Cont roller?
A programmable logic controller (PLC) is a digital computer used for automation of electromechanical processes, such as control of
machinery on factory assembly lines, amusement rides, or lighting fixtures. PLCs are used in many industries and machines. Unlike
general-purpose computers, the PLC is designed for multiple inputs and output arrangements, extended temperature ranges,
immunity to electrical noise, and resistance to vibration and impact. Programs to control machine operation are typically stored in
battery-backed or non-volatile memory. A PLC is an example of a real time system since output results must be produced in response
to input conditions within a bounded time, otherwise unintended operation will result. Figure 1 shows a graphical depiction of
typical PLCs.
Fi gure 1: Typi cal PLCs
Fi gure 2: Exampl es of Hardware PLCs Control
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Hist ory of t he PLC
PLC invention was in response to the needs of the American automotive manufacturing industry where software revision replaced
the re-wiring of hard-wired relay based control panels when production models changed.
Before the PLC, control, sequencing, and safety interlock logic for manufacturing automobiles relied on hundreds or, in some
instances, thousands of relays, cam timers, and drum sequencers and dedicated closed-loop controllers. The process for updating
such facilities for the yearly model change-over was very time consuming and expensive, as electricians needed to individually and
manually rewire each and every relay.
manually rewire each and every relay.
In 1968 GM Hydramatic issued a request for proposal for an electronic replacement for hard-wired relay systems. The winning
proposal came from Bedford Associates of Bedford, Massachusetts. The first PLC, designated the 084 because it was Bedford
Associateseighty-fourth project, was the result. Bedford Associates started a new company dedicated to developing, manufacturing,
selling, and servicing this new product: MODICON, which stood for MOdular DIgital CONtroller. One of the people who worked on
that project was Dick Morley, the "father" of the PLC.
In other industries, PLCs replaced relay systems used in manufacturing applications. This eliminated the high cost of maintaining these
inflexible systems. In 1970, with the innovation of the microprocessor, the machine that was originally used as a relay replacement
device only, evolved into the advanced PLC of today.
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Advant ages of PLCs
There are six major advantages of using PLCs over relay systems as follows:
Flexibility
Ease of troubleshooting
Space efficiency
Low cost
Testing
Visual operation
Fl exi bi l i ty: One single PLC can easily run many machines.
Ease of Troubl eshooti ng: Back before PLCs, wired relay-type panels required time for rewiring of panels and devices. With PLC
control any change in circuit design or sequence is as simple as retyping the logic. Correcting errors in PLC is both fast and cost
effective.
Space Effi ci ent: Fewer components are required in a PLC system than in a conventional hardware system. The PLC performs the
functions of timers, counters, sequencers, and control relays, so these hardware devices are not required. The only field devices that
are required are those that directly interface with the system such as switches and motor starters.
Low Cost: Prices of PLCs vary from few hundreds to few thousands. This is minimal compared to the prices of the contact, coils, and
timers that companies pay to match the same things. Using PLCs also saves on installation cost and shipping.
Testi ng: A PLC program can be tested, evaluated, and validated in a lab prior to implementation in the field.
Vi sual observati on: When running a PLC program a visual operation displays on a screen or module mounted status lamps assist in
making troubleshooting a circuit quick, easy, and relatively simple.
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Component s of a PLC
All PLCs have the same basic components. These components work together to bring information into the PLC from the field, evaluate
that information, and send information back out to various field. Without any of these major components, the PLC will fail to function
properly.
The basic components include a power supply, central processing unit (CPU or processor), co-processor modules, input and output
modules (I/O), and a peripheral device.
Fi gure 3: PLC Components
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I nput /Out put Modules
The type of input modules used by a PLC depends on the type of input device. For example, some respond to digital inputs, which
are eitheronoroffwhile others respond to analog signals. In this case, analog signals represent machine or process conditions as a
range of voltage or current values. The PLC input circuitry converts signals into logic signals that the CPU can use. The CPU evaluates
the status of inputs, outputs, and other variables as it executes a stored program. The CPU then sends signals to update the status of
outputs.
Output modules convert control signals from the CPU into digital or analog values that can be used to control various output
devices. The programming device is used to enter or change the PLCs program or to monitor or change stored values. Once entered,
the program and associated variables are stored in the CPU. In addition to these basic elements, a PLC system may also incorporate
an operator interface device to simplify monitoring of the machine or process.
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Power Supply
The function of the power supply is to provide the DC power to operate the PLC. It is supplied by single-phase 120 or 240 VAC line
power that powers the PLC system. See Figure x.
Fi gure 4:PLC Power Suppl y
The Power Supply is a module located in the PLC system module rack. The DC power (voltage and current) it provides power the
other modules in the rack, such as the CPU, Co-processor Modules, and I/O Modules.
The line power provided to the PLC system also powers the I/O Field Devices. The PLC system is protected against PLC module or field
device malfunctions. The Fuse in Figure 4 provides this protection.
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Cent ral Processing Unit CPU
The function of the CPU is to store and run the PLC software programs. It also interfaces with the Co-Processor Modules, the I/O
Modules, the peripheral device, and runs diagnostics. It is essentially the "brains" of the PLC.
The CPU, shown in Figure X, contains a microprocessor, memory, and interface adapters.
Fi gure 5: CPU
The items shown inside the CPU and their basic functions are as follows:
The microprocessor codes, decodes, and computes data.
The memory (ROM, PROM/EEPROM/UVPROM, and RAM) stores both the control program and the data from the field devices.
The I/O Interface adapter connects the Co-Processor Modules, the I/O Modules and the Peripheral Device to the CPU.
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Co-processor Modules
Co-Processor Modules are programmable general-purpose microcomputers that expand the capability and functionality of a PLC
system. A Co-Processor Module is controlled by the CPU, and interfaces with the CPU as shown above.
Co-Processor Modules monitor and control peripheral systems such as the following:
Alphanumeric Displays
Video Graphics Displays
Communication Networks
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Soft ware
The function of Software is to provide instructions to the CPU and Co-Processor Modules. Physically, software is a large group of logic
ones and zeros stored in the memory of the CPU.
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Peripheral Device
The function of the peripheral device is to input data and monitor the equipment operation. It may be a personal computer,
handheld programmer, or an operator touch screen.
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Basic Operat ion of a PLC
The operation of a PLC is very simple. The processor makes decisions based on a "ladder logic" program written by the user. In order to
use the program properly, the PLC must communicate with the various field devices it monitors and controls. It then compares the
actual conditions of the field devices with what the program instructs them to do, and updates the output devices accordingly.
1. Input switch is pressed
2. Input module places a "1" in the input data table
3. The ladder logic program sees the "1" and caused a "1" to be put into the output data table
4. The output data table causes the output module to energize associated point
5. The output device energizes
Fi gure 6: PLC Operati on
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Ladder Logic of a Hardwired Syst em
Ladder logic is a programming language that represents a program by a graphical diagram based on the circuit diagrams of relay-
based logic hardware. It is primarily used to develop software PLCs used in industrial control applications. The name is based on the
observation that programs in this language resemble ladders, with two vertical rails and a series of horizontal rungs between them.
Ladder logic is widely used to program PLCs, where sequential control of a process or manufacturing operation is required. Ladder
logic is useful for simple but critical control systems, or for reworking old hardwired relay circuits. As PLCs became more sophisticated, it
has also been used in very complex automation systems. Often the ladder logic program is used in conjunction with a HMI program
operating on a computer workstation.
Manufacturers of programmable logic controllers generally also provide associated ladder logic programming systems. Typically, the
ladder logic languages from two manufacturers will not be completely compatible; ladder logic is better thought of as a set of
closely related programming languages rather than one language (the IEC 61131-3 standard has helped to reduce unnecessary
differences, but translating programs between systems still requires significant work). Even different models of PLCs within the same
family may have different ladder notation such that programs cannot be seamlessly interchanged between models.
Ladder logic is a rule-based language rather than a procedural language. A "rung" in the ladder represents a rule. When
implemented with relays and other electromechanical devices, the various rules "execute" simultaneously and immediately. When
implemented in PLC, the rules execute sequentially by software in a continuous loop (scan). By executing the loop fast enough, the
effect of simultaneous and immediate execution is achieved to within the tolerance of the time required to execute every rung in
the "loop" (the "scan time").
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Simple Ladder Diagram of a Hardwired Circuit
The language itself is a set of connections between logical checkers (contacts) and actuators (coils). If a path traced between the
left side of the rung and the output, through asserted (true or closed) contacts, the rung is true and the output coil storage bit is
asserted 1. If no path is traced, then the output is false (0) and the coil by analogy to electromechanical relays is considered de-
energized.
Ladder logic has contacts that make or break circuits to control coils. Each coil or contact corresponds to the status of a single bit in
the PLCs memory. Unlike electromechanical relays, a ladder program can refer any number of times to the status of a single bit,
equivalent to a relay with an indefinitely large number of contacts.
Contacts may refer to physical or hard inputs to the PLC from devices such as pushbuttons and limit switches via an integrated or
external input module, or may represent the status of internal storage bits, which may be generated elsewhere in the program.
Each rung of ladder language typically has one coil at the far right. Some manufacturers may allow more than one output coil on a
rung.
( ) - Regular coil. It is energized whenever its rung is closed.
(\\) - "Not" coil. It is energized whenever its rung is open.
[ ] - Regular contact. It is closed whenever its corresponding coil or an input which controls it is energized.
[\\] - "Not" contact. It is open whenever its corresponding coil or an input which controls it is energized.
The coil or output of a rung, may represent a physical output, which operates some device connected to the PLC, or may represent
an internal storage bit for use elsewhere in the program.
Fi gure 7: Si mpl e Ladder Di agram
Ladder logic is typically read left to right and top to bottom. As each of the lines or rungs are evaluated, the output coil of a rung
may feed into the next stage of the ladder as an input. In a complex system there will be many rungs on a ladder, which are
numbered in order of evaluation.
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PLC Operat ions
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Basic Operat ion
The operation of a PLC is very simple. The processor makes decisions based on a ladder logic program written by the user (see Topic I).
In order to use the program properly, the PLC must communicate with the various field devices it is tasked with monitoring and
controlling. It then compares the actual conditions of the field devices with what the program instructs them to do, and updates the
output devices accordingly.
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Operat ional Sequence
The operational sequence shown in Figure 6 is as follows:
1. Input switch is pressed
2. Input module places a "1" in the input data table
3. The ladder logic program sees the "1" and caused a "1" to be put into the output data table
4. The output data table causes the output module to energize associated point
5. The output device energizes
Fi gure 8: PLC Operati onal Sequence
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T he Scan Cycle
PLCs operate by continually scanning programs and repeat this process many times per second. When a PLC starts, it runs checks on
the hardware and software for faults, also called a self-test. If there are no problems, then the PLC will start the scan cycle. The scan
cycle consists of three steps: input scan, executing program(s), and output scan. Figure 7 shows the three steps.
Input Scan: A simple way of looking at this is the PLC takes a snapshot of the inputs and solves the logic. The PLC looks at each input
card to determine if it isonoroffand saves this information in a data table for use in the next step. This makes the process faster and
avoids cases where an input changes from the start to the end of the program.
Execute Program (or Logi c Executi on): The PLC executes a program one instruction at a time using only the memory copy of the
inputs the ladder logic program. For example, the program has the first input ason, since the PLC knows which inputs are on/off from
the previous step it will be able to decide whether the first output should be turned on.
Output Scan: When the ladder scan completes, the outputs are updated using the temporary values in memory. The PLC updates
the status of the outputs based on which inputs were on during the first step and the results of executing a program during the
second step. The PLC now restarts the process by starting a self-check for faults.
Fi gure 9: PLC Scan Cycl e
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Logic Scan
Ladder logic programs are modeled after relay logic. In relay logic, each element in the ladder will switch as quickly as possible.
Program elements can only be examined one at a time in a fixed sequence. The ladder logic graphic in Figure 8 is interpreted left-to-
right, top-to-bottom. The ladder logic scan begins at the top rung. At the end of the rung, it interprets the top output first, then the
output branched below it. On the second rung, it solves branches, before moving along the ladder logic rung.
Fi gure 10: PLC Logi c Scan
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PLC Hardware
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PLC Component s
PLCs have grown throughout industrial control applications because of the ease they bring to creating a controller: ease of
programming, ease of wiring, ease of installation, and ease of changing. All PLCs have the same basic components. These
programming, ease of wiring, ease of installation, and ease of changing. All PLCs have the same basic components. These
components work together to bring information into the PLC from the field, evaluate that information, and send information back out
to various field. Without any of these major components, the PLC will fail to function properly. PLCs span a wide range of sizes, but all
contain six basic components as shown in Figure 9 and Figure 10:
1. Power supply
2. Input module
3. Output module
4. Processor (CPU)
5. Rack or mounting assembly
6. Programming unit (software)
Fi gure 11: PLC Rack
Fi gure 12: PLC Components
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Power Supply
The power supply, as shown in Figure 13, provides power for the PLC system. The power supply provides internal DC current to operate
the processor logic circuitry and input/output assemblies. Common power levels used are 24V DC or 120 VAC.
Fi gure 13: Power Suppl y
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I nput /Out put Modules
Many types of inputs and outputs can be connected to a PLC, and they can all be divided into two large groups analog (discrete)
and digital. Digital inputs and outputs are those that operate due to a discrete or binary change - on/off, yes/no. Analog inputs and
outputs change continuously over a variable range - pressure, temperature, potentiometer. AC modules are always discrete. DC
modules can be either discrete or analog.
The standard PLC module types and their descriptions are as follows:
AC Input - Uses AC voltage for input field device status.
DC Input (Discrete) - Uses DC voltage for input field device status.
DC Input (Analog) - The input is a variable DC signal level.
AC Output - Controls the ON/OFF state of AC output field devices such as relays, coils, and solenoids.
DC Output (Discrete) - Discrete DC output modules control the ON/OFF states of DC output field devices.
DC Output (Analog) - Provides a variable DC level.
I/O modules are available with various numbers of field device points, such as 4, 8, 16 and 32 point. Optocouplers in the modules are
used to electrically isolate the module from the CPU.
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I nput Modules
Input modules provide the electrical connection between field devices (pushbuttons, limit switches, photoeyes) and internal process
of the PLC. They differ in voltages and types of signals produced such ason,offor a variable voltage. Fi gure 14 shows an example of
a generic input module.
Fi gure 14: PLC Input Modul e
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I nput Module Wiring
During normal PLC operation, different methods of connecting the field device wires to the I/O Modules offer no significant
advantages over each other. Field devices can be wired differently to provide safety and protection in the event of failures in field
devices, or faults in their electrical circuits.
"Backups" are field devices required to operate properly to provide safety in the event of a failure of another device or fault in a
circuit. If the circuit for a backup is not affected, the backup should operate properly and continue to provide safety.
The safety of sequentially controlled systems, industrial facilities, and even personnel frequently depends on field devices (especially
the backups) operating properly.
Sink and Source connections at a DC Input Module are defined by whether or not the field device DC power comes from a power
supply external to the PLC (see Figure 14). Neither connection has any fault protection advantage
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I nput I ndicat ors
Indicator lights are located on the digital input modules. These lights indicate the status of the input point on the module. The active
light indicates whether or not the module is active and communicating with the processor.
The indicator lights are numbered in two rows, 00-7 and 10-17 (I/O addressing will be discussed later). These numbers represent each
of the input points on the module. If an input point has power applied to it, the associated light illuminates. The lights are very useful
in verifying that field devices, such as switches and photoeyes, are properly operating.
Fi gure 15 shows the common layout for indicator lights on an input module. Note that these lights ONLY show the user that power is
getting to this point on the module. They do NOT indicate whether or not the processor is actually receiving that indication.
Fi gure 15: Input Indi cators
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Out put Module
Outputs are the devices that the PLC uses to send changes out to the world. These are the actuator the PLC can change to adjust or
control the process - motors, lights, relays, pumps, etc. Figure 16 shows an example of an output module.
Fi gure 16: PLC Output Modul e
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Out put Module Wiring
DC Modules use "Sink" and "Source" connections. The connections are determined by the configuration of the module being used.
DC Modules are configured differently because of the DC polarity differences required of the two connections.
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Discret e Modules
The term refers to an Off switching output. One type of PLC module that produces discrete signals is a relay module. It has physical
relay that opens (Fi gure 17) or closes (Fi gure 18) to make or break a circuit connected to its terminals. Relay modules have several
pairs; each of which are connected to internal relay contacts.
Fi gure 17: Rel ay Modul e Open Contact
Fi gure 18: Rel ay Modul e Cl osed Contact
Another type of discrete module is the si nki ng output modul e so named because conventional current flows into its terminal when
a specific output is turned on. Conventional current flows from a positive to negative potential.
Fi gure 19: Si nki ng Output Modul e
Figure 20 and Figure 21 show the sequence sinking output module activated and not activated.
Fi gure 20: Output Modul e Acti vated
Fi gure 21: Output Modul e NOt Acti vated
Fi gure 22 shows a graphical depiction of events when the output is activated:
1. An NPN transistor turns on
2. The output terminal goes to LOW
3. Conventional current flows from the positive of the power supply through the field device into the sinking terminal of the output
module through the transistor to the negative of the power supply.
Fi gure 22: Output Acti vated
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Discret e Module Wiring
The DC Output (Discrete) Module field device DC power always comes from a power supply external to the PLC (see Figure X). For
certain fault conditions, the source output connection offers additional safety and protection.
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Numerical Dat a Modules
With the integration of the microprocessor into PLC architecture in the early 1970s arrived new capabilities for arithmetic operation
and data manipulation. This expanded processing capability led to a new class of I/O interfaces known as numerical data I/O.
Numerical input interfaces allowed measured quantities to be input from instruments and other devices that provided numerical
data, while numerical output interfaces allowed control of devices that required numerical data.
In general, numerical data I/O interfaces can be categorized into two groups: those that provide interface-to-multi-bit digital
devices and those that provide interface-to-analog devices. The multi-bit interfaces are like the discrete I/O in that the processed
signals are discrete. The difference, however, is that with the discrete I/O, only a single bit is required to read an input or control an
output. Multi-bit interfaces allow a group of bits to be input or output as a unit to accommodate devices that require the bits to be
handled in parallel form or in serial form. The numerical data I/O allows monitoring and control of analog voltages and currents,
which are compatible with many sensors, motors drives, and process instruments. With the use of multi-bit or analog I/O, most process
variables can be measured or controlled with appropriate interfacing.
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AC/DC I nput Modules
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AC I nput Modules
AC input modules detect the presence or absence of AC voltage, and convert that voltage to a low level for input to the CPU. The
AC voltage indicates the field device status. The voltage level is commonly 24, 115 or 220 VAC. Modules are available for up to 1,000
VAC. An AC Input module schematic diagram is shown in Figure X. When the field device completes the input circuit, a path for AC
exists. An LED on the front of the module, indicates the input is present.
Fi gure 23: AC Input Modul e Schemati c
A rectifier converts the AC to DC. The optocoupler isolates the input module from the CPU and effectively drops the DC voltage level
to a level safe for CPU operations.
Most AC input modules use an external AC power supply for "interrogation" of the field devices. On-board AC power supplies increase
the size of the module and require additional heat dissipation considerations.
AC inputs may use a common neutral connection for several points or there may be an "isolated" neutral for each point for
additional fault protection. The input module shown in Figure 7 uses neutral C1 for points 00-07 and neutral C2 for points 10-17.
Analog AC input modules are not commonly used because there are no standardized analog AC voltage or current signals.
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DC I nput Discret e Modules
Discrete DC input modules detect the presence or absence of DC voltage, and convert that voltage to a low level for input to the
CPU. The DC voltage is used to indicate the field device status. Figure X shows a DC Input module schematic diagram.
Fi gure 24: DC Input Modul e (Di screte)
The DC voltage may be supplied by the input module (sink input) or it may be supplied by an external power supply (source input).
Detailed explanations of "sinked" and "sourced" connections are given in this module later under "Field Device Wiring Connections."
As with AC input modules, the input is optocoupled to the CPU for isolation and CPU protection. An LED provides indication when the
input is present (true).
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DC I nput Analog Modules
Analog DC input modules detect a DC voltage or current level, convert that variable into a proportional digital signal and transmit
that data to the CPU for processing. The modules can be configured to operate on standard instrumentation signal ranges such as 4-
20 mA, 10-50 mA, 15V, 0-1 0V.
A schematic diagram of an analog DC input module is shown in Figure 9.
Fi gure 25: DC Input Modul e (Anal og)
After the module converts the analog value to digital, the PLC can turn control functions on and off at preset analog values. For
example, when the input analog value reaches 70 percent, an alarm sounds.
In special applications, an analog input can be combined with an analog output module. Through programming, the PLC can then
perform like a conventional single loop controller.
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AC/DC Out put Modules
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AC Out put Modules
AC output modules control the ON/OFF states of AC output field devices such as relays, coils, and solenoids. They do not normally
supply power to the field devices. Figure X is a schematic diagram of the module.
Fi gure 26: AC Output Modul e
The CPU uses a low-voltage DC signal to activate an opto-coupler in the output module. The opto-coupler gates a TRIAC or SCR that
in turn completes the current path for the external power supply and field device. As with most PLC modules, the voltage rating and
the number of points are selectable and the outputs may have common or isolated neutrals.
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DC Out put Modules Discret e
Discrete DC output modules control the on/off states of DC output field devices. Power is supplied by an external power supply. A
schematic diagram of the module is shown in Figure 27.
Fi gure 27: DC Output Modul e (Di screte)
The CPU sends a low-level DC signal to an opto-coupler that completes the external DC current path that energizes the output field
device. Field device connections may either be "sinked" or "sourced".
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DC Out put Modules Analog
Analog DC output modules convert digital data from the CPU to analog data for field device use. A Digital to Analog (D/A) converter
in the module performs the conversion. See Figure 28 for a schematic diagram of the module.
Fi gure 28: DC Output Modul e (Anal og)
Analog outputs conform to standard instrumentation signals (4-20 mA, 10-50 mA, 1-5V, 0-1 0V). An external DC power supply is used to
power the output field device and the optocoupler in the module.
Analog outputs and inputs require more computing time than discrete modules. The additional time is needed to perform A/D and
D/A conversions and to "block transfer" the additional information to and from the CPU.
For this reason, most PLC applications use on/off control with only a small amount of analog I/O. If a large amount of analog data
requires processing, other systems (loop controllers, Digital Control Systems) are usually used.
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Proport ional I nt egral and Derivat ive PI D Processor Module
A PID module combines analog input, analog output, and a control program of a typical single loop controller. A PID module is a
smart module. This means that it has an on-board microprocessor and program.
The module carries out loop control without the use of the CPU in the PLC. These modules do communicate with the CPU for non-
routine functions such as alarm reporting and programming changes.
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Cont rols and I ndicat ors
Most processor modules have front panel lights or indications to provide the user with status indications of PLC operation. These lights
are very useful in troubleshooting. Also provided on most processor modules is a switch used to change the module mode of
operation from RUN to PROGRAM. Additional connections are also usually provided to allow the connection of a terminal for
programming the PLC and a port for connections to external I/O.
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Scanning
The processor module controls the PLC by executing the software program. During program execution, the processor reads all the
inputs and uses the values, in accordance with the control logic, to energize or de-energize the outputs, thus solving the ladder
network. Once all the logic is solved, the processor updates all outputs. The process of reading the inputs, executing the program,
and updating the outputs is known as a scan. The time required to make a single scan varies from 1 msec to 100 msec.
The scan is normally a continuous and sequential process of reading the status of inputs, evaluating the control logic, and updating
outputs. The common scan method of monitoring the inputs at the end of each scan is inadequate for reading certain rapid inputs.
Some PLCs provide software instructions that will allow the interruption of the continuous program scan to immediately receive an
input or update an output. These immediate instructions are very useful when the PLC must instantaneously react to a critical input
or output.
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User Program
The user program memory is an area reserved in the application memory for the storage of the control logic. All the PLC instructions
that control the machine or process are stored here. The addresses of inputs and outputs, whether real or internal, are specified in this
section of memory.
When the processor is in the run mode and the program is executed, the processor interprets the user program memory locations
and controls the bits of the data table that correspond to real or internal outputs. The interpretation of the user program is
accomplished by the processors execution of the executive program.
The maximum amount of available user program memory is normally a function of the processor size (i.e., I/O capacity). In medium
and large controllers, the user program area is normally flexible by altering the size of the data table so that it meets the minimum
data storage requirements. In small processors, however, the user program area is normally fixed.
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Addressing and Number Syst ems
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Number Syst ems
The earliest number or counting system known to man was developed to help determine a quantity for a collection of possessions. As
daily activities became more complex, numbers became more important in trade, time, distance, and all other aspects of human
life.
Numbers are extremely important in everyday life. As such, a more complex system was required than counting everything on ones
fingers and toes.
Ever since the necessity to count objects was discovered, man has been looking for easier ways to count them. The abacus,
developed by the Chinese, is one of the earliest known methods for counting. The simple system of beads and wires arranged within
a frame provided an early means for calculation. The apparatus proved helpful and is still used in some parts of the world today.
As time, technology, and need progressed, so did the means and methods required for accurate calculation. The first adding
machine was invented by Blaise Pascal in 1642. Twenty years later, an Englishman, Sir Samuel Morland, developed a more compact
device that could multiply, add, and subtract. Then, Wilhelm Liebnitz perfected a machine in 1671 that could perform all the basic
operations including addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, as well as the extraction of the square root. The principles
pioneered by Liebnitz are still used today by modern electronic digital computers.
Computers are used wherever repeated calculations or the processing of large amounts of data is necessary. Some of the greatest
applications are found in the military, scientific, and commercial fields. These fields have applications ranging from manufacturing
processes to engineering design, to the identification and destruction of enemy targets. The advantages of digital computers include
speed, accuracy, and labor savings. Often, computers are used to manage routine jobs, allowing personnel to perform other tasks,
which may require a human touch.
People and computers normally do not speak the same language. However, methods of translating information into forms that are
understood and used by both are necessary. Humans generally speak in words and numbers expressed in the decimal number
system, while computers only understand coded electronic pulses that represent digital information.
In this section, you will learn about number systems, in general, and specifically learn about binary, octal, and hexadecimal number
systems. The methods for converting numbers in the binary, octal, and hexadecimal systems to equivalent numbers in the decimal
system, and vice versa, will also be discussed. This training module will discuss the different types of number systems that can be
converted easily to the electronic pulses necessary for digital equipment and industrial communications.
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T ypes of Number Syst ems
The decimal system is the most commonly used number system. The Roman numeral system, though seldom used, is another well-
known number system. Other number systems include binary, octal, and hexadecimal. All number systems have a base and a
number value.
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Binary
The simplest possible number system is the bi nary, or base 2, system. Since the binary number system is a base 2 system, only two
symbols, 0 and 1, are used.
The binary system is also a positional notation system. While the decimal system uses powers of 10 to determine the value of a
position, the binary system uses powers of 2 to determine the value of a position. A bar graph showing the positions and the powers
of the base is shown below:
Tabl e 1 provides a comparison of decimal and binary numbers. Notice each time the total number of binary symbol positions
increases, the binary number indicates the next higher power of 2. The table also shows that more symbol positions are necessary in
the binary system to represent equivalent values in the decimal system.
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Oct al
The octal, or base 8, number system is a common system used with computers. Because of its relationship with the binary system, it is
useful in programming some types of computers. As with the other systems, the base, or radix, is the number of symbols used in the
system. The octal system uses eight symbols, 0 through 7. The base is indicated by the subscript 8. Table 2 compares the binary, octal,
and decimal number systems and shows that one octal digit is the equivalent value of three binary digits.
Similar to the decimal and binary systems, the octal system is a positional notation system. The octal system uses powers of 8. The
following bar graph shows the positions and the power of the base:
Here the power, orexponent, indicates the number of times the base is multiplied by itself. The value of thismultiplicationis expressed
in base 10 as shown below:
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Decimal t o Oct al/Oct al t o Decimal Conversion
In decimal systems, each decimal place is a base of 10. For example:
In octal, numerals each place is a power with base 8. For example:
By performing the calculation above in the familiar decimal system we see why 112 in octal is equal to 64 + 8 + 2 = 74 in decimal.
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Binary t o Oct al/Oct al t o Binary Conversion
The following example further illustrates this comparison and shows the conversion of octal 2258to binary and back to octal:
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Hexadecimal
The hexadecimal, or hex, number system is a more complex system in use with computers. The name is derived from the fact that the
system uses 16 symbols. It is beneficial in computer programming because of its relationship to the binary system. Since 16 in the
decimal system is the 2 to the fourth power (or 24), one hex digit has a value equal to four binary digits. Tabl e 2 compares the
binary and hexadecimal number systems.
As in each of the previous number systems, a unit stands for a single object. A number in the hex system is the symbol used to
As in each of the previous number systems, a unit stands for a single object. A number in the hex system is the symbol used to
represent a unit or quantity. The Arabic numerals 0 through 9 are used with the first six letters of the alphabet. Letters are sometimes
used in math problems to represent unknown quantities but in the hex system, A, B, C, D, E, and F each have a definite value as
shown below:
The base, or radix, of the hex system is 16, which represents the number of symbols used in the system. A quantity expressed in hex is
annotated by the subscript 16, as shown below:
Like the binary, octal, and decimal systems, the hex system is a positional notation system. Powers of 16 are used for the positional
values of a number. The following bar graph shows the positions:
Multiplying the base times itself the number of times indicated by the exponent will show the equivalent decimal value:
As seen by the positional values, usually fewer symbol positions are required to express a number in hex than in decimal. The
following example shows this comparison:
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Binary Coded Decimal
Computers and microprocessors both operate on a series of electrical pulses called words. A word can be represented by a binary
number such as 101100112. The word length is described by the number of digits or BITS in the series. A series of four digits would be
called a 4-bit word and so forth. The most common are 4-, 8-, and 16-bit words. Quite often, these words must use binary-coded
decimal inputs.
Binary-coded decimal, or BCD, is a method of using binary digits to represent the decimal digits 0 through 9. A decimal digit is
represented by four binary digits, as shown below:
You should note in the table above that the BCD coding is the binary equivalent of the decimal digit.
Since many devices use BCD, knowing how to handle this system is important. You must realize that BCD and binary are not the
same. For example, 4910in binary is 1100012, but 4910in BCD is 01001001BCD. Each decimal digit is converted to its binary
equivalent.
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Addressing
Addressing is the most important concept to understand when learning PLCs. Addressing is how we make a correlation between the
field devices controlled by the PLC, and the data that is stored in the PLCs memory. If you cannot address a point or group of points
in the PLCs memory, then you cannnot control the field device associated with that point.
The easiest way to approach understanding the addressing used in the Allen Bradley PLC-5 is to view all addresses from the
processors point of view. By this, we mean that in order for a real device in the field, such as a relay, to be operated by the PLC, the
PLC must first have a record of that point in its memory. That point can then be accessed by the PLC. The Allen Bradley PLC-5 stores
the information regarding all of the points it can address in areas called Data Tables as shown in figure 29. The data tables are
divided up by function.
Fi gure 29: Data Tabl e Fi l es
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Addressing T erminology
There are seven terms one must know in order to understand addressing as defined below.
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Chassis
Hardware assembly (physical rack) that houses devices such as I/O modules, adapter modules, processor modules, and power
supplies. Chassis are available in six sizes: 4-, 8-, 12-, and 16-slot.
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Group
An I/O addressing unit consisting of one input and one output word (16 bits each) of the data table. Depending on the density of
the I/O module and the addressing mode used, some of the bits in a group may be unused. The group number is included in I/O
addresses in the position represented with agin the format: I:rrg/xx.
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Rack
An I/O addressing unit that corresponds to eight input image table words and eight output image table words (8 groups). A rack is a
logical entity not to be confused with the physical chassis. 8 groups = 1 full rack, 6 groups = rack, 4 groups = rack, 2 groups = rack. The
rack number is included in I/O addresses in the position represented with an "rr" in the format: I:rrg/xx.
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Slot
A location in a chassis for installing a module. The number of physical slots per group determines the addressing mode.
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Element s
Data files are made up of individual data blocks called "Elements" or "Structures". Each element is composed of "words", and each
word is composed of "bits". Elements are comprised of from 1 to 56 words, depending on the instruction. Most instructions you will
encounter will have from one to three words to an element.
An example of an element level address is T4:0
T4:0 indicates the first timer (0) in the default timer file (T4). Each timer is comprised of three (3) 16 bit words. When you say T4:0, you
are referring to all three of these words as a group.
Fi gure 30: El ements
Another example, illustrated on the right, is the address N7:15. This identifies element 15 in the integer file N7. Since integer files have
one word elements, the element number and word number will match in this case as shown in Figure X and Figure Y.
Fi gure 31: El ement Address
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Words
Words are the next level of identification down from elements. Each "word" in the PLC is comprised of 16 bits as shown in Figure 32.
When an instruction is addressed to the word level, it is looking at all 16 bits of a particular word in an element. When an element is
comprised of more than one word, the 0 word contains status data in bit form, and the other words contain data which must be
stored in more than one bit.
A good example is a timer file. Timers elements are comprised of three words. The 0 word contains status information which can be
stored in individual bits. For example, the 17 bit in the 0 word is the done bit, indicating that the timer has timed out.
The one and two words contain information which require a full word to contain. In the timer, the one word contains the value of the
preset (PRE) of the timer, and the two word contains the information about the Accumulator (ACC). These words are addressed by
their symbols, PRE and ACC. When accessing an element to the word level, the period (.) is used to delimit instead of the slash (/).
Fi gure 32: Word Address
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Bit
The smallest unit of data in a PLC is the bit. Bits make up words, which in turn make up elements. Many instructions must be specified
down to the bit level. For example, if you want to know the status of the Done bit on a timer, you must specify the address down to
the bit level. The address would be:
T4:0/DN
T4:0 is the element we are addressing. Since we are addressing a single bit, we put the "/" sign as a bit delimiter, and then specify the
bit. In this case the Done bit. Figure 33 shows the element B3:63 and the bit 15. Note that in this case, the individual bits are identified
by numbers, not names (as in the done bit in the timer). This is true of bits in all files except those having more than one word in an
element.
Fi gure 33: Bi t Address
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Byt es
A group of bits forming a piece of data. Usually a subset of a word consisting of eight bits.
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Rack Addressing Rules
Addressing to a rack is just assigning a physical slot in the chassis to a logical word in the processor. Rack addressing involves only
data tables 0 and 1, the output and input data tables. The type of addressing shown in figure x is called si ngl e sl ot addressi ng
and is the most common type of addressing used in Allen Bradley PLCs. To review the rules for rack addressing, use the following while
referring to the previous figure on PLC 5 Racks.:
A rack is a logical term that defines 8 words in the processor input data table and 8 words in the processor output data table.
These words are numbered 0-7.
Each logical rack can store 128 bits of information in its input rack and 128 bits in its output rack. (8 words per rack x 16 bits per
word=128 bits of data storage)
In single slot addressing, each physical slot is addressed to one input word and also to one output word. This makes it possible
to put either an input module or an output module in any slot.
The number of logical racks determines how many points a particular model of PLC can address. This number is fixed for any
particular processor and cannot be changed.
Rack addressing is always in the format shown in Fi gure 34 below.
Fi gure 34: Rack Addressi ng Format
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Addressing Examples
Each type of device has its own table in which to store data. In order to specify exactly which piece of data is to be accessed, an
addressing format is used which makes use of this data structure.
In Figure 35, addresses for input and output addresses are shown. Reading from the left to the right, the addresses tell the following:
Which data table a point exist in
Which rack of data the point is in
Which group the point is in
The exact point
Note that a colon separates the file identifier from the rest of the address. This is constant for ALL addresses.
Fi gure 35: Rack Addressi ng Format
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PLC Communicat ions
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PLC Communicat ion Descript ion
PLCs communicate with other PLC stations on the Data Highway+and also communicate with their own remote racks via the remote
I/O communications channel. Some guidelines for PLC communications are as follows:
The DH+provides communications between processors on the DH+
Each processor on the DH+MUST have its own unique address
A total of 64 (77 Octal) stations can be set up on one peer link.
If a processor has enough communications channels (like the 5/40), it can communicate on more than one DH+peer link at a
time.
DH+is simply a method for communicating from one PLC to another. It DOES NOT allow one PLC to control another PLC. It just
lets you talk from PLC to PLC. It also makes it possible to plug a terminal into ANY PLC on the peer link and talk to any other PLC
on the peer link with the terminal.
Each chassis MUST have ei ther an Adapter module or a Processor module installed in the left most slot.
In order for a processor to have remote chassis, one channel MUST be set up as a scanner channel.
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PLC Communicat ion Prot ocols
Today, most manufacturers of PLC systems have developed their own proprietary communication protocol, making it difficult to
combine PLC components from different manufacturers. Communication protocols set the standards for data representation,
signaling, authentication, and error detection required to send information over a communications channel. MODBUS is currently the
most common protocol used by PLC manufacturers.
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PLC Net working
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Device Net
Device Net is one of the most widely supported networks. It is an open standard, so components from a variety of manufacturers can
be used together in the same control system. It is supported and promoted by the Open Device Net Vendors Association (ODVA). This
group includes members from all of the major controls manufacturers. The network is noise-resistant and robust. One major change for
the control engineer is that the PLC chassis can be eliminated and the network can be directly connected to the sensors and
actuators. This reduces the total amount of system wiring by moving I/O points closer to the application point. Two-way
communication inputs and outputs allow diagnosis of network problems from the main controller.
Device Net covers all seven layers of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) standard. The protocol has a limited number of network
addresses with very small data packets. This helps limit network traffic and ensures responsiveness. The length of the network cables
limits the maximum speed of the network. The basic features include:
A single bus cable that delivers data and power
Up to 64 nodes on the network
A data packet size of 0-8 bytes
Cable lengths of 500m/250m/100m for speeds of 125kbps/250kbps/500kbps, respectively
Devices can be added or removed while power is on
Based on the CANbus (Controller Area Network) protocol for OSI levels 1 and 2
Addressing includes peer-to-peer, multicast, master/slave, polling, or change of state
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Cont rol Net
Control Net is complimentary to Device Net. The standard is designed for communication among controllers and it permits more
complex messages than Device Net. It is not suitable for communication with individual sensors and actuators, or with devices off the
factory floor. Control Net is a more complicated protocol method than Device Net. Control Net features include:
Multiple controllers and I/O on one network
Deterministic
Data rates up to 5Mbps
Multiple topologies (bus, star, tree)
Multiple media (coax, fiber, etc.)
Up to 99 nodes with addresses; up to 48 without a repeater
Data packets up to 510 bytes
Unlimited I/O points
Maximum length examples:
1000m with coax at 5Mbps - 2 nodes
5000m with coax at 5Mbps with repeaters
3000m with fiber at 5Mbps
30Km with fiber at 5Mbps and repeaters
Five repeaters in series, 48 parallel segments
Devices individually powered (no network power)
Devices can be removed while network is active
The network is unique because it supports a real-time messaging scheme called Concurrent Time Domain Multiple Access (CTDMA).
The network has scheduled, high priority and unscheduled, low priority updates. When collisions are detected, the system waits at
least 2ms for unscheduled messages. However, scheduled messages will be passed sooner, during a special time window.
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Et hernet
Ethernet is the predominate networking format. The first version was released in 1980 by a consortium of companies, and various
versions of Ethernet frames were released in the subsequent years. These include Version II and Novell Networking (IEEE 802.3). Most
modern Ethernet cards support different types of frames.
The Ethernet frame is shown in Fi gure 36. The first six bytes make up the destination address for the message. If all of the bits in the
bytes are set, then any computer that receives the message will read it. The first three bytes of the address are specific to the card
manufacturer, and the remaining bytes specify the remote address. The address is common for all versions of Ethernet. The source
address specifies the message sender. The Ethernet type identifies the frame as a Version II Ethernet packet if the value is greater than
05DChex. Other Ethernet types use these two bytes to indicate the data length. The data can be from 46 to 1,500 bytes in length.
The frame concludes with a checksum that is used to verify data is correctly transmitted. When the end of the transmission is
detected, the last four bytes are used to verify the frame is correctly received.
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Dat a Highway Plus DH+
Allen-Bradley PLCs communicate with other PLC stations on the DH+protocol and also communicate with their own remote chassis
via the remote I/O communications channel. Some guidelines for DH+communications include:
The DH+provides communication among DH+processors.
Each processor on the DH+must have its own unique address.
A total of 64 (77 Octal) stations can be set up on one peer link.
If a processor has enough communication channels (like the 5/40), it can communicate on more than one DH+peer link at a
time.
DH+is simply a method for communicating from one PLC to another. It does not allow one PLC to control another PLC; it just lets
you talk from PLC to PLC. It also makes it possible to plug a terminal into any PLC on the peer link and talk to any other PLC on
the peer link with the terminal.
Each chassis must either have an adapter module or a processor module installed in the leftmost slot.
In order for a processor to have a remote chassis, one channel must be set up as a scanner channel.
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PLC T erms
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ASCI I
Stands for "American Standard Code for Information Interchange." For example, when the letter "A" is transmitted it is automatically
coded as "65" by the sending equipment. The receiving equipment translates the "65" back to the letter "A." Thus, different devices
can communicate with each other as long as both use ASCII code.
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ASCI I Module
This intelligent PLC module is used for connecting PLCs to other devices also capable of communicating using ASCII code as a
vehicle.
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Bus T opology
This is a linear local area network (LAN) arrangement in which individual nodes are tapped into a main communications cable at a
single point and broadcast messages. These messages travel in both directions on the bus from the point of connection until
terminators at each end of the bus dissipate them.
Fi gure 36: Bus Network Topol ogy
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CPU
Stands for "central processing unit," which is that part of a computer, PLC, or other intelligent device where arithmetic and logical
operations are performed and instructions are decoded and executed.
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Daisy Chain
This is a description of the connection of individual devices in a PLC network, where each device is connected to the next and
communications signals pass from one unit to the next in a sequential fashion.
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Dist ribut ed Cont rol
This is an automation concept in which portions of an automated system are controlled by separate controllers, which are located in
close proximity to their area of direct control (control is decentralized and spread out over the system).
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Host Comput er
A computer used to transfer data to, or receive data from, a PLC in a PLC/computer network.
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I nt elligent Device
Any device equipped with its own CPU.
I /O
Abbreviation for Inputs and Outputs, which are modules that handle data to the PLC (inputs) or signals from the PLC (outputs) to an
external device.
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Kbps
This stands for "kilobits (thousand) bits per second," a rate of measure for electronic data transfer.
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Mbps
Abbreviation for "million bits per second."
Abbreviation for "million bits per second."
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Node
This term is applied to any one of the positions or stations in a network. Each node incorporates a device that can communicate
with all other devices on the network.
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Prot ocol
Manner in which data is arranged and coded for transmission on a network.
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Ring T opology
This is a LAN arrangement in which each node is connected to two other nodes, resulting in a continuous, closed, circular path or
loop for messages to circulate, usually in one direction (Figure X). Some ring topologies have a special "loop back" feature that allows
them to continue functioning even if the main cable is severed.
Fi gure 37: Ri ng Topol ogy
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RS232
An IEEE standard for serial communications that describes specific wiring connections, voltage levels, and other operating
parameters for electronic data communications. There also are several other RS standards defined.
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Serial
Electronic data transfer scheme in which information is transmitted one bit at a time.
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Serial Port
Communication access point, shown in Figure 38, on a device that is set up for serial communications.
Fi gure 38: Seri al Communi cati ons Port
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St ar T opology
A LAN arrangement in which nodes are connected to one another through a central hub, which can be active or passive (Figure
39). An active hub performs network duties such as message routing and maintenance. A passive central hub simply passes the
message along to all the nodes connected to it.
Fi gure 39: Star Topol ogy
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T opology
This relates to a specific arrangement of nodes in a LAN in relation to one another. See Figure 40 for the most commonly used types
topologies.
Fi gure 40: Topol ogy
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T ransparent
This term describes automatic events or processes built into a system that require no special programming or prompting from an
operator.
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Remot e I /O Configurat ions
It is common in the industry to centralize PLCs in relation to the process being controlled. This cuts down on the number and length of
It is common in the industry to centralize PLCs in relation to the process being controlled. This cuts down on the number and length of
cabling used to transmit information to and from the PLC. In some cases, this is not feasible or ideal because an industrial
environment can be quite harsh on the sensitive electronics used in PLCs. For this reason, remote I/O modules have come into
existence. There are many advantages to using remote I/O modules, including:
Remote I/Os eliminate expensive point-to-point wires by networking just a few, or thousands of, process signals onto one digital
communication link.
For data acquisition, remote I/O modules send signals from field-mounted sensors, transmitters, transducers, and alarms directly
to DCS, PLC, and PC-based systems.
Ability to send control signals long distances to remote valves, pumps, and motors with remote?I/O.
Unburdening of an overworked computer system by distributing signal conditioning and intelligence.
Can be used as expansion I/O to add points to a PLC system.
Convert weak sensor signals to immune digital signals to avoid damage during long-distance transmission through a noisy
industrial environment.
Remote I/O allows signals to be transmitted any distance and over any terrain with twisted-pair wires, fiber optics, radio link, or
modems.
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Peer-t o-Peer Configurat ions
Peer-to-peer networks, as shown in Figure 40, enhance reliability by decentralizing the control functions without sacrificing
coordinated control. In this type of network, numerous PLCs are connected to one another in a daisy-chain fashion, and a common
memory table is duplicated in the memory of each. In this way, when any PLC writes data to this memory area, the information is
automatically transferred to all other PLCs in the network. They then can use this information in their own operating programs.
With peer-to-peer networks, each PLC in the network is responsible for its own control site and only needs to be programmed for its
own area of responsibility. This aspect of the network significantly reduces programming and debugging complexity; because all
communications occur transparently to the user, communications programming is reduced to simple read-and-write statements.
In a peer-to-peer system, theres no master PLC. However, its possible to designate one of the PLCs as a master for use as a type of
group controller. This PLC then can be used to accept input information from an operator input terminal, for example, sending all the
necessary parameters to other PLCs and coordinating the sequencing of various events.
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Host Comput er
PLCs also can be connected with computers or other intelligent devices. In fact, most PLCs, from the small to the very large, can be
directly connected to a computer or part of a multi-drop host computer network via RS232C or RS422 ports. This combination of
computer and controller maximizes the capabilities of the PLC, for control and data acquisition, as well as the computer, for data
processing, documentation, and operator interface.
In a PLC/computer network, as shown in Fig. 4C, all communications are initiated by the host computer, which is connected to all
the PLCs in a daisy-chain fashion. This computer individually addresses each of its networked PLCs and asks for specific information.
The addressed PLC then sends this information to the computer for storage and further analysis. This cycle occurs hundreds of times
per second.
Host computers also can aid in programming PLCs; powerful programming and documentation software is available for program
development. Programs then can be written on the computer in relay ladder logic and downloaded into the PLC. In this way, you
can create, modify, debug, and monitor PLC programs via a computer terminal.
In addition to host computers, PLCs often must interface with other devices, such as operator interface terminals for large security
and building management systems. Although many intelligent devices can communicate directly with PLCs via conventional
RS232C ports and serial ASCII code, some do not have the software ability to interface with individual PLC models. Instead, they
typically send and receive data in fixed formats. It is the PLC programmers responsibility to provide the necessary software interface.
The easiest way to provide such an interface to fixed-format intelligent devices is to use an ASCII/BASIC module on the PLC. This
module is essentially a small computer that plugs into the bus of the PLC. Equipped with RS232 ports and programmed in BASIC, the
module easily can handle ASCII communications with peripheral devices, data acquisition functions, programming sequences,
"number crunching," report and display generation, and other requirements.
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PLC Soft ware
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Soft ware vs. Firmware
The terms software and firmware both refer to digitally stored programs and data structures that are read and written by computers.
In the PLC world, software is usually reserved for computer applications that allow the logical creation, monitoring, and
troubleshooting of a PLC program. One example of PLC software is the RSLogix program developed by Allen-Bradley for use with their
controllers. Firmware can be referred to as the actual program a PLC uses to execute logical instruction. Firmware is often stored in
internal memory or on an Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (EEPROM). EEPROMs can be used to store program
backups if there is a program fault or a sustained power loss to the PLC.
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HMI Human Machine I nt erface
The basic purpose of an HMI is to allow convenient and intuitive graphical interface with a process and for control systems to be
more interactive and user-friendly. HMIs provide a simple display that helps an operator determine machine conditions and make
more interactive and user-friendly. HMIs provide a simple display that helps an operator determine machine conditions and make
simple settings. The following are the most common uses of HMIs:
Display of machine and process faults and status
Simple operational commands such as stop/start
Monitor of production/process counts and values
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Ladder Logic Diagrams
The ladder logic used in PLCs today was once referred to as relay logic due to the implementation of physical relay coils used to
control processes. Relay logic is now known as ladder logic because when the logic circuit schematic is laid out with electrical
notation, it resembles a ladder with separate rungs, perpendicular between rails, containing symbols used to represent Boolean logic
expressions such as AND, OR, and NOT.
Fi gure 41: Ladder Logi c
The example in Fi gure 41 shows two rungs containing a series of relays denoted as X, Y, and Z. These are inputs while the symbol for S
is an output.
The logical expression for this circuit is S=X AND (Y OR Z). If normally open contacts X and Y are closed, there is an output at S. Likewise,
because of the OR function of Y and Z, there also is an output at S if X and Z are closed, but Y remains open. Any combination of
Boolean expressions can be used in ladder logic, including but not limited to AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, and XOR. Fi gure 32
a ladder logic circuit with two normally closed contacts, X and Y, connected in an OR configuration with the output S. Their
equivalent Boolean logic gate symbols are also shown. Tabl e 5 is a logic chart showing the combination of inputs that create a
logic high or low output from this circuit.
Fi gure 42: NAND Ci rcui t
The two NOT gates leading into the OR gate in Fi gure 42(b) represent the normally closed contacts in Fi gure 42(a). The NOT gate
function reverses the logic of any incoming signal, turning a HI into a LO and vice versa. When multiple rungs are connected to a
single output on a ladder logic diagram, an OR function exists, as represented by the OR gate in Fi gure 42(b). The combination of
these three logic gates can be shown as a single NAND gate, as in Fi gure 32(c). The NAND gate functions just like an AND gate,
creating a logic HIGH output in the presence of logic HI inputs X and Y. The only difference is the addition of the NOT function,
reversing the output from a logic HI to a logic LO so that two HI inputs equal a LO output. Understanding the logic of this circuit, you
can see that to turn the lamp off, X and Y must be HI. It is common when examining logic circuits to refer to logic levels as true or
false, with true representing logic HI and false representing logic LO.
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Logic I nst ruct ions
In order to use the PLC and make simple edits, it is necessary to understand some basic commands. The commands are all entered in
ladder logic format, and many of them are based on nomenclature used in relay logic. There are timers, counters, coils, and
contacts, among other commands.
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Relays
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Examine I f Closed XI C
This command functions as the input or storage bit (Fi gure 43). The command is addressed to the bit level. If the corresponding
memory bit is 1 (true), the instruction allows rung continuity and outputs are energized (other factors may affect rung continuity). If
the corresponding memory bit is 0 (false), the instruction does not allow rung continuity (it assumes its normally open state) and
outputs on the rung are de-energized (other factors can influence rung continuity).
Fi gure 43: XIC Command
A simple way to look at this instruction is from the processors point of view. The processor is looking for power on that input point to
make this statement a true statement. If a switch in the field is closed, the processor sees power on the point and makes the XIC true.
This causes the rung to be true and enables any output that is present.
This command is similar to a normally open contact on a real world relay. If power is not on the relay, the contact is open and
continuity through the rung is not allowed. If power is not on the PLC point, this command is false and does not allow continuity
through the rung, just like the relay contact.
If power is applied to the relay, the contact is closed and allows continuity through the rung. In the case of the XIC, as shown in
Fi gure 43, if power is applied to the field point, the instruction becomes true and allows continuity in the rung, just like the real world
relay.
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Examine I f Open XI O
Fi gure 44: XIO Command
This command is similar to the XIC, except it works in reverse, as shown in Figure 34. If the corresponding memory bit is 0 (false), the
instruction allows rung continuity and outputs are energized (other factors may affect rung continuity). If the corresponding memory
bit is 1 (true), this instruction does not allow rung continuity and outputs on the rung are de-energized (other factors can influence
rung continuity).
A simple way to look at this instruction is from the processors point of view. The processor is looking for no power on that input point to
make this statement a true statement. If a switch in the field is opened, the processor sees no power on the point, and makes the XIO
true. This causes the rung to be true, and enables any output that is present.
This command is similar to a normally closed contact on a real world relay. If power is not on the relay, the contact is closed and
continuity through the rung is allowed. If power is not on the PLC point, this command is true, and allows continuity through the rung,
just like the relay contact.
If power is applied to the relay, the contact is open, and does not allow continuity through the rung. In the case of the XIC, if power
is applied to the field point, the instruction is false, and does not allow continuity in the rung, just like the real world relay.
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Out put Energized OT E
Fi gure 45: OTE Command
The OTE instruction, which is shown in Fi gure 45, is used to control a bit in memory. If the bit corresponds to an output module
terminal, the device wired to the terminal is energized when the instruction is enabled and de-energized when the instruction is
disabled. If the input conditions that precede the OTE instruction are true, the processor enables that instruction. If the input
conditions are false, the processor disables that instruction. When rung conditions are false, the corresponding device de-energizes.
An OTE instruction is similar to a relay coil. The OTE instruction is controlled by preceding input instructions and the relay coil is
controlled by contacts in its hardwired rung.
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Out put Lat ched OT L
Fi gure 46: OTL Command
The OTL instruction in Fi gure 46 functions much the same as the OTE, with the exception that once a bit is set with an OTL, it
islatchedon. Once an OTL bit has been set on (1 in the memory), it remains on, even if the rung condition goes false. The bit must be
reset with an OTU instruction.
When the processor changes from run to program mode, or when the processor loses power and there is battery backup, the last
true OTL instruction continues to control the bit in memory. The latched output device is energized, even though the rung conditions
that control the instruction may have gone false.
The OTL instruction is retentive. When the processor loses power, is switched to program mode or test mode, or detects a major fault
causing outputs to go off. However, the states of retentive outputs are retained in memory. When the processor resumes operation in
run mode, retentive outputs immediately return to their previous states. Non-retentive outputs, such as OTE outputs, are reset.
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Out put Unlat ched OT U
Fi gure 47: OTU Command
Fi gure 47 displays an OTU command, which is a retentive output instruction that only turns off a bit (it cannot turn on a bit). This
instruction usually is paired with OTL instruction, with both instructions addressing the same bit. The OTU instruction turns off the bit that
was turned on (latched) by the OTL instruction.
When the processor changes from run to program mode, or when the processor loses power and there is battery backup, the bit is
retained in the state set by the last rung of the latch/unlatch pair that was true.
The OTU instruction tells the processor to turn off the addressed bit based on the rung condition. Thereafter, the bit remains off,
regardless of the rung condition, until it is turned on, typically by an OTL instruction in another rung.
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T imers
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T imer On Delay T ON
Fi gure 48: TON Command
The TON instruction shown in Fi gure 48 is used to turn an output on or off after the timer has been on for a preset time interval. This
instruction begins timing, at either 1 second or 1-hundredth of a second intervals, when its rung is true and continues until one of the
following happens:
The accumulated value equals the pre-set value.
The rung goes false.
The processor resets the accumulated value when the rung conditions are false, regardless of whether or not the timer has timed out.
When the rung conditions go True, the timer is on and the Enable (EN) bit is set. When the timer reaches its preset count and times
out, the Done (DN) bit is set to true.
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T imer Off Delay T OF
Fi gure 49: TOF Command
The output instruction in Fi gure 49 begins timing, at either 1 second or 1-hundredth of a second intervals, when its rung
goesfalseand continues timing until one of the following conditions occur:
The accumulated value equals the pre-set value.
The rung goes true.
The processor resets the accumulated value when the rung conditions are true, regardless of whether or not the timer has timed out.
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Ret ent ive T imer On RT O
Fi gure 50: RTO command
The RTO instruction shown in Fi gure 50 is used to turn an output on or off after its timer has been on for a preset time interval. The RTO
instruction lets the timer stop and start without resetting the accumulated value.
The RTO instruction begins timing when its rung goes true. As long as the rung remains true, the timer updates the accumulated value
each program scan, until it reaches the pre-set value. The RTO instruction retains its accumulated value even if one of the following
occurs:
The rung goes false.
There is a change to program mode.
The processor faults or loses power.
When the processor resumes operation or the rung goes true, timing continues from the retained accumulated value. By retaining its
accumulated value, retentive timers measure the cumulative period during which its rung is true. The RTO command is reset using the
RES command.
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Count ers
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Count Up Count er CT U
Fi gure 51: CTU Command
The CTU instruction shown in Fi gure 51 counts upward over a range of -32,768 to+32,767. Each time the rung changes from false to
true, the CTU instruction increases the accumulated value by one count. When the accumulated value equals or exceeds the pre-
set value, the CTU sets a DN bit the ladder program can use to initiate an action, such as controlling a storage bit or an output
device. CTU instructions are retentive and require an RES instruction to be reset. They also reset if the counter decreases below the
pre-set value.
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Count Up Count er CT D
Fi gure 52: CTD Command
Fi gure 52 shows CTD instruction, which counts downward over a range of+32,767 to -32,768. Each time the rung changes from false
to true, the CTD instruction decreases the accumulated value by one count. The DN is set as long as the accumulated value is
greater than or equal to the pre-set value. When the accumulated value is less than the pre-set value, the CTD resets a DN bit,
which the ladder program can use to initiate an action, such as controlling a storage bit or an output device. CTD instructions are
retentive and require RES instruction to be reset. They also reset if the counter increases above the pre-set value.
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Reset Command RES
Fi gure 53: RES Command
The RES instruction shown in Fi gure 53 is an output instruction that resets a timer or counter. The RES executes when its rung is true.
Reset commands normally are used for counters and retentive timers, but also may be used for TONs to reset the timers while their
rungs are still true.
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Dat a T ransfer I nst ruct ions
Fi gure 54: Data Transfer Instructi ons
The Move (MOV) command shown in Fi gure 54 is an output instruction that copies a value from a source address to a destination.
As long as the rung remains true, the instruction moves the data during each scan. This command makes a copy of the original and
places the duplicate in a new location (Dest). The original value remains intact and unchanged in its source location.
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Arit hmet ic Commands
Fi gure 55: ADD Command
PLCs have a wide variety of available mathematical commands. These commands simply perform the indicated math function on
any valid instruction address data or any number.
In the example shown in Fi gure 55, the user is adding the contents of N7:21 to the contents of N7:22. The result is stored in file N7:19.
Notice that the actual contents of the register being used is shown below the register. In this case, N7:21, containing the number 20 is
added to N7:22, containing the number 5. The result is stored in N7:19 as the number 25 (20+5).
All math commands work in a similar manner.
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Dat a Manipulat ion I nst ruct ions
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Mast er Cont rol Reset
Fi gure 56: MCR Command
Fi gure 56 shows output instruction, which is also known as zone control used to set up areas or zones of the ladder program where
all non-retentive outputs may be simultaneously disabled for the same length of time. It is used in pairs: one MCR to define the start
of the effected ladder area and one MCR to define the end of the area.
An input instruction is programmed on the rung of the first MCR to control rung logic continuity. When the rung is false, all non-
retentive outputs within the controlled zone are disabled. When the rung is true, all rungs are scanned according to their normal
rung conditions, disregarding the zone control instruction.
CAUTION: MCR-controlled areas must contain only two MCR instructions: one to define the start and one to define the end. Any
additional MCR orgo-to" type instructions could produce unexpected program damage or machine operation results. DO NOT
OVERLAP MCR ZONES! The MCR instruction is not a substitute for a hardwired master control relay that provides emergency stop
capability. You still should install a hardwired master control relay to provide emergency I/O power shutdown.
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Program Cont rol I nst ruct ions
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Subrout ines
Subroutines are an important part of a PLC program. By using them, the programmer can make a program much more logical and
faster to execute.
Basically, a subroutine is a ladder that is only executed when it is called from the main program. File number 2 is always the first
ladder in a program and, as such, is the main ladder. When the processor scans its ladder programs, it only scans ladder number 2
unless ladder number 2 commands it to go to another subroutine. If no other l adders are cal l ed by a JSR, then the ONLY
l adder executed i s fi l e 2. When a JSR is encountered, the program jumps out of that ladder (in this case ladder 2), and goes to
the ladder called for in the subroutine jump command. When the end of the file is reached, the program jumps back to the file that
has the JSR, in this case file 2, and continues executing. It also returns if a Return (RET) command is encountered in the ladder.
In order to call a subroutine, a command, such as the one shown in Fi gure 57, is used. It is called a JSR (Jump To Subroutine)
command. Notice that in this case, the subroutine being called is ladder file number U: 3. The "U" indicates the file is for a user. All
ladder files are for users.

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