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RELAYS

Relays are used throughout the automobile. Relays which come in assorted sizes, ratings, and applications, are used as
remote control switches. A typical vehicle can have 20 relays or more.

RELAY APPLICATIONS

Relays are remote control electrical switches that are controlled by another switch,
such as a horn switch or a computer as in a power train control module. Relays allow a
small current flow circuit to control a higher current circuit. Several designs of relays are
in use today, 3-pin, 4-pin, 5-pin, and 6-pin, single switch or dual switches.

RELAY OPERATION

All relays operate using the same basic principle. Our example
will use a commonly used 4 - pin relay. Relays have two circuits:
A control circuit (shown in GREEN) and a load circuit (shown in
RED). The control circuit has a small control coil while the load
circuit has a switch. The coil controls the operation of the switch.

RELAY ENERGIZED (ON)

Current flowing through the control circuit coil (pins 1 and 3) creates a small magnetic field which
causes the switch to close, pins 2 and 4. The switch, which is part of the load circuit, is used to control
an electrical circuit that may connect to it. Current now flows through pins 2 and 4 shown in RED, when
the relay in energized.

RELAY DE-ENERGIZED (OFF)

When current stops flowing through the control circuit, pins 1 and 3, the
relay becomes deenergized. Without the magnetic field, the switch opens and current is
prevented from flowing through pins 2 and 4. The relay is now OFF.

RELAY OPERATION

When no voltage is applied to pin 1, there is no current flow through the coil. No current means no magnetic field is
developed, and the switch is open. When voltage is supplied to pin 1, current flow though the coil creates the magnetic field
needed to close the switch allowing continuity between pins 2 and 4.

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RELAY DESIGN ID

Relays are either Normally Open or Normally Closed. Notice the position of the switches in the two relays shown below.
Normally open relays have a switch that remains open until energized (ON) while normally closed relays are closed until
energized. Relays are always shown in the de-energized position (no current flowing through the control circuit - OFF).
Normally open relays are the most common in vehicles; however either can be use in automotive applications.

Normally Open (NO) Normally Closed (NC)

NORMALLY CLOSED RELAYS

The operation of a Normally Closed relay is the same to that of a Normally Open relay, except backwards. In other words,
when the relay control coil is NOT energized, the relay switch contacts are closed, completing the circuit through pins 2 and 4.
When the control coil is energized, the relay switch contacts opens, which breaks the circuit open and no continuity exists
between pins 2 and 4.

DE - ENERGIZED (OFF) ENERGIZED (ON)

ACTUAL RELAY DESIGN

Current flows through the control coil, which is wrapped

around an iron core. The iron core intensifies the magnetic
field. The magnetic field attracts the upper contact arm and
pulls it down, closing the contacts and allowing power from the
power source to go to the load.

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RELAY VARIATIONS

Other relay variations include three and five pin relays. A 3-PIN relay instead of two B+ input sources, this relay has one B+
input at pin 1. Current splits inside the relay, supplying power to both the control and load circuits. A 5-PIN relay has a single
control circuit, but two separate current paths for the switch: One when the relay is de-energized (OFF – no current through
the control coil) and the other the energized (ON - current is flowing through the control coil). When the 5-PIN relay is de-
energized (OFF), pins 4 and 5 have continuity. When the relay is energized (ON), pins 3 and 5 have continuity.

3 - PIN 4 - PIN 5 – PIN

VOLTAGE SPIKES

When the switch is closed (shown left), current flows through the coil from positive to negative
as shown in red. This current flow creates a magnetic field around the coil. The top of the coil is
positive, and the bottom is negative.

When the switch is opened (shown on right), current stops flowing through the control circuit
coil, and the magnetic field surrounding the coil cannot be maintained. As the magnetic field
collapses across the coil, it induces a voltage into itself, creating a reverse polarity voltage spike
of several hundred volts. Although the top of the coil is still 12 volts positive, the bottom of the
coil produces several hundred positive volts (200+ volts or more); 200 is "more positive" and
stronger than 12 volts, so current flows from the bottom of the coil up towards the top.

Solenoid
A solenoid (1827, fr. solénoïde, gr. solen "pipe, channel" + comb.
form of gr. eidos "form, shape"[1]) is a three-dimensional coil. In
physics, the term solenoid refers to a loop of wire, often wrapped
around a metallic core, which produces a magnetic field when an
electric current is passed through it. Solenoids are important
because they can create controlled magnetic fields and can be
used as electromagnets. The term solenoid refers specifically to a
magnet designed to produce a uniform magnetic field in a volume
of space (where some experiment might be carried out).

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Stepper Motor
A stepper motor is an electromechanical device which converts electrical pulses into discrete mechanical movements. The
shaft or spindle of a stepper motor rotates in discrete step increments when electrical command pulses are applied to it in
the proper sequence. The motors rotation has several direct relationships to these applied input pulses. The sequence of the
applied pulses is directly related to the direction of motor shafts rotation. The speed of the motor shafts rotation is directly
related to the frequency of the input pulses and the length of rotation is directly related to the number of input pulses
applied.

Stepper Motor Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages

1. The rotation angle of the motor is proportional to the input pulse.

2. The motor has full torque at standstill (if the windings are energized)

3. Precise positioning and repeatability of movement since good stepper motors have an accuracy of

3 – 5% of a step and this error is non cumulative from one step to the next.

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4. Excellent response to starting/ stopping/reversing.

5. Very reliable since there are no contact brushes in the motor. Therefore the life of the motor is simply dependant on the
life of the bearing.

6. The motors response to digital input pulses provides open-loop control, making the motor simpler and less costly to
control.

7. It is possible to achieve very low speed synchronous rotation with a load that is directly coupled to the

shaft.

8. A wide range of rotational speeds can be realized as the speed is proportional to the frequency of the input pulses.

Disadvantages

1. Resonances can occur if not properly controlled.

2. Not easy to operate at extremely high speeds.

Open Loop Operation

One of the most significant advantages of a stepper motor is its ability to be accurately controlled in an open loop system.
Open loop control means no feedback information about position is needed. This type of control eliminates the need for
expensive sensing and feedback devices such as optical encoders. Your position is known simply by keeping track of the input
step pulses.

Stepper Motor Types

There are three basic stepper motor types. They are :

• Variable-reluctance

• Permanent-magnet

• Hybrid

Variable-reluctance (VR)

This type of stepper motor has been around for a long time. It is probably the easiest to
understand from a structural point of view. Figure 1 shows a cross section of a typical V.R.
stepper motor. This type of motor consists of a soft iron multi-toothed rotor and a wound
stator. When the stator windings are energized with DC current the poles become
magnetized. Rotation occurs when the rotor teeth are attracted to the energized stator
poles.

Figure 1. Cross-section of a variablereluctance (VR) motor

Permanent Magnet (PM)

Often referred to as a “tin can” or “canstock” motor the permanent magnet step motor is a
low cost and low resolution type motor with typical step angles of 7.5° to 15°. (48 – 24
steps/revolution) PM motors as the name implies have permanent magnets added to the
motor structure. The rotor no longer has teeth as with the VR motor. Instead the rotor is
magnetized with alternating north and south poles situated in a straight line parallel to the
rotor shaft. These magnetized rotor poles provide an increased magnetic flux intensity and
because of this the PM motor exhibits improved torque characteristics when compared with
the VR type.

Figure 2. Principle of a PM or tin-can stepper motor.

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Figure 4. Principle of a disc magnet motor developed by Portescap.

Hybrid (HB)

The hybrid stepper motor is more expensive than the PM stepper motor but provides better performance with respect to
step resolution, torque and speed. Typical step angles for the HB stepper motor
range from 3.6° to 0.9° (100 – 400 steps per revolution). The hybrid stepper motor
combines the best features of both the PM and VR type stepper motors. The rotor
is multi-toothed like the VR motor and contains an axially magnetized concentric
magnet around its shaft. The teeth on the rotor provide an even better path which
helps guide the magnetic flux to preferred locations in the airgap. This further
increases the detent, holding and dynamic torque characteristics of the motor
when compared with both the VR and PM types.

The two most commonly used types of stepper motors are the permanent magnet
and the hybrid types. If a designer is not sure which type will best fit his
applications requirements he should first evaluate the PM type as it is normally
several times less expensive. If not then the hybrid motor may be the right choice.

Figure 3. Cross-section of a hybrid stepper motor.

Brushed DC Motor Basics

Motor Basics

Motor Components
A brushed DC motor is made up of 4 basic components; the stator, the rotor ( or armature ), brushes, and commutator.

Stator
As the name implies, the stator generates a stationary magnetic field that surrounds the rotor and this magnetic field is
generated by either permanent magnets or electromagnetic windings.

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Rotor

Next is the rotor, also known as the armature. The rotor is

made up of one or more windings. When these windings are
energized they produce a magnetic field. The magnetic poles
of this rotor field will be attracted to the opposite poles
generated by the stator, causing the rotor to turn. As the
motor turns, the windings are constantly being energized in a
different sequence so that the magnetic poles generated by
the rotor do not overrun the poles generated in the stator.
This switching of the field in the rotor windings is called
Commutation.

Brushes and Commutator

Brushed DC motors do not require a controller to switch current in the motor windings. Instead, it uses a
mechanical commutation of the windings. A copper sleeve ( commutator ), resides on the axle of the rotor. As the
motor turns, carbon brushes slide over the commutator, coming in contact with different segments of the
commutator. The segments are attached to different rotor windings, therefore, a dynamic magnetic field is
generated inside the motor when a voltage is applied across the brushes of the motor. The brushes and
commutator are the parts of a brushed DC motor that are most prone to wear.

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So, as the rotor rotates inside the stator, the brushes rub the different segments of the commutator supplying a
charge to that segment and its corresponding winding. As the bushes pass over the commutator gaps the supplied
electrical charge will switch commutator segments.

Thus, switching the electrical polarity of the rotor windings. This will create an attraction of the different polarities
and keep the rotor rotating within the stator field
This process will continue as long as a supply voltage is applied.
Brushed DC Motor Overview

Types of Brush DC Motors

There are four types of brushed DC motors.

The first type, is the Permanent Magnet Brush DC Motor. Second, the shunt-wound brushed DC motor. Third is
the series-wound DC motor and fourth is the compound-wound brushed DC motor which is a combination of both
the shunt and series wound brushed DC motors.

Permanent magnet brushed DC motors

are the most common. These motors use
permanent magnets to produce the
stator field. They are generally used in
applications needing fractional
horsepower such as; Toys, Radio Control
hobby applications, electric slot cars,
appliances, etc. It is more cost effective
to use permanent magnets than wound
stators because they are cheaper to
manufacture. The torque from a permanent magnet brushed
DC motor is limited by its stator field, which gives it good low
end ( low speed ) torque and a limited high end ( high speed
) torque. The permanent magnet brushed DC motor
responds very quickly to changes in voltage. This is due to its
constant stator field, thus giving it good speed control
capabilities. But, they do have a drawback. Permanent
magnet brushed DC motors will loose their magnetic

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properties over time, thus degrading its stator field and causing the motors performance to decline.

Shunt-Wound

Shunt-wound brushed DC motors have the field coil in parallel ( shunt ) with the rotor. The current in the field coil
and in the rotor are independent of one another, thus, the total current of the motor is equal to the sum of the
shunt current (or stator current ) and the rotor current. So, during normal operation, as the supplied voltage is
increased the total current of the motor will increase causing the stator and rotor fields to increase. As total
current increases motor speed will increase, thus motor torque will decrease.
However, once you put a load on the motor the rotor current will increase causing the rotor field to increase. If
the rotor current increases then the shunt current will decrease causing the stator field to decrease. This will
cause the motor speed to decrease, thus the motor torque will increase.
Shunt-wound brushed DC motors have the performance characteristics of decreasing torque at high speeds and a
high but more consistent torque at low speeds. The current in the field coil and in the rotor are independent of
one another, thus, the total current of the motor is equal to the sum of the shunt current ( or stator current ) and
the rotor current. As a result, these motors have excellent speed control characteristics. Shunt-wound brushed DC
motors are typically used in applications that require 5 or more HP such as industrial and automotive applications.
As compared to permanent magnet brushed DC motors, shunt wound brushed DC motors have no loss of
magnetism and are more robust. Some drawbacks are that shunt wound brushed DC motors are more expensive
than permanent magnet brushed DC motors and have the potential of motor runaway if the shunt current
decreases to zero. This is a very dangerous condition that can lead the motor to literally brake apart.

Series-Wound

Series-wound brushed DC motors have the field coil in series with the rotor, thus, their field currents become
identical. So, the motor current is equal to
the sum of the stator ( series ) current and
the rotor current. Thus, during normal
operation without a load, as the supply
voltage is increased the motor current
increases. This
causes the stator and rotor fields to
increase and the motor speed increases
with a decrease in torque. But, as a load is
placed on the motor, motor current will
increase also causing the stator and rotor
fields to increase. Now the motor speed
will decrease and torque will increase to
overcome the load.

Series wound brushed DC motors have great slow speed ( low end ) torque, but if the load is removed, speed will
sharply increase. This makes these motors ideally suited for high-torque applications, such as cranes and winches
because the current in both the stator and rotor increases under load. Some drawbacks are that they have poor
high speed ( high end ) torque characteristics ,thus they must have a load connected to prevent damage under
high speed conditions. They are more expensive than permanent magnet brushed DC motors, they do not have
precise speed control characteristics like permanent magnet brushed DC and shunt wound
brushed DC motors, and they can potentially go into motor runaway if the series stator field is shorted. Again, this
is a very dangerous condition that can lead the motor to literally brake apart.

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Compound-Wound

A compound wound brushed DC motor is a combination of both the shunt wound and series wound brushed DC
motors. As you can see, the total current in the motor is the sum of the currents through the shunt field and the
series field coils. The current through the series field coil is the same as the current through the rotor
field. So, as a load is placed on the motor, the current through the rotor and series fields will increase. Thus, the
current through the shunt field will decrease,
the speed of the motor will decrease, and the
motor torque will increase.
The compound wound brushed DC motor has
the performance characteristics of both the
shunt wound and the series wound brushed DC
motors. It has the high torque at low speeds
with heavy loads as seen with series wound
brushed DC motors and has great speed control
as with the shunt wound brushed DC motors.
Compound wound brushed DC motors are great
for industrial and automotive applications such
as generators. With compound wound brushed DC motors the problem of motor runaway is less likely because
the shunt current must go to zero and the series field must be shorted, thus the chances of both of these
conditions occurring at the same time or very small. However, a compound wound brushed DC motor is more
expensive than a permanent magnet, shunt wound, or a series wound brushed DC motors.

Brushless DC (BLDC) Motor

Brushless Direct Current (BLDC) motors are one

of the motor types rapidly gaining popularity.
BLDC motors are used in industries such as
Appliances, Automotive, Aerospace, Consumer,
Medical, Industrial Automation Equipment and
Instrumentation. As the name implies, BLDC
motors do not use brushes for commutation;
instead, they are electronically commutated.
BLDC motors have many advantages over
brushed DC motors and induction motors. A
few of these are:

• Better speed versus torque characteristics

• High dynamic response

• High efficiency

• Long operating life

• Noiseless operation

• Higher speed ranges

In addition, the ratio of torque delivered to the size of the motor is higher, making it useful in applications where space and
weight are critical factors. In this application note, we will discuss in detail the construction, working principle, characteristics
and typical applications of BLDC motors. Refer to Appendix B:“Glossary” for a glossary of terms commonly used when
describing BLDC motors.

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CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATING PRINCIPLE

BLDC motors are a type of synchronous motor. This means the magnetic field generated by the stator and the magnetic field
generated by the rotor rotate at the same frequency. BLDC motors do not experience the “slip” that is normally seen in
induction motors. BLDC motors come in single-phase, 2-phase and 3-phase configurations. Corresponding to its type, the
stator has the same number of windings. Out of these,3-phase motors are the most popular and widely used. This application
note focuses on 3-phase motors.

Stator

The stator of a BLDC motor consists of stacked steel laminations with windings placed in the slots that are axially cut along
the inner periphery (as shown in Figure 3). Traditionally, the stator resembles that of an induction motor; however, the
windings are distributed in a different manner. Most BLDC motors have three stator windings connected in star fashion. Each
of these windings are constructed with numerous coils interconnected to form a winding. One or more coils are placed in the
slots and they are interconnected to make a winding. Each of these windings are distributed over the stator periphery to form
an even numbers of poles. There are two types of stator windings variants: trapezoidal and sinusoidal motors. This
differentiation is made on the basis of the interconnection of coils in the stator windings to give the different types of back
Electromotive Force (EMF). Refer to the “What is Back EMF?” section for more information.

As their names indicate, the trapezoidal motor gives a back EMF in trapezoidal fashion and the sinusoidal motor’s back EMF is
sinusoidal, as shown in Figure 1 and Figure 2. In addition to the back EMF, the phase current also has trapezoidal and
sinusoidal variations in the respective types of motor. This makes the torque output by a sinusoidal motor smoother than
that of a trapezoidal motor. However, this comes with an extra cost, as the sinusoidal motors take extra winding
interconnections because of the coils distribution on the stator periphery, thereby increasing the copper intake by the stator
windings. Depending upon the control power supply capability, the motor with the correct voltage rating of the stator can be
chosen. Forty-eight volts, or less voltage rated motors are used in automotive, robotics, small arm movements and so on.
Motors with 100 volts, or higher ratings, are used in appliances, automation and in industrial applications.

FIGURE 1: TRAPEZOIDAL BACK EMF

FIGURE 2: SINUSOIDAL BACK EMF

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STATOR OF A BLDC MOTOR

Rotor

The rotor is made of permanent magnet and can vary from two to eight pole pairs with alternate North (N) and South (S)
poles. Based on the required magnetic field density in the rotor, the proper magnetic material is chosen to make the rotor.
Ferrite magnets are traditionally used to make permanent magnets. As the technology advances, rare earth alloy magnets are
gaining popularity. The ferrite magnets are less expensive but they have the disadvantage of low flux density for a given
volume. In contrast, the alloy material has high magnetic density per volume and enables the rotor to compress further for
the same torque. Also, these alloy magnets improve the size-to-weight ratio and give higher torque for the same size motor
using ferrite magnets. Neodymium (Nd), Samarium Cobalt (SmCo) and the alloy of Neodymium, Ferrite and Boron (NdFeB)
are some examples of rare earth alloy magnets. Continuous research is going on to improve the flux density to compress the
rotor further.Figure 4 shows cross sections of different arrangements of magnets in a rotor.

FIGURE 4: ROTOR MAGNET CROSS SECTIONS

Hall Sensors

Unlike a brushed DC motor, the commutation of a BLDC motor is controlled electronically. To rotate the BLDC motor, the
stator windings should be energized in a sequence. It is important to know the rotor position in order to understand

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which winding will be energized following the energizing sequence. Rotor position is sensed using Hall effect sensors
embedded into the stator.

Most BLDC motors have three Hall sensors embedded into the stator on the non-driving end of the motor.

Whenever the rotor magnetic poles pass near the Hall sensors, they give a high or low signal, indicating the N or S pole is
passing near the sensors. Based on the combination of these three Hall sensor signals, the exact sequence of commutation
can be determined.

Note: Hall Effect Theory: If an electric current carrying conductor is kept in a magnetic field, the magnetic field exerts a
transverse force on the moving charge carriers which tends to push them to one side of the conductor. This is most evident in
a thin flat conductor. A buildup of charge at the sides of the conductors will balance this magnetic influence, producing a
measurable voltage between the two sides of the conductor. The presence of this measurable transverse voltage is called the
Hall effect after E. H. Hall who discovered it in 1879.

FIGURE 5: BLDC MOTOR TRANSVERSE SECTION

Figure 5 shows a transverse section of a BLDC motor with a rotor that has alternate N and S permanent magnets. Hall sensors
are embedded into the stationary part of the motor. Embedding the Hall sensors into the stator is a complex process because
any misalignment in these Hall sensors, with respect to the rotor magnets, will generate an error in determination of the
rotor position. To simplify the process of mounting the Hall sensors onto the stator, some motors may have the Hall sensor
magnets on the rotor, in addition to the main rotor magnets. These are a scaled down replica version of the rotor. Therefore,
whenever the rotor rotates, the Hall sensor magnets give the same effect as the main magnets.The Hall sensors are normally
mounted on a PC board and fixed to the enclosure cap on the non-driving end. This enables users to adjust the complete
assembly of Hall sensors, to align with the rotor magnets, in order to achieve the best performance.

Based on the physical position of the Hall sensors, there are two versions of output. The Hall sensors may be at 60° or 120°
phase shift to each other. Based on this, the motor manufacturer defines the commutation sequence, which should be
followed when controlling the motor.

See the “Commutation Sequence” section for an example of Hall sensor signals and further details on the sequence of
commutation.

Theory of Operation

Each commutation sequence has one of the windings energized to positive power (current enters into the winding), the
second winding is negative (current exits the winding) and the third is in a non-energized condition. Torque is produced
because of the interaction between the magnetic field generated by the stator coils and the permanent magnets. Ideally, the
peak torque occurs when these two fields are at 90° to each other and falls off as the fields move together.

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In order to keep the motor running, the magnetic field produced by the windings should shift position, as the rotor moves to
catch up with the stator field. What is known as “Six-Step Commutation” defines the sequence of energizing the windings.
See the “Commutation Sequence” section for detailed information and an example on six-step commutation.

Note: The Hall sensors require a power supply. The voltage may range from 4 volts to 24 volts. Required current can range
from 5 to 15 mAmps. While designing the controller, please refer to the respective motor technical specification for exact
voltage and current ratings of the Hall sensors used. The Hall sensor output is normally an open-collector type. A pull-up
resistor may be required on the controller side.

SERVO MOTORS
Servo motors are used in closed loop control systems in which work is the control variable.The digital servo motor controller
directs operation of the servo motor by sending velocity command signals to the amplifier, which drives the servo motor. An
integral feedback device (resolver) or devices (encoder and tachometer) are either incorporated within the servo motor or
are remotely mounted, often on the load itself. These provide the servo motor's position and velocity feedback that the
controller compares to its programmed motion profile and uses to alter its velocity signal. Servo motors feature a motion
profile, which is a set of instructions programmed into the controller that
defines the servo motor operation in terms of time, position, and velocity.
The ability of the servo motor to adjust to differences between the motion
profile and feedback signals depends greatly upon the type of controls and
servo motors used. See the servo motors Control and Sensors Product
section.

Typical dc servo motor system with either encoder or resolver feedback.

Some older servo motor systems use a tachometer and encoder for
feedback.

Three basic types of servo motors are used in modern servosystems: ac servo
motors, based on induction motor designs; dc servo motors, based on dc
motor designs; and ac brushless servo motors, based on synchronous motor
designs.

Although there is no sharp dividing line between servo motors and ordinary motors, the servo type will be intended for use in
applications which require rapid acceleration and deceleration. The design of the motor will reflect this by catering for
intermittent currents (and hence torques) of many times the continuously rated value. Because most servo motors are small,
their armature resistances are relatively high: the short-circuit (locked-rotor) current at full armature voltage is therefore
perhaps only five times the continuously rated current, and the drive amplifier will normally be selected so that it can cope
with this condition without difficulty, giving the motor a very rapid acceleration from rest.

The even more arduous condition in which the full armature voltage is suddenly reversed with the motor running at full
speed is also quite normal. (Both of these modes of operation would of course be quite unthinkable with a large d.c. motor,
because of the huge currents which would flow as a result of the much lower per-unit armature resistance.) Because the
drive amplifier must have a high current capability to provide for the high accelerations demanded, it is not normally
necessary to employ an inner current-loop of the type discussed earlier.

In order to maximise acceleration, the rotor inertia must be minimised, and one obvious way to achieve this is to construct a
motor in which only the electric circuit (conductors) on the rotor move, the magnetic part (either iron or permanent magnet)
remaining stationary. This principle is adopted in 'ironless rotor' and 'printed armature' motors.

In the ironless rotor or moving-coil type (Figure 4.14) the armature conductors are formed as a thin-walled cylinder consisting
essentially of nothing more than varnished wires wound in skewed form together with the disc-type commutator (not
shown). Inside the armature sits a 2-pole (upper N, lower S) permanent magnet, which provides the radial flux, and outside it
is a steel cylindrical shell which completes the magnetic circuit.

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Ironless rotor d.c. motor. The commutator (not shown) is usually of the disc type

Needless to say the absence of slots to support the armature winding results in a relatively fragile structure, which is
therefore limited to diameters of not much over 1 cm. Because of their small size they are often known as micromotors, and
are very widely used in cameras, video systems, card readers etc.

The printed armature type is altogether more robust, and is made in sizes up to a few kilowatts. They are generally made in
disc or pancake form, with the direction of flux axial and the armature current radial. The armature conductors resemble
spokes on a wheel; the conductors themselves being formed on a lightweight disc.

Early versions were made by using printed-circuit techniques, but pressed fabrication is now more common. Since there are
usually at least 100 armature conductors, the torque remains almost constant as the rotor turns, which allows them to
produce very smooth rotation at low speed. Inertia and armature inductance are low, giving a good dynamic response, and
the short and fat shape makes them suitable for applications such as machine tools and disc drives where axial space is at a
premium.

Position control
As mentioned earlier many servo motors are used in closed-loop position control applications, so it is appropriate to look
briefly at how this is achieved. Later (in Chapter 8) we will see that the stepping motor provides an alternative open-loop
method of position control, which can be cheaper for some applications.

In the example shown in Figure 4.15, the angular

position of the output shaft is intended to follow
the reference voltage (θref), but it should be clear
that if the motor drives a toothed belt linear
outputs can also be obtained. The potentiometer
mounted on the output shaft provides a feedback
voltage proportional to the actual position of the
output shaft. The voltage from this potentiometer
must be a linear function of angle, and must not
vary with temperature, otherwise the accuracy of
the system will be in doubt.

Figure shows Closed-loop angular position control

using d.c. motor and angle feedback from a servo-type potentiometer

The feedback voltage (representing the actual angle of the shaft) is

subtracted from the reference voltage (representing the desired
position) and the resulting position error signal is amplified and used
to drive the motor so as to rotate the output shaft in the desired
direction. When the output shaft reaches the target position, the
position error becomes zero, no voltage is applied to the motor, and
the output shaft remains at rest. Any attempt to physically move the
output shaft from its target position immediately creates a position
error and a restoring torque is applied by the motor.

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The dynamic performance of the simple scheme described above is very unsatisfactory as it stands. In order to achieve a fast
response and to minimise position errors caused by static friction, the gain of the amplifier needs to be high, but this in turn
leads to a highly oscillatory response which is usually unacceptable. For some fixed-load applications, matters can be
improved by adding a compensating network at the input to the amplifier, but the best solution is to use 'tacho' (speed)
feedback (shown dotted in Figure 4.15) in addition to the main position feedback loop.

Tacho feedback clearly has no effect on the static behaviour (since the voltage from the tacho is proportional to the speed of
the motor), but has the effect of increasing the damping of the transient response. The gain of the amplifier can therefore be
made high in order to give a fast response, and the degree of tacho feedback can then be adjusted to provide the required
damping (see Figure 4.16). Many servo motors have an integral tachogenerator for this purpose.

Figure 4.16 Typical step responses for a closed-loop position control system, showing the improved damping obtained by the
addition of tacho feedback

The example above dealt with an analogue scheme in the interests of simplicity, but digital position control schemes are now
taking precedence, especially when brushless motors (see Chapter 9) are used. Complete 'controllers on a card' are available
as off-the-shelf items, and these offer ease of interface to other systems as well as providing improved flexibility in shaping
the dynamic response.

Pulse Width Modulated (PWM)

Figure shows a block diagram of the power conversion unit in a PWM drive. In this type of drive, a diode bridge rectifier
provides the intermediate DC circuit voltage. In the intermediate DC circuit, the DC voltage is filtered in a LC low-pass filter.
Output frequency and voltage is controlled electronically by controlling the width of the pulses of voltage to the motor.
Essentially, these techniques require switching the inverter power devices (transistors or IGBTs) on and off many times in
order to generate the proper RMS voltage levels.

Power Conversion Unit (PWM)

This switching scheme requires a more complex regulator than the VVI. With the use of a microprocessor, these complex
regulator functions are effectively handled. Combining a triangle wave and a sine wave produces the output voltage
waveform.

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PWM Generator

The triangular signal is the carrier or switching frequency of the inverter. The modulation generator produces a sinewave
signal that determines the width of the pulses, and therefore the RMS voltage output of the inverter.

Output of PWM Generator

AC drives that use a PWM type schemes have varying levels of performance based on control algorithms. There are 4 basic
types of control for AC drives today. These are Volts per Hertz, Sensorless Vector Control, Flux Vector Control, and Field
Oriented Control.
V/Hz control is a basic control method, providing a variable frequency drive for applications like fan and pump. It provides fair
speed and torque control, at a reasonable cost. Sensorless Vector control provides better speed regulation, and the ability to
produce high starting torque. Flux Vector control provides more precise speed and torque control, with dynamic response.
Field Oriented Control drives provide the best speed and torque control available for AC motors. It provides DC performance
for AC motors, and is well suited for typical DC applications.

Volts/Hertz
Volt/Hertz control in its simplest form takes a speed reference command from an external source and varies the voltage and
frequency applied to the motor. By maintaining a constant V/Hz ratio, the drive can control the speed of the connected
motor.

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V/Hz Block Diagram

Typically, a current limit block monitors motor current and alters the frequency command when the motor current exceeds a
predetermined value. The V/Hz block converts the current command to a V/Hz ratio. It supplies a voltage magnitude
command to the voltage control block. The angle of this tells the voltage where it should be with respect to
current. This determines flux current to the motor. If this angle is incorrect, the motor can operate unstable. Since the angle
is not controlled in a V/Hz drive, low speeds and unsteady states may operate unsatisfactorily. An additional feature in newer
drives, a “slip compensation” block, has improved the speed control. It alters the frequency reference when the load changes
to keep the actual motor speed close to the desired speed. While this type of control is very good for many applications, it is
not well suited to applications that require higher dynamic performance, applications where the motor runs at very low
speeds, or applications that require direct control of motor torque rather than motor frequency.

Variable-frequency drive

A variable-frequency drive (VFD) is a system for controlling the rotational speed of an alternating current (AC) electric motor
by controlling the frequency of the electrical power supplied to the motor.[1][2] [3] A variable frequency drive is a specific
type of adjustable-speed drive. Variable-frequency drives are also known as adjustable-frequency drives (AFD), variable-
speed drives (VSD), AC drives, microdrives or inverter drives. Since the voltage is varied along with frequency, these are
sometimes also called VVVF (variable voltage variable frequency) drives.

Variable-frequency drives are widely used. For example, in ventilations systems for large buildings, variable-frequency motors
on fans save energy by allowing the volume of air moved to match the system demand. Variable frequency drives are also
used on pumps, conveyor and machine tool drives.

Operating principle

The synchronous speed of an AC motor is determined by the frequency of the AC supply and the number of poles in the
stator winding, according to the relation:

Where

n = Revolutions per minute (rpm)

f = AC power frequency (hertz)
p = Number of poles (an even number)

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The constant, 120, is 60 seconds per minute multiplied by 2 poles per pole pair. Sometimes 60 is used as the constant and p is
stated as pole pairs rather than poles. By varying the frequency of the voltage applied to the motor, its speed can be
changed.

Synchronous motors operate at the synchronous speed determined by the above equation. The speed of an induction motor
is slightly less than the synchronous speed.

Example

A 4-pole motor that is connected directly to 60 Hz utility (mains) power would have a synchronous speed of 1,800 rpm:

If the motor is an induction motor, the operating speed at full load will be about 1,750 rpm.

If the motor is connected to a speed controller that provides power at 50 Hz, the synchronous speed would be 1,500 rpm:

VFD types

All VFDs use their output devices (IGBTs, transistors, thyristors) only as switches, turning them only on or off. Attempting to
use a linear device such as transistor in its linear mode would be impractical, since power dissipated in the output devices
would be about as much as power delivered to the load.

Drives can be classified as:

* Constant voltage

* Constant current

* Cycloconverter

In a constant voltage converter, the intermediate DC link voltage remains approximately constant during each output cycle.
In constant current drives, a large inductor is placed between the input rectifier and the output bridge, so the current
delivered is nearly constant. A cycloconverter has no input rectifier or DC link and instead connects each output terminal to
the appropriate input phase.

The most common type of packaged VF drive is the constant-voltage type, using pulse width modulation to control both the
frequency and effective voltage applied to the motor load.

Phase vector drives (or simply vector drives) are an improvement over variable frequency drives (VFDs) in that they
separate the calculations of magnetizing current and torque generating current. These quantities are represented by phase
vectors, and are combined to produce the driving phase vector which in turn is decomposed into the driving components of
the output stage. These calculations need a fast microprocessor, typically a DSP device.

Unlike a VFD, a vector drive is a closed loop system. It takes feedback on rotor position and phase currents. Rotor position
can be obtained through an encoder, but is often sensed by the reverse EMF generated on the motor leads.

In some configurations, a vector drive may be able to generate full rated motor torque at zero speed.

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