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ELECTRIC CIRCUIT II ELECTRIC CIRCUIT II
AC Power Analysis AC Power Analysis AC Power Analysis AC Power Analysis
1 Instantaneous and Average Power 1 Instantaneous and Average Power
2 Maximum Average Power Transfer
3 Effective or RMS Value
4 Apparent Power and Power Factor
5 Complex Power
6 Conservation of AC Power 6 Conservation of AC Power
7 Power Factor Correction
8 Power Measurement
2
Introduction Introduction Introduction Introduction
Previous Chapters mainly focused on calculation of
voltage and current. g
This chapter focus on Power analysis
Power Analysis is of paramount importance
Power is most important quantities in electrics
utilities electronics and communications systems utilities, electronics and communications systems
such sys involve transmission of power from one
point to one point.
every industries and household electrical device has
power rating that indicates how much power the power rating that indicates how much power the
equipment requires.
Exceeding power rating can do permanent damage
to an appliances.
Most common form of electric power is 50 or 60Hz
ac power.
The choice of ac over dc allowed high-voltage
power transmission from power generating plant to
3
power transmission from power generating plant to
consumer.
4.1 Instantaneous and Average 4.1 Instantaneous and Average
P (1) P (1) Power (1) Power (1)
The instantaneously power, p(t) Is the power at any instant of time
) 2 ( cos
2
1
) ( cos
2
1
) ( cos ) ( cos ) ( ) ( ) (
i v m m i v m m
i v m m
t I V I V
t t I V t i t v t p


+ + + =
+ + = =
Sinusoidal power at 2t
Constant power
) (
2
) (
2
i v m m i v m m
4
p(t) > 0: power is absorbed by the circuit; p(t) < 0: power is absorbed by the source.
4.1 Instantaneous and Average Power 4.1 Instantaneous and Average Power
Th i t t l (t) The instantaneously power, p(t) Is the power at any instant of time
) ( ) ( ) ( t i t v t p =
Where v(t) = instantaneous voltage across the element
i(t)= instantaneous current through it
Voltage and current at circuit terminals:
v(t)= V
m
cos (t+
v
)
i(t)= I
m
cos (t+
i
)
Therefore the instantaneous power absorbed by circuits
elements:
p(t)=v(t)i(t)= V
m
I
m
cos (t+
v
) cos (t+
i
)
Applying the trigonometric identity:

)] cos( ) [cos(
2
1
cos cos B A B A B A + + =
5
) 2 cos( Im
2
1
) cos( Im
2
1
) ( i v t Vm i v Vm t p + + + =
4.1 Instantaneous and Average 4.1 Instantaneous and Average
PPPower Power
The average power, P, is the average of the instantaneous
) ( cos
2
1
) (
1

0
i v m m
T
I V dt t p
T
P = =

power over one period.
) (
2
) (
0
i v m m
p
T

1. P is not time dependent.
2 Wh it i l 2. When
v
=
i
, it is a purely
resistive load case.
3. When
v

i
= 90o, it is a
l ti l d purely reactive load case.
4. P = 0 means that the circuit
absorbs no average power.
6
4.1 Instantaneous and Average Power 4.1 Instantaneous and Average Power
Example 1
Calculate the instantaneous power and average
power absorbed by a passive linear network if: power absorbed by a passive linear network if:
A t t i
V t t v
) 10 377 cos( 10 ) (
) 45 377 cos( 120 ) (
=
+ =
Solution:
The instantaneous power
Applying trigonometry identity:
A t t i ) 10 377 cos( 10 ) (
) 10 377 cos( ) 45 377 cos( 1200 + = = t t vi p
Applying trigonometry identity:
W t p )] 35 754 cos( ) 55 [(cos 600 + + =
The average power
W P 2 . 344 55 cos 600 = =
7
4.1 Instantaneous and Average Power 4.1 Instantaneous and Average Power
Exercise 1
Calculate the instantaneous power and average
power absorbed by a passive linear network if:
A t t i
V t t v
) 60 10 sin( 20 ) (
) 20 10 cos( 165 ) (
+ =
+ =
Answer:
A t t i ) 60 10 sin( 20 ) ( +
kW t a ) 10 20 cos( 65 1 0606 1 ) + kW t a ) 10 20 cos( 65 . 1 0606 . 1 ) +
kW b 0606 . 1 )
8
Example 2
4.1 Instantaneous and Average Power 4.1 Instantaneous and Average Power
Example 2
For the circuit below, find the average power supplied by the
source and the average power absorbed by the resistor.
9
4.1 Instantaneous and Average Power 4.1 Instantaneous and Average Power
Solution:
Current I:
=

= 57 . 56 118 . 1
30 5
I
Average power by

57 . 56 118 . 1
2 4 j
I
W P 5 2 ) 57 56 30 cos( ) 118 1 )( 5 (
1
= =
g p y
voltage source :
Current through resistor:
W P 5 . 2 ) 57 . 56 30 cos( ) 118 . 1 )( 5 (
2
A I I = = 57 56 118 1 Current through resistor:
Voltage across it:
A I IR = = 57 . 56 118 . 1
V I V R R = = 57 . 56 472 . 4 4
Therefore average power absorbed by the resistor is :
W P 5 . 2 ) 118 . 1 )( 472 . 4 (
2
1
= =
10
2
4.2 Maximum Average Power Transfer (1) 4.2 Maximum Average Power Transfer (1)
Consider the circuit in figure, where an ac circuit is connected to a load g ,
Z
L
and is represented by its Thevenin equivalent.
The load is usually represented by an impedance, which may model an
electric motor, an antenna and etc.
In rectangular form the Thevenin impedance Z &load impedance Z
TH TH TH
X j R Z + =
In rectangular form, the Thevenin impedance Z
TH
&load impedance Z
L
L L L
X j R Z + =
We come to the conclusion, for maximum
average power transfer, Z
L
must be selected
X
L
= X
TH
and R
L
= R
TH
g p ,
L
so that
11
4.2 Maximum Average Power Transfer 4.2 Maximum Average Power Transfer
Therefore:
* TH TH TH L L L Z jX R jX R Z = = + =
For maximum average power transfer, the load impedance Z
L
must
be equal to the complex conjugate of the Thevenin impedance Z
TH
.
When Z
L
=Z
TH
, we say that the load is matched to the source.
Maximum average power transfer
TH
2
TH
max
R 8
V
P =
(means maximum average power transfer to a purely resistive load, the
If the load is purely real, then
TH
2
TH
2
TH L
Z X R R = + =
12
load impedance (or resistance) is equal to the magnitude of the Thevenin
Impedance.
4.2 Maximum Average Power Transfer 4.2 Maximum Average Power Transfer
E l 3 Example 3
Determine the load impedance Z
L
that maximizes the
average power drawn from the circuit What is the maximum average power drawn from the circuit. What is the maximum
average power?
13
Maximum Average Power Transfer Maximum Average Power Transfer
S l ti Solution:
First, obtain the Thevenin equivalent at the load
terminals because
* Z jX R jX R Z +
terminals because
* TH TH TH L L L Z jX R jX R Z = = + =
+ = + = 467 . 4 933 . 2 ) 6 8 ( 4 5 j j ll j ZTH
Therefore, the load impedance draws the maximum power
from the circuit when
= = 467 . 4 933 . 2 * j Z Z TH L
14
Next, to find the maximum average power.
Formula:
2
TH
V
Have to find V
TH
, using the voltage divider:
TH
TH
max
R 8
V
P =
V
j
j
VTH =
+

= 3 . 10 454 . 7 ) 10 (
6 8 4
6 8
j
Therefore, the maximum average power is
2
2
15
W 368 . 2
) 933 . 2 ( 8
454 . 7
R 8
V
P
2
TH
2
TH
max
= = =
4.2 Maximum Average Power 4.2 Maximum Average Power
T f T f Transfer Transfer
Exercise 2 Exercise 2
For the circuit shown below, find the load impedance Z
L
that
absorbs the maximum average power Calculate that maximum absorbs the maximum average power. Calculate that maximum
average power.
Answer: Z =3 415 j0 7317
16
Answer: Z
L
=3.415 j0.7317
: Max average power=1.4278W
4.3 Effective or RMS Value (1) 4.3 Effective or RMS Value (1)
The effective value is the measure of
ff ti f lt t effectiveness of a voltage or current source
in delivering power to a resistive load.
Hence, I
eff
is equal to:
rms
T
eff
I dt i
T
I
1


0
2
= =

The effective value of a periodic signal is its
root mean square (rms) value.
The rms value is a constant itself which
dependingon the shape of the function i(t).
17
4.3 Effective or RMS Value 4.3 Effective or RMS Value
The rms value of a constant is the constant itself
Th l f i id The rms value for a sinusoid :
cos I ) ( m = t t i cos ) ( m t V t v =
2
I
) (
m
= rms I
2
) (
Vm
rms V =
The average power absorbed by a resistor R
R
V
R I P
rms
rms
2
2
= =
18
4.3 Effective or RMS Value 4.3 Effective or RMS Value
Example 4
Determine the rms value of the current waveform in figure. If
the current is passed through a 2 resistor, find the average
power absorbed by the resistor.
19
4.3 Effective or RMS Value 4.3 Effective or RMS Value
Solution
The period of the waveform is T=4 Therefore the current The period of the waveform is T=4. Therefore, the current
waveform:
4 2
2 0
.........
10
5
) (
< <
< <

=
t
t t
t i
The rms value is
0 t
A dt dt t dt i
T
I
T
eff
165 . 8 ] ) 10 ( ) 5 ( [
4
1

1

4
2
2
2
0
2

0
2
= + = =

The power absorbed by 2:
W R I P 3 133 ) 2 ( ) 165 8 (
2 2
20
W R I P rms 3 . 133 ) 2 ( ) 165 . 8 (
2 2
= = =
4.4 Apparent Power and Power Factor 4.4 Apparent Power and Power Factor
Apparent Power, S, is the product of the r.m.s. values of
voltage and current.
It is measured in volt-amperes or VA to distinguish it from
the average or real power which is measured in watts.
) ( cos S ) ( cos I V P
i v i v rms rms
= =
Apparent Power, S Power Factor, pf
Power factor is the cosine of the phase difference between
the voltage and current. It is also the cosine of the angle
f th l d i d
21
of the load impedance.
4.4 Apparent Power and Power Factor 4.4 Apparent Power and Power Factor
Power
) cos( i v
S
P
pf = =
Power
factor angle
Purely resistive
load (R)

v

i
= 0, Pf = 1
P/S = 1, all power are
consumed load (R) consumed
Purely reactive
load (L or C)

v

i
= 90
o
,
pf = 0
P = 0, no real power
consumption
p
Resistive and
reactive load

v

i
> 0

v

i
< 0
Lagging - inductive
load
(R and L/C)
v i
Leading - capacitive
load
22
Leading power factors-the current leads voltage
Laggingpower factors- the current lags voltage
4.4 Apparent Power and Power Factor 4.4 Apparent Power and Power Factor
Example 5 Example 5
A series connected load draws a current i(t)=4 cos
(100t+10
0
)A when the applied voltage is v(t)=120 cos (100t+10 )A when the applied voltage is v(t) 120 cos
(100t-20
0
)V. Find the apparent power and the power
factor of the load.
Solution
The apparent power is VA s I V S rm rms 240
4 120
= = = The apparent power is
The power factor is
V s V S m ms 0
2 2
The power factor is
866 . 0 ) 10 20 cos( ) cos( = = = i v pf
23
Since
v

i
< 0, it is leading
4 5 C l P (1) 4 5 C l P (1) 4.5 Complex Power (1) 4.5 Complex Power (1)
Complex power S is the product of the voltage and the Complex power S is the product of the voltage and the
complex conjugate of the current:
It is use to find the total effect of parallel loads.
i m v m
I V = = I V
24
4 5 C l P 4 5 C l P 4.5 Complex Power 4.5 Complex Power
I V I V
1
S

i v rms rms
I V I V
2
1
S = =

) ( sin I V j ) ( cos I V S
i v rms rms i v rms rms
+ = ) ( j ) (
i v rms rms i v rms rms
S = P + j Q
P: is the average power in watts delivered to a load and it is
the only useful power.
Q: is the reactive power exchange between the source and
the reactive part of the load. It is measured in VAR.(volt-
ampere- reactive).
25
Q = 0 for resistive loads (unity pf).
Q < 0 for capacitive loads (leading pf).
Q > 0 for inductive loads (lagging pf).
4.5 Complex Power 4.5 Complex Power pp
1
S power apparent
2
1
power complex
2 2
i v rms rms
Q P I V
I V jQ P
+ = = = =
= = + = =

S
VI S
) ( i S ) I ( Q ti
) cos( S ) Re( P power real
S power apparent
v i
rms rms
Q P I V

= = =
+ = = = =
S
S
S
) cos(
S
P
factor power
) ( sin S ) Im( Q power reactive
v
i v
i


= =
= = = S
S
26
4.5 Complex Power 4.5 Complex Power
Example 6
The voltage across a load is v(t)=60 cos (t 10
0
)V The voltage across a load is v(t)=60 cos (t-10
0
)V
and the current through the element i(t) =1.5 cos
(
0
) d (t+50
0
)A. Find:
(a)Complex and apparent power
(b)Real and reactive powers ( ) p
(c)Power factor and the load impedance
27
((Solution) Solution) 4.5 Complex Power 4.5 Complex Power
The rms values of the voltage and current: The rms values of the voltage and current:
= 10
2
60
Vrms + = 50
2
5 . 1
Irms
(a)the complex power
2 2
i v rms rms
I V jQ P = = + = =

VI S
2
1
power complex
2
) 50 10 ( )
2
5 . 1
)(
2
60
( = S
VA ) 60 ( 45 = S
Apparent power
2 2
S = = S power apparent
therefore VA 45 S = = S
28
(b) Real and reactive powers
Real power
) Re( P power Real S = =
VA = 60 45 S
Real power
Reactive power
) Re( P power Real S = =
W P 5 . 22 =
) Im( Q power reactive S = = ) ( Q p
) ( 97 . 38 reactive ampere volt VAR Q =
(c) Power factor & load impedance
Power factor
) cos(
S
P
factor power
i v
= =
S
leading pf ), 60 cos( ) 50 10 cos( = =
Load impedance


60 40
10 60 V
Z
29
=
+
= = 60 40
50 5 . 1 I
Z
4.5 Complex Power 4.5 Complex Power
Exercise 3
For a load,
. 15 4 . 0 , 85 110 A Irms V Vrms = =
Determine : (a) the complex and apparent powers
(b) the real and reactive powers (b) the real and reactive powers
(c) the power factor and the load
impedance impedance.
30
4 6 C ti f AC P (1) 4 6 C ti f AC P (1) 4.6 Conservation of AC Power (1) 4.6 Conservation of AC Power (1)
The complex real, and reactive powers of the sources
equal the respective sums of the complex, real, and
reactive powers of the individual loads.
For parallel connection:
2 1
*
2
*
1
*
2
*
1
*
S S I V
2
1
I V
2
1
) I I ( V
2
1
I V
2
1
S + = + = + = =
31
2 1 2 1 2 1
2 2
) (
2 2
The same results can be obtained for a series connection.
4 7 P F t C ti (1) 4 7 P F t C ti (1) 4.7 Power Factor Correction (1) 4.7 Power Factor Correction (1)
Power factor correction is the process of increasing the g
power factor without altering the voltage or current to
the original load.
32
Power factor correction is necessary for economic reason.
4 7 Power Factor Correction (2) 4 7 Power Factor Correction (2) 4.7 Power Factor Correction (2) 4.7 Power Factor Correction (2)
Q
c
= Q
1
Q
2
P (tan tan ) = P (tan
1
- tan
2
)
= CV
2rms
Q
1
= S
1
sin
1
= P tan
1
2
rms
2 1
2
rms
c
V
) tan (tan P

V
Q
C

= =
33
Q
2
= P tan
2
P = S
1
cos
1
4 8 P M t (1) 4 8 P M t (1) 4.8 Power Measurement (1) 4.8 Power Measurement (1)
The wattmeter is the instrument for measuring the average The wattmeter is the instrument for measuring the average
power.
If
) cos( ) (
v m
t V t v + =
and
) cos( ) (
i m
t I t i + =
The basic structure Equivalent Circuit with load
34
) ( cos I V ) ( cos I V P
i v m m 2
1
i v rms rms
= =