ΕΥκλείδη Γεωμετρία Tomos-3

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KENTPO EPEYNAL EHILTHMHL KAI EKHAIAEYLHL

(K.E.EH.EK.)

Evkcq Lxotco
Lyovq onooq c ctooyeyq
cncqyqoct kot ootoo

TOMOL III
H IEOMETPIA TOY XOPOY
Bto XI, XII, XIII

A0qvo 2001

2ov zzqv u0quiu
LYNTEAELTEL TOY EPIOY
Entoxqovtk Ync0vvo
K0q,qq Oceo I. Eoko
Ync0vvo cyov
nuoopo K0q,qq Boyycq Nxtoqoxo
Tqv cioueq cpuc o ku0qqtq tou Huvcaiotqiou A0qvev
k. Oceo I. Eoko.
Lvyyotkc Oc
1
q
Oo: Eic tqv caicciu kupie tev kcuuiev 1, 2, 3 kui 4 tou toou I
Boyycq Nxtoqoxo, Eaikooo Ko0pyp:p :oo Hovsaio:puioo A0pvcv
Aqqxto Kovxoytvvq, Aiook:oo Mo0puo:ikcv luooo :oo
Hoiooycyiko Ivo:i:o:oo
Toooo Totyovq, Ko0pyp:io Aso:soo0uio Ekaoiosoop
2
q
Oo: Eic tqv caicciu kupie tev kcuuiev 5 kui 6 tou toou I
Avyvo dcoq, Eaikooo Ko0pyp:p :oo EMH
Xqoxo Lxoxc, Aiook:oo Mo0puo:ikcv l,oiko luooo
Lxcovo Mcxq, Ko0pyp:p Aso:soo0uio Ekaoiosoop
Iovq Xtoxooov, Ko0pyp:p Aso:soo0uio Ekaoiosoop
3
q
Oo: Eaicq0qkc kupie tov too II
Icoyto Aqko, A/k:oo :oo Hovsaio:puioo A0pvcv
Hovoytoxq Bo, Aiook:oo Mo0puo:ikcv
Icoyto Mnooq, Aiook:oo Mo0puo:ikcv ko0pyp:p Aso:soo0uio
Ekaoiosoop
Avxovto Aovoq, Ko0pyp:p Aso:soo0uio Ekaoiosoop
4
q
Oo: Eaicq0qkc kupie tov too III
Atovoto Anno, Eaikooo Ko0pyp:p :oo Hovsaio:puioo A0pvcv
Kvtko Konoko, Ko0pyp:p Aso:soo0uio Ekaoiosoop
Aqqxto Atovkq, Ko0pyp:p Aso:soo0uio Ekaoiosoop
Icoyto Tooonovo, Ko0pyp:p Aso:soo0uio Ekaoiosoop
Ku0c ouou cic tqv kpiu cu0vq iu to tqu tou cpou aou uvu-
cpctui aupuauve. Oe oc oi ouoc cpuotqkuv iu ookqpo to cpo,
ciuv ouvc ouvuvtqoci, ouvcpuoic kui uvtuuc uaocev iu tq oiu-
opeoq tev kcicvev, ku0e kui iu tqv tcikq opq aou aqpc to cpo.
izozo,iuq niuzi: Kuioaq-Avvu Xutqotuupivo
niuzi quov: Nikouo Zupuvq
niuzi zionoqq: Kuitq Acoaoou

TOMOL TPITOL

H IEOMETPIA TOY XOPOY

BIBAIA XI, XII, XIII

HPOAOIOL

H apetq uvuopu otqv uvukq iu uutotcq uvuatuq kui
0ccieoq tq Icectpiu tou Xepou uvuctui oc caoc apocvcotcpc
tq oupuq tev l:oi,sicv. Ltqv Hoi:sio tou Hutevu (528b) uaup-
ouv tctoic uvuopc. Lto couio uuto, oc cc0cpq uaooooq, uvuc-
povtui upuktqpiotiku tu cq:
"To o0o osis:oi o:o o:i us:o oao :o saiasoo us:opkous os
/vo o:sso aoo a/ov sk:ssi asioo ,ci aopyoou/vc vo
uss:pooous :o o:sso o:pv ko0 oo:o oooio :oo To oco:o ouc
sivoi us:o oao :p os:sp vo uss:pooous :pv oopu/vp :i:p
oioo:oop Ko:i :/:oio vouic ioks:oi us :pv opop o:oo k-
oo koi os ko0s o,puo aoo /,si o0o
Ao:o sivoi oco:o Ouc lcko:p vouic o:i o:pv saio:pup
oo:p osv /,oov yivsi okouo ovoko,si
Maosi vo spyp0si koi oo:o Osis:oi os oo oou/ Ho-
oo aoo p /sovo o:i oaooo/ oo:/ sivoi koaicop osv ko:o-
oov:oi usyos aooao0sis yio v/s ovoko,si sasiop
oo:/ oi oaooo/ os ,oioov sk:iupop os kouio aop Aaoi:si:oi
oiaov koaoio aoo vo ko0oopysi :oo ssovp:/ oic oo:oi
os 0o uao/ooov vo aoc0pooov :i /sov/ :oo Eivoi ouc
ko: o,pv ookoo vo s0si /vo :/:oio oopyo koi o:so
o:i oov0pks aoo :co saiko:ov okouo koi ov aooooioo0si
koaoio osv sivoi oovo:ov vo siookooo0si oao :oo ssovp:/
aoo oo,oov:oi us oo:o :o aopuo:o oo sivoi ksvooooi
Ouc ov p aop sk:iuposi :i oaooo/ oo:/ koi ovoosi :pv
saoa:sio :oo :o:s koi oi ssovp:/ 0o ao0ouoaoip0ov vo
siookoooov :ov oopyo koi 0o yivoov /v:ovs ovop:posi aoo
0o oaoko,oov :i o,/osi oi oaois ooov os oo:o :o
ov:iksiusvo Akouo koi :co aoo :o o:i aooi ko:oookoo-
v:ov koi oaoo0uioov :i oaooo/ oo:/ koi oi ioioi oi sso-
vp:/ osv oasooaiov:oi :p ,poiuo:p:o :oo aooo oo:o :o
suaooio oi oaooo/ oo:/ soookiuov yio:i :/aoov koi ooiko
koao:s oi ovoko,si aoo :co yivov:oi 0o opuooioaoip0ov
H kopeoq oe tq uvuatuq tq Icectpiu tou Xepou ou-
vcacoc c tqv cuouiu tou Apiqoq kui ti ucacpuotc c0ooou aou
cupooc otov uaooioo cuoev kui okev, c0ooou aou ou-
kpivovtui oc uuotqpotqtu ovo c to opovo Aacipootiko Aoioo.
Iiu tq cctq ioiotqtev otcpcev oeutev qictui kui o Aq-
okpito. Oae oue uvucpctui uao tov Apiqoq (otqv cioueq
tq Ms0oooo tou), o Aqokpito uvukuuc tq ocoq ctu tev
okev aupuiou kui apiouto.
Tu apoqutu aou uvukatouv kutu tq ctuuoq uao to cai-
acoo oto epo uivctui vu qtuv uvtikcicvo cktcvev ouqtqocev kutu
tqv upuiotqtu, oae apokatci kui uao to cq epio tou Hotupou,
to octiko c ti uvukuci tou Aqokpitou:
Av os /vov kcvo oi kokik/ :ou/ aoo ,ooooov:oi
aoopo ao :p oop :oo sivoi ios ac sivoi :o:s oovo:ov o
kcvo vo oio/si oao :ov kivoo Koi ov ooo ovs,ouoo:s
ao :pv koop :oo kcvoo oi :ou/ oo:/ oo koi uikoivoov os
0o a/asi :o:s p saiovsio :oo kcvoo vo oivs:oi kiuokc:p svc
p ioio sivoi sio

Tu iiu XI, XII kui XIII tev l:oi,sicv uvucpovtui oc oqutu
tou epou, oiuapuutcovtui oquoq uuto aou oqcpu cc Lxcco-
cxo.
Tu tpiu uutu iiu uuvovtui e iu cvotqtu, kuti aou cci
qoq ouci kui c tu uvtiotoiu "Api0qtiku" iiu. Levu c uutq
tq 0cepqoq, oi opiooi kui iu tu tpiu iiu ti0cvtui otqv upq tou
iiou XI. To acpicocvo civui oiup0pecvo kutu tctoio tpoao, eotc
ku0c iio vu otocci oc oukckpicvu, c0ooooiku oiukpitu,
uaotccoutu. 1toi, to iio XI u` cvo citoupci e ouoq uoi-
kev apotuocev aou 0u pqoioaoiq0ov otu caocvu kui uctcpou au-
pouoiuci tq okpioq tev aupuqcaiacoev. Lto iio XII ivctui
ouotqutikq pqoq tq us0oooo :p sov:pop otq okpioq cai-
acoev kui otcpcev oqutev. Tco, oto iio XIII tu acvtc kuvoviku
otcpcu kutuokcuuovtui kui cpuovtui oc ouipu.
Ltu tpiu uutu iiu uaupouv 28 opiooi kui 75 apotuoci.
Oae qoq couc uvucpci oi opiooi acpicovtui ooi oto iio XI,
cve oi apotuoci kutuvcovtui e cq: Yaupouv 39 apotuoci oto
iio XI kui uao 18 apotuoci oc ku0cvu uao tu caocvu iiu.
HEPIEXOMENA

To 3
o

Hpooo................................................................................................... 9

Kcoto 1: H Icecxo oxo oo
1. Eioueq.......................................................................................... 13
2. Opiooi............................................................................................. 14
3. Hupuqiu kui ku0ctotqtu oto epo ............................................ 19
4. Tpicopc otcpcc evic kui q pqoq tou otqv kutuokcuq
aupuqcaiacoev ........................................................................... 39
5. Loiu auve oti tpicopc evic .................................................... 56
5.1 Kpitqpiu iootqtu tpicopev eviev .......................................... 56
5.2 Kutu kopuqv tpicopc evic................................................... 60
6. Mctpqoq aupuqcaiacoev kui tpievikev apioutev................ 63
7. Loiu otq ctpqoq tev apioutev ................................................ 84
7.1 To 'q otoicieoc tq 0cepiu tou okou ............................. 84
7.2 Hupuqcaiacou kui kutuokcuuotiku apoqutu................ 86

Kcoto 2: Oykot kot q c0oo xq cvxqoq
1. Eioueq ......................................................................................... 89
2. H c0ooo tq cuvtqoq ............................................................... 90
3. Lkpioq oo kkev....................................................................... 92
4. Loiu oto 0cepqu okpioq kkev.......................................... 97
5. Tpievikc aupuioc kui apioutu............................................... 102
6. Loiu otq ctpqoq aupuioev kui apioutev............................. 114
6.1. Mctpqoq aupuiou................................................................ 114
6.2. Mctpqoq apiouto ................................................................ 117
7. Lkpioq kuivopev kui kevev..................................................... 122
8. Lkpioq ouipev.......................................................................... 135

Kcoto 3: To kovovtk oxcc
1. Eioueq ....................................................................................... 145
2. Aiuipcoq oc ukpo kui coo oo. Eupoc ................................ 146
3. Iooacupo tpievo kui kuvoviko acvtuevo.
Kuaoic cupoc......................................................................... 154
4. Kuvoviko tctpucopo kutuokcuq.................................................. 163
5. Kuvoviko oktucopo kutuokcuq................................................... 166
6. Kuvoviko cucopo (: ko) kutuokcuq...................................... 168
7. Kuvoviko cikooucopo kutuokcuq................................................ 169
8. Kuvoviko oeockucopo kutuokcuq .............................................. 174
9. Lkpioq tev acupev tev kuvovikev otcpcev.
Luacpuou.................................................................................... 178
10. Icviku Loiu................................................................................. 184
10.1 Kutuokcuc c pqoq Avuuoq kui Lv0coq..................... 184
10.1.1 Kutuokcuq tou kou kutu tov Huaao........................ 185
10.1.2 Kutuokcuq tou cikooucopou kutu tov Huaao ............. 185
10.2 Hocopu, kuvoviku otcpcu kui ouctpiu .......................... 188
10.2.1 Ti civui aocopo ........................................................ 188
10.2.2 O tao tou Euler........................................................ 188
10.2.3 Hikuvoviku otcpcu.................................................... 190
10.2.4 H ouctpiu otq Icectpiu ....................................... 191

Lvvonxtk Bttoyotk oqy yto xq Lxccocxo .....196
Bttoyoo ..............................................................................197
Evcxqto....................................................................................199
Icvtkq Bttoyoo..................................................................203

.
Kcoto 1
BIBAIO XI

H Icocxpo oxo opo

1. Etooyoyq

To Biio XI uaotccitui uao 39 apotuoci, oi oaoic aopov vu
tuivoq0ov eotc vu uaotccoouv tpiu cuoiukpitu cpq.
To apeto cpo, apotuoci 1 cpi 19, oiuapuutcctui tu ape-
tupiku otoiciu tou epou kui ti ctu tou ococi. Oi apotuoci
uutc oukpotov to 0cepqtiko uaou0po iu tq ctuuoq uao to cai-
acoo oto epo.
To octcpo cpo, apotuoci 20 cpi 27, cctu ti tpicopc otc-
pcc evic, oc uvtiotoiiu apo tu tpievu, kui ti cupoc tou oc
kuaoic kutuokcuc.
Lto tpito cpo, apotuoci 28 cpi 39, aupouoiuctui q ouv0c-
tikq 0cepiu tou okou, q oaoiu kui cupoctui otq okpioq aupu-
qcaiacoev.
H tuktikq aou ukoou0citui oti uaoocici iu tu oo apetu c-
pq tou kcuuiou uuto, civui q uvueq ku0c apoquto oc caiacou
oqutu kui ctu q pqoq ocoocvev tq Eaiacooctpiu aou couv qoq
kutoupe0ci, oc tcikq uvuuoq oquoq q pqoq tq iootqtu tev tpi-
evev. Auto ai0uve vu uaotcci kui iu oikuiooiu iu tqv uaouoiu

14 EYKAEIAH 'LTOIXEIA
oiutaeoq kpitqpiev iootqtu iu tu otcpcu oqutu aou uvtiotoiov
otu tpievu, oquoq tu tpieviku apioutu kui tu tctpucopu, covo
aou cci cvtovu ooiuo0ci uao tou opovou cctqtc.
Miu tctoiu apooau0ciu oqcpu apoao0ctci ouotqutikq uvu-
atuq tev ococev cu0ciev kui caiacoev oto epo, kuti aou oickac-
puievctui uaoocktu oti opovc 0ccieoci.
Hupuuovtu tqv uvuatuq tou iiou XI c tu iiu I cpi
IV tq Eaiacooctpiu, auputqpoc oti coe oc ivctui apooau0ciu ku-
0opioo tou kutu aooo cvu uaotccou cuptutui q oi uao tq 0cepiu
tev uvuoiev. L` uutu tu auioiu ciaci kui q cctq tev ioiotqtev
tq ouipu, oc uvti0coq c tqv caupkq uvuatuq tev ioiotqtev tou k-
kou otqv Eaiacooctpiu. O Mueller auputqpci oti uuto ai0uve vu o-
cictui otqv cciq caupko 0ccieoq tev "iiopcv 0/p" tev
otcpcev oqutev cviku, uo q ouipu cic cuvtqtiku pqoio-
aoiq0ci oc uotpovoiku 0cutu.
Aao opovou cctqtc ckpuctui q uaoq oti to apeto c-
po tou iiou XI uvuatooctui oc uvtiotoiiu, ukou kui kutu tqv
upi0qoq, c opiocvc cvotqtc tou iiou I (cpi tqv 29
q
apotuoq).
Bcuiu, uutq q uvtiotoiiu uaokcitui oc oquvtikc oiuopc e apo
to acpicocvo, oae:
S Tqv aqpq uaouoiu pqtu ckpuocvev uieutev iu tu
otoiciu aou oukpotov tov epo.
S Tq q uvuopu oc kpitqpiu iootqtu.
S Tq q catocpq uvuopu tq aupuqiu oto epo c tooq
catocpciu, ooq oto iio I.
Lctiku c ti uvtiotoiic upi0qoq, aio aiotu tqpovtui uutc
tev apotuocev 11, 12, 20, 22 kui 23.

2. Optoo
1. 2zepe evoi ooz noo ei uquo uoi nzzo uoi 0o

2. 1o npo ozepeo evoi eniveio

3. Eo0eo evoi u0ezq npo enneo zov oquozei op0
,ove ue u0e eo0eo zoo eninoo noo oovovz

H IEOMETPIA LTO XOPO 15
4. Enneo evoi u0ezo npo enneo zov eo0ee zoo ev
eninoo noo ,ovzoi u0ezo npo zqv uoivq zoo zouq e
voi u0eze uoi npo zo zzo enneo

5. Kzoq eo0eo npo enneo evoi q ,ovo noo nepiezoi
on zqv eo0eo uoi on euevq zqv eo0eo noo npounzei o
eq oovei zov no zq u0ezq npo zo enneo noo
,ezoi on zo vo npo zq opiu eouvq eo0eo
uoi zo npo noo quioop,ezoi o zouq zq ue zo enneo

6. Kzoq eninoo npo enneo evoi q oeo ,ovo q onoo
nepiezoi on eo0ee noo pouovzoi nvo oe u0e vo
on zo enneo uoi ,ovzoi u0ezo npo zqv uoivq zouq
zov eninov uoi ozo io oqueo zq

7. Ze,o eninov 0o evoi uoio ueuziuvo no vo zzo
e,o zov oi ovzozoie uzoei evoi uezo zoo oe

8. Hopzzqzo enneo evoi ooz zo onoo e oovovzovzoi

9. Ouoio ozepe oquozo evoi ooz noo nepiovzoi on oo
ozo nzq0o uoio enneo oquozo

10. 1oo uoi uoio ozepe oquozo evoi ooz noo nepiovzoi
on oo ozo nzq0o uoi zo u,e0o uoio enneo oquo
zo

11. 2zepe ,ovo evoi q o,uzioq q onoo quioop,ezoi zov
oovzpoov nepioozepe on o ,pouu oi onoe e
pouovzoi ozqv io eniveio Azzio ozepe evoi q ,o
vo noo nepiezoi oe nepioozepe on o ennee ,ov
e oi onoe e pouovzoi ozo io enneo uoi oovzpoov
ozo io oqueo

12. Hopouo evoi zo ozepe oquo noo nepiezoi on enne
o zo onoo euivov on vo enneo uoi uozozq,oov oe
vo oqueo

13. Hpouo evoi zo ozepe oquo noo nepiezoi on enneo
oquozo eu zov onoov zo uev o onvovzi evoi oo
uoio uoi nopzzqzo evo zo onzoino evoi nopoz-
zqz,pouuo

14. 2opo evoi zo ozepe oquo noo quioop,ezoi zov evo
q iuezpo ev quiuouzoo nopouvei ouvqzq zo quiu
uzio nepiozpezoi uoi enovpezoi ozq 0oq on noo p
ioe zqv nepiozpoq

15. Aovo zq oopo evoi q eo0eo noo nopouvei ouvqzq
uoi nep zqv onoo ozpezoi zo quiuuzio

16. 1o uvzpo zq oopo evoi zo io ue ooz zoo quiuouzoo

17. Aiuezpo zq oopo evoi uio eo0eo noo ,ezoi io zoo
uvzpoo zq oopo uoi ei zo upo zq ozqv eniveio
zq oopo

18. Kovo evoi zo ozepe oquo noo quioop,ezoi zov evo q
uio u0ezq nzeop op0o,ovoo zpi,ovoo nopouvei ouvq
zq zo zp,ovo nepiozpezoi uoi enovpezoi ozq 0oq on
noo pioe zqv nepiozpoq

19. Aovo zoo uovoo evoi q eo0eo noo nopouvei ouvqzq uoi
nep zqv onoo ozpezoi zo zp,ovo

20. Boq zoo uovoo evoi o uuzo noo io,pezoi on zqv
nepiozpeuevq eo0eo

21. Kzivpo evoi zo ozepe oquo noo quioop,ezoi zov
evo q uio u0ezq nzeop ev op0o,ovoo nopozzqzo-
,puuoo nopouvei ouvqzq zo nopozzqz,pouuo nepi
ozpezoi uoi enovpezoi ozq 0oq on noo pioe zqv
nepiozpoq

22. Aovo zoo uozvpoo evoi q eo0eo noo nopouvei ouvqzq
uoi nep zqv onoo ozpezoi zo nopozzqz,pouuo

23. Boei zoo uozvpoo evoi oi uuzoi noo quioop,ovzoi
on zi o nepiozpeueve onvovzi nzeop zoo op0o
,ovoo nopozzqzo,puuoo

24. Ao uovoi q uzivpoi evoi uoioi zov zoo oi iuezpoi
zov oeov oo uoi oi ov zoo evoi ovzo,oi

25. Ko evoi zo ozepe oquo noo nepiezoi on i oo ze
zp,ovo

26. Ouzepo evoi zo ozepe oquo noo nepiezoi on ouzo
oo uoi ionzeopo zp,ovo

27. Eiuooepo evoi zo ozepe oquo noo nepiezoi on euo
oi oo uoi ionzeopo zp,ovo

28. Aoeuepo evoi zo ozepe oquo noo nepiezoi on o
euo oo ionzeopo uoi ioo,ovio nevz,ovo

Eyk: ou o:o
Oi oo apetoi opiooi apoooiopiouv tqv cvvoiu tou otcpco oe-
uto kutu tpoao apuuti uio0uuoto kui ouauq, cvoeutevo-
vtu acpipuc oiuoauptc kui uvivcoic ukou kui oqcpu oc ku-
oiku kcicvu tou Hutevu kui tou Apiototcq. 1vu covo aou uici
vu caioquv0ci civui q uaouq pqoq tq (upiototcikq apoccuoq)
cvvoiu "iop", kuti aou ocv ukoou0citui uao tou ctucvcotc-
pou 1pevu kui Ocevu tov Lupvuio. Eaiacov, q pqoq tou a/o
(ouvopou) e caiapoo0ctq apoooiopiotikq ioiotqtu tev cvvoiev
yuup, ai!ovi, o, uaokpatci iu apooau0ciu "caueiko"
ku0opioo ioiotqtev cectpikev uvtikcicvev kui uctcpou, oe-
vu c oou cci cioqq0ci o ku0qqtq L. H. Zcpo, iu ouq toaooi-
kq poiu otqv uvtiqq tev cectpikev opioev.
Oi opiooi 3 kui 4, aou uvucpovtui otqv ku0ctotqtu cu0ciev kui
caiacoev oto epo, oiutuaevovtui c ocoov opovq opooiu. Ltou
opioo 5 kui 7 caicipcitui cvikotcpu vu acpipuci uuto aou oqcpu 0u
cuc "ycvi o0i ki aia/oo" q "ycvi o aia/cv". Iiu to okoao
uuto ciouctui o opo "kip", otov opioo 5, acpipuctui q oiuoikuoiu

apooq kui coe uutq uvuctui q "kip" oc evic. O opioo 6 ooqci
oc uuto aou oqcpu pqoioaoicitui e "io ycvi" kui, oae uacocic
o Legendre, caiocctui cipioo cc0ou (oae oi evic).
Oi opiooi 9 kui 10 uopov otqv iootqtu kui ooiotqtu oto e-
po kui civui oi aio ooiuocvoi kui uioqtqoioi. H apetq cvotuoq
aou 0u aopooc vu ivci civui oti, uo q iootqtu opictui otqv upq
tou iiou I c tq oiuoikuoiu tq cvuao0coq kui oateoq (cviuiu
iu ou tu oqutu), q iootqtu oto epo cioikotcpu 0u apcaci vu apo-
katci. Aquoq, oti oi opiooi 9 kui 10 0u capcac vu civui 0cepqutu.
Euou, q opq tq oiutaeoq uutev tev opioev uvuci tov cc-
o tq ooiotqtu (q iootqtu) tev otcpcev otqv ooiotqtu (q iootqtu)
caiacoev oqutev kui ctoi uivctui vu cacouv 0coq kpitqpiev. Hpu-
uti, uv acpiopiotoc oc kuptu aocopu, oae uacocic o Cauchy,
civui kpitqpiu, oquoq cvu kupto aocopo ku0opictui aqpe uao ti
copc tou.
O opioo 11 ciouci tqv cvvoiu tq otcpcu eviu c oo tpo-
aou, aou o ku0c cvu uao uuto oqutoootci iu oiuopctikq uaoq.
Hpetu pqoioaoicitui o opo "kip" aou aupuacaci otqv acpipuq
iu otcpcu eviu e ouotquto oicopev eviev c koivq kopuq.
Ltqv cvuuktikq oiutaeoq pqoioaoicitui autevikq opooiu (uao
tov "Tiuio"), oae uaooqevci q pqoq tq cq "oviu/vcv" kui
cvvocitui q otcpcu eviu e uaotcocvq uao caiacoc evic. Lto kci-
cvo aou ukoou0ci aupouoiuovtui ovov tpicopc otcpcc evic kui
oae aopci vu uaooci0ci, cioiku iu ti tpicopc, oi oo uaoci civui
iooovuc.
Ltou uaooiaou opioo (12 ce kui 28) ciouovtui kui acpipu-
ovtui oukckpicvu otcpcu oqutu aou 0u aupouoiuo0ov oto kupie
kcicvo, c 0uuuotq oikovoiu otq aupouoiuoq. Tu otcpcu uutu, ouoo-
aoiovtui e cq: aupuiou apiou, ouipu kivopo kevo kui tc-
o tu Huteviku Ltcpcu. To cvoiucpov otoicio coe civui oti kupie iu
tq ouipu (kui ocutcpcuovte iu tov kivopo kui tov kevo) caicctui q
aupouoiuoq e otcpcev ck acpiotpoq (oquoq oiu tq cvcoce) kui oi
q acpipuq coe ioiotqtu, oae ivctui iu tov kko (:oqciu aou uac-
ouv otu0cpq uaootuoq uao oqcio). Eioiku otou opioo aou uvucpo-
vtui o` uutu tu tpiu otcpcu kui tu otoiciu aou tu oukpotov, uaupci cvu
uoiko otio, to oaoio kutu acpiateoq ouaqpevctui c ikpc aupu-
uc iu vu tuoouc oto tciko kcicvo.

3. Hopoqo kot ko0cxxqxo oxo opo

Hpxooq 1 (XI. 1)
Aev evoi ovozv vo upo uio eo0eo ,pouuq vo pouezoi
nvo oe vo enne zq uoi vo zzo upo zq vo uezoiopezoi.

Anctq
1ote oti to cpo AB tq cu0ciu ABI piokctui auve oc cvu
caiacoo aou oicpctui uao uuto, cve to cpo BI ocv uvqkci o` uuto to
caiacoo.
Iiu to cpo AB tq cu0ciu 0u uaupci ouvcq apocktuoq BA, q
oaoiu 0u uvqkci oto cv oe caiacoo. 1toi, to cpo AB uaotcci koivo
tqu tev cu0ciev ABI kui ABA.

l,pu 1
Totc oe, c kcvtpo to oqcio B kui uktivu to koivo tqu AB
civui ouvutov vu puouc kko, otov oaoio oo oiuctpoi aou pi-
okovtui auve oti cu0cic ABI kui ABA apoooiopiouv oo uviou tou.
Auto civui uovuto kui ouvcae ocv uaupci cpo BI tq cu0ci-
u ABI aou piokctui ckto caiacoou aou acpicci to AB.
].B.o.

Hpxooq 2 (XI. 2)
Ev oo eo0ee zuvovzoi uevzoi en ev eninoo uoi u0e
zp,ovo uezoi en ev eninoo

Anctq
1ote AB kui IA oo cu0cic aou tcvovtui oto oqcio E. Huip-
vouc auve oti EI kui EB tuuiu tu oqciu Z kui H uvtiotoiu, kui
cpouc ti ZH kui BI. Eaioq auve otq BI auipvouc tu tuuiu oq-
ciu O kui K, cve cpouc ti ZO kui HK. Ou uaooci0ci apetu oti to
tpievo EBI kcitui cai cvo caiacoou.

l,pu 2
Euv oto tpievo EBI to cpo ZOI q to HBK kcitui auve oto i-
oio caiacoo, cve to uaooiao auve oc uo caiacoo, totc 0u kcitui c-
po ku0ciu tev cu0ciev EI kui EB auve oto oo0cv caiacoo, cve cvu
cpo tou auve oc uo caiacoo.
Eaioq, cuv oto tpievo EBI to cpo ZIBH piokctui auve oto
oo0cv caiacoo, cve to uaooiao auve oc uo, 0u civui cpo kui tev
cu0ciev EI kui EB auve oto oo0cv caiacoo, cve cpo tou 0u civui au-
ve oc uo caiacoo, apuu aou civui utoao (apotuoq 1).
Aao tu aupuauve ouvuctui oti to tpievo EIB kcitui auve oto
ioio caiacoo. L` uuto to caiacoo aou opictui uao to tpievo EBI, pi-
okovtui oi EB kui EI kui ouvcae oi cu0cic AB kui IA, oae kui ku0c
tpievo tev cu0ciev AB kui IA piokctui auve oto caiacoo aou uutc
opiouv.
].B.o.

Hpxooq 3 (XI. 3)
Ev o enneo zuvovzoi zze q uoivq zouq zoo evoi eo0eo

Anctq
1ote oti tu oo caiacou (BAA) kui (BAI) tcvovtui kui q koivq
toq tou civui q puq BA. Ou uaooci0ci oti q BA civui cu0ciu.


l,pu 3
1ote oti q BA ocv civui cu0ciu. 4cpouc auve oto caiacoo
(BAA) tqv cu0ciu BEA kui auve oto caiacoo (BAI) tqv cu0ciu BZA. Oi
oo cu0cic couv koivu acputu kui ouvcae 0u acpicouv iu caiuvciu,
apuu utoao, uo totc oc 0u civui cu0cic.
1toi apokatci oti ocv uaupci kuaoiu uq cu0ciu aou vu oicpc-
tui uao tu B kui A, aupu ovo q koivq toq tev oo caiacoev, aou civui
q cu0ciu BA.
].B.o.

Hopozqpqoq
Tu oiku qutu tq uaoociktikq oiuoikuoiu uaooioovtui e cq:
1ote oti q puq AB civui q koivq toq tev oo caiacoev.
(BAA) kui (BAI).
Euv q AB ocv civui cu0ciu, totc opictui oto caiacoo (BAA) iu
cu0ciu, q BEA , kui oto caiacoo (BAI) iu cu0ciu, q BZA.
1toi 0u couc oo cu0cic c oo koivu oqciu, aou opiouv c-
tu tou iu caiuvciu. Auto civui utoao.
Eyk: : no: 3
Oi tpci apetc apotuoci aou caicovtui iu tqv upikq ctu-
uoq oto epo, cacouv poo uieutev oti oiuopc opovc au-
pouoiuoci 0ccieoq tq Ltcpcoctpiu. Lti apotuoci uutc, q voq-
tiku veotq uao tqv Eaiacooctpiu "puikp" oq tq cu0ciu, pq-

oioaoicitui upiku iu vu apoooiopio0ci q uoioveiu tou "aia/oo"
e caiuvciu, aou oicpctui oi` uutq.
Oi oo tcvocvc cu0cic ku0opiouv oto epo tq 0coq cvo o-
vuoiko caiacoou, oae tu oo oqciu ku0opiouv oto caiacoo tq 0coq
iu ovuoikq cu0ciu. Mc tqv ioiu uvtiqq, oae to oqcio acpvu
oto "oiuio0qtiko" epo e toq oo cu0ciev, ctoi kui q cu0ciu aupou-
oiuctui e toq oo caiacoev.
Icviku, oi cvvoic tou puioo, tq o0i kui tou aia/oo acp-
vov oto "oiuio0qtiko" epo, uo apetu pouv tqv uaokuuq tou
oto "voqtiko" toao tev opev tou (c0cq).
Iiu aoo uievc oi tpci uutc apetc apotuoci uaotccouv
iu cuiotoaoiqcvq caupkq kuuq iu tqv uvuatuq kpitqpiev ku0c-
totqtu cu0ciu kui caiacoou.

Hpxooq 4 (XI. 4)
Ev uio eo0eo evoi u0ezq oe o eo0ee ozo uoiv oqueo
zq zouq zoo zze evoi u0ezq uoi npo zo enneo zov eo
0eiov oozov

Anctq
Yevouc cu0ciu EZ ku0ctq oti cu0cic AB kui IA , oto oqcio
toq tou E. Huipvouc auve oti cu0cic AB kui IA tu iou tqutu
EA, EB, EI kui EA.

l,pu 4

Aiu tou E cpouc tuuiu cu0ciu auve oto caiacoo tev AB kui
IA, aou tcvci tu ouvcaiacou tqutu AA kui IB otu oquiu H kui O
uvtiotoie. Apkci vu uaooci0ci oti q cu0ciu EZ civui ku0ctq otqv HO
(opioo 3).
Evevouc to tuuio oqcio Z tq cu0ciu EZ c tu oqciu A, B,
I, A, H kui O. Eacioq AE EB, IE EA kui
!
=
!
"#$(e kutuko-
puqv) tu tpievu AEA kui IEB civui iou. 1toi
!
=
!
, cve
!
=
!
kui AE EB. Yaupouv oiaov oo tpievu AEH kui
BEO c iu acupu ioq kui ti apookcicvc o` uutqv evic ioc. Apu
civui iou kui ctoi couc HE EO kui AH BO.
Ltu tpievu AEZ kui BEZ civui AE EB kui ZE koivq acupu
kui ku0ctq otqv AB. Apu ZA ZB.
Ooie apokatci oti ZI ZA , kui uo AA BI, couc oti
tu tpievu ZAA ZBI civui iou, oaotc
! !
%$" = .
Eacioq AH BO, ZA ZB kui
!
=
!
, tu tpievu ZAH
kui ZBO civui iou, oaotc ZH ZO. Eaioq, uo HE EO kui q ZE
civui ku0ctq otqv HO, tciku 0u couc oti
!
=
!
op0q.
Apu ku0ciu uao ti evic
!
kui
!
civui op0q, oaotc q
ZE civui ku0ctq otqv oiu tou E tuuiu cu0ciu HO.
].B.o.

Hpxooq 5 (XI. 5)
Ev uio eo0eo evoi u0ezq oe zpei eo0ee noo nepvov on zo
io oqueo uoi ipezoi on zo oqueo ooz zze oi zpei eo
0ee pouovzoi nvo ozo io enneo

Anctq
1ote oti q cu0ciu AB civui ku0ctq oti tpci cu0cic BI, BA kui
BE oto koivo oqcio toq tou, aou civui to B. Ocouc vu uaoociou-
c oti oi cu0cic BI, BA kui BE piokovtui oto ioio caiacoo.
Yao0ctouc oti oi tpci cu0cic BI, BA kui BE oc piokovtui oto
ioio caiacoo kui oukckpicvu oti q BI piokctui ckto tou caiacoou
tev BE kui BA.

1ote oti to caiacoo tev AB kui BI tcvci to caiacoo tev BE kui
BA, kutu tqv cu0ciu BZ. Totc oi cu0cic AB, BI, BZ civui oocaiacoc,
oae kui oi cu0cic BZ , BA kui BE.
Eacioq q AB civui ku0ctq oti BA kui BE, civui ku0ctq oto cai-
acoo tou kui ouvcae kui otqv cu0ciu BZ aou uvqkci o` uuto.
1toi q eviu
!
ci-
vui op0q, oae kui q eviu
!
&$" (uao tqv uao0coq).
Apu
!
=
!
&$" , cve AB,
BI kui BZ civui oocaiacoc.
Auto civui utoao. Apu q BI
ouaiatci c tq BZ kui ouvc-
ae piokctui auve oto cai-
acoo tev BE kui BA. Apu q
BI ocv aopci vu piokctui
ckto tou caiacoou tev BA,
BE. 1toi, oi tpci cu0cic BI,
BA, BI piokovtui auve oto ioio caiacoo.
].B.o.
Eyk: : no: x:

Oi apotuoci 4 kui 5 uaotcov kpitqpiu aou opio0ctov ti ou-
vutotqtc ku0ctotqtu cu0ciu kui caiacoou oto epo, oevu c to
veoto opioo. 1toi, otu auioiu tq ku0ctotqtu cu0ciu kui caiacoou,
q ouacpiopu tev uacipev cu0ciev iu
cioikq kcvtpikq ocoq cu0ciev oto
epo ku0opictui oc ocoq c iu uktivu
(c) tq ocoq (cac oqu 5.1).
Otuv oi cu0cic tq ocoq aqv
tq (c) civui ouvcaiacoc (apotuoq 4),
totc q ku0ctotqtu tq (c) apo to caiacoo
tou cuouictui c tqv ku0ctotqtu
tq apo oo ovo cu0cic tq ocoq.
H apotuoq 4 uaotcci uaoociu
caueiko ouoioo, aou uoictui
otqv "o0ioyvp" oq tou caiacoou. A-
vti0ctu, otqv apotuoq 5 pqoioaoicitui

l,pu 5

l,pu 5.1

q cvvoiu tq ku0ctotqtu tq cu0ciu (c) apo ti uacipc uktivc tq
ocoq iu vu ck0coci tq ouvcaiacoq ioiotqtu tev cu0ciev tq ocoq.
Mc uutq tqv cvvoiu q apotuoq upuktqpictui e cvu "aupueiko"
ouoioo.

Hpxooq 6 (XI. 6)
Ev o eo0ee evoi u0eze ozo io enneo zze oi eo0ee
evoi nopzzqze

Anctq
1ote oti oi cu0cic IA kui AB civui ku0ctc oto ioio caiacoo, c
B kui A tu ivq tou. Ou uaooci0ci oti oi oo cu0cic IA kui AB civui
aupuqc.
Evevouc tu oqciu B
kui A tev oo cu0ciev kui c-
pouc tqv AE auve oto cai-
acoo, ku0ctq otq BA kui ioq c
tqv AB. Eaioq cpouc ti
AE, BE kui AA.
Eacioq q AB civui ku0c-
tq oto caiacoo, civui ku0ctq
kui oc ku0c cu0ciu tou caiac-
oou aou acpvu uao to ivo
tq. Apu oi evic
!
kui
!
&$# civui op0c.
Ooie, cacioq q IA civui ku0ctq oto caiacoo, oi evic
!
"'$
kui
!
"'# civui op0c.
Eacioq BA koivq kui AB AE, tu op0oeviu tpievu ABA kui
BAE civui iou, oaotc AA BE.
Eaioq uo AA BE, AB AE kui AE koivq, tu tpievu
AAE kui ABE civui iou.
1toi oi evic
!
&'# kui
!
&$# civui ioc kui uo q tccutuiu
civui op0q, civui op0q kui q
!
&'#. Apu q EA civui ku0ctq otqv AA kui
(oae vepiouc ) oti AB kui AI.

l,pu 6

Luvcae oi cu0cic AI, AB kui AA civui oocaiacoc, ku0e kui q
AB, uo to tpievo ABA opici caiacoo. 1toi, oi AB kui IA civui oo-
caiacoc kui uo oi evic
!
kui
!
&$' civui op0c, oi oo cu0cic
civui aupuqc.
].B.o.

Hpxooq 7 (XI. 7)
Ev o eo0ee evoi nopzzqze uoi zq0ov nvo oe u0e
uio on ooz zooo oqueo q eo0eo noo oovei zo oqueo
ooz uezoi ozo io enneo ue zi o nopzzqze

Anctq
1ote EHZ q cu0ciu aou opictui uao tu oo tuuiu oqciu E kui
Z tev aupuqev cu0ciev
AB kui IA uvtiotoiu. Ou
uaooci0ci oti tu oqciu
tq EZ piokovtui oto cai-
acoo tev cu0ciev AB kui
IA.
Yao0ctouc oti q cu-
0ciu EHZ oc piokctui au-
ve oto caiacoo tev AB kui
IA.
Totc, uv cpouc caiacoo aou acpvu uao tqv EHZ, uuto 0u tcvci
to caiacoo tev AB kui IA kutu cu0ciu puq, tqv EZ.
1toi oi cu0cic EHZ kui EZ 0u opiouv iu caiuvciu, apuu u-
toao. (Ao cu0cic c oo koivu oqciu, tuutiovtui).
Apu q cu0ciu EZ kcitui auve oto caiacoo tev AB kui IA.
].B.o.

Hopozqpqoq
Mc tqv apotuoq 7 ivctui uvcpo oti oi aupuqc cu0cic oto
epo 0cepovtui e oocaiacoc.

l,pu 7

Hpxooq 8 (XI. 8)
Ev o eo0ee evoi nopzzqze uoi q uio on ooz evoi u
0ezq npo vo enneo zze uoi q zzq 0o evoi u0ezq npo oo
z zo enneo

Anctq
1ote oti oi cu0cic AB kui IA, aou civui aupuqc, tcvouv to
ioio caiacoo otu oqciu B kui A uvtiotoiu kui q AB civui ku0ctq apo
uuto to caiacoo. Ou uaooci0ci oti kui q IA civui ku0ctq apo to cai-
acoo.
Evevouc tu ivq B kui A tev oo cu0ciev c tqv cu0ciu BA kui
cpouc auve oto caiacoo tqv AE ku0ctq otq BA kui ioq c tqv AB.
Eaioq cpouc ti AE, BE kui AA.
Eacioq q AB civui
ku0ctq oto caiacoo, civui
ku0ctq kui oc ku0c cu0ciu
tou caiacoou aou acpvu
uao to ivo tq. Apu oi
evic
!
ABA kui
!
&$# ci-
vui op0c.
Eacioq oi AB kui IA
civui aupuqc kui tc-
vovtui uao tqv BA, oi
evic
!
ABA kui
!
"'$ c-
ouv u0poiou oo op0c
kui uo q
!
ABA civui op0q, cactui oti kui q
!
"'$ civui op0q.
Apu q IA civui ku0ctq otqv BA.
Eacioq tu op0oeviu tpievu ABA kui BAE couv koivq acupu
tq BA kui AB AE, civui iou, oaotc kui AA BE.
Eacioq AB AE, AA BE kui AE koivq acupu otu tpievu
AAE kui ABE, uutu 0u civui iou, oaotc
!
ABE =
!
&'#.
1toi, uo q eviu
!
ABE civui op0q, civui op0q kui q
!
&'#.
Luvcae, q EA civui ku0ctq otqv AA.
Eacioq q EA civui ku0ctq otqv AA kui tqv AB, civui ku0ctq oto
caiacoo tev aupuqev cu0ciev AB kui IA.
1toi, q IA civui ku0ctq otqv AE.

l,pu 8

Luvcae, q IA civui ku0ctq kui otqv BA (oae oci0qkc), ku0e
kui otqv AE, oquoq civui ku0ctq oto caiacoo, uo civui ku0ctq oc oo
cu0cic tou caiacoou aou acpvov uao to ivo tq.
].B.o.

Hpxooq 9 (XI.9)
Eo0ee nopzzqze npo zqv io eo0eo uoi oi onoe e p
ouovzoi ozo io ue oozqv enneo evoi uezo zoo nopz-
zqze

Anctq
1ote oti oi cu0cic AB
kui IA civui aupuqc apo
tqv EZ kui oc piokovtui oc
oto ioio caiacoo. Ou uaooci0ci
oti oi cu0cic AB kui IA civui
aupuqc.
Huve oto caiacoo tev
aupuqev EZ kui IA cpou-
c tqv cu0ciu HK ku0ctq otqv
EZ oc tuuio oqcio tq H.
Eaioq, auve oto caiac-
oo tev aupuqev AB kui EZ cpouc tqv cu0ciu HO ku0ctq otqv EZ
oto oqcio tq H.
Eacioq q EZ civui ku0ctq apo ti oo cu0cic HO kui HK, 0u ci-
vui ku0ctq kui oto caiacoo aou uutc opiouv.
1toi, uo q EZ civui ku0ctq oto caiacoo tev HO kui HK, cve q
AB civui aupuqq c tqv EZ, cactui (oevu c tqv apotuoq 8) oti
q AB civui ku0ctq oto caiacoo tev HO kui HK.
Ooie, uo q EZ civui ku0ctq oto caiacoo tev HO kui HK, cve
q IA civui aupuqq c tqv EZ, cactui oti q IA civui ku0ctq oto cai-
acoo tev HO kui HK.
Apu, cooov oi cu0cic AB kui IA civui ku0ctc oto caiacoo tev
cu0ciev HK kui HO, civui (oevu c tqv apotuoq 6) ctu tou
aupuqc.
].B.o.

l,pu 9

Hpxooq 10 (XI. 10)
Ev o zeuvueve eo0ee evoi ovzozoio nopzzqze npo
o zeuvueve eo0ee noo ev pouovzoi ozo enne zoo
zze zo o e,q zov zeuvouvov eo0eiov opoov oe ,ove

Anctq
1ote oti oi tcvocvc cu0cic BI kui BA civui uvtiotoiu au-
puqc kui q ouvcaiacoc c
ti tcvocvc cu0cic EZ kui
EA.
Huipvouc auve otu oo
q ouvcaiacou cq tev tc-
vocvev cu0ciev tu iou tq-
utu BI BA EZ EA kui
cpouc ti cu0cic BE, AA kui
IZ.
Ou uaooci0ci oti
!
" AB =
!
'#%.
Eacioq BI ioq kui aupu-
qq c tqv EZ, cactui oti kui q
IZ civui ioq kui aupuqq c
tqv BE. Ooie, uo BA ioq
kui aupuqq c tqv EA, cactui
oti q AA civui ioq kui aupuqq c tqv BE.
1toi, uo oi IZ kui AA civui ioc kui aupuqc c tqv BE kui
oc piokovtui oto ioio caiacoo c uutq, 0u civui, oevu c tqv apo-
tuoq 9, (ioc kui) aupuqc ctu tou.
Tu iou kui aupuqu tqutu AA kui IZ ouvocovtui c tu tq-
utu AI kui AZ, oaotc kui uutu civui ctu tou aupuqu kui iou.
Eaocve, tu tpievu ABI kui AEZ couv AB AE, BI EZ kui
AI AZ. Apu civui iou, oaotc kui q eviu
!
ABI civui ioq c tq eviu
!
'#%.
].B.o.

l,pu 10

Eyk: : no: - 10
Mc ti aupuauve apotuoci ciouctui q cvvoiu tq aupuqiu
cu0ciev oto epo, oiu coou tq qoq 0cciecvq ku0ctotqtu cu0ciu
kui caiacoou.
H apotuoq 6 0cepcitui uoikq, oioti kutu tqv uaoociktikq tq
oiuoikuoiu cuouictui oti oo ku0ctc cu0cic oc caiacoo civui ape-
tiotu oocaiacoc kui ctu aupuqc. To covo uuto cvioctui c
tqv apotuoq 7. 1toi, to oti oo aupuqc cu0cic civui oocaiacoc,
oivci tq ouvutotqtu q ku0ctotqtu tq iu oc cvu caiacoo vu ouvc-
auctui kui tqv ku0ctotqtu tq uq oc uuto (apotuoq 8). Mc uuto tov
tpoao ciouctui oi pqtu, uu uaovoocvu kui q ku0ctotqtu oo cai-
acoev.
H aupuqiu oo cu0ciev oto epo, aou civui aupuqc apo
tpitq, uaoocikvctui c tq pqoq tou ku0ctou caiacoou, oae kui q au-
puqiu oo cu0ciev aupuqev apo tpitq oto caiacoo uaoocikvc-
tui c tq pqoq tq ku0ctq cu0ciu (apotuoq 9).
Tco, q apotuoq 10 cvtuooctui otqv cvotqtu tev apotuocev aou
uvucpovtui otqv aupuqiu cu0ciev oto epo, kui aupouoiuci tqv
iootqtu oo eviev c uvtiotoiu aupuqc acupc, uu ciouci kui
tqv aupuqiu oo caiacoev aou oiuapuutcctui q apotuoq 15.

Hpxooq 11 (XI. 11)
An o0v oqueo noo pouezoi euz ev eninoo vo o0e
eo0eo ,pouuq u0ezq npo zo enneo

Anctq
4cpouc tuuiu cu0ciu
BI auve oto oo0cv caiacoo
kui uao to oo0cv oqcio A
tqv ku0ctq cu0ciu AA cai tq
BI. (To oqcio A kui q cu-
0ciu BI opiouv caiacoo).
Euv q AA civui ku0ctq
oto oo0cv caiacoo, totc cci
u0ci uao to oqcio A ku-
0ctq oto caiacoo.
l,pu 11

Euv q AA ocv civui ku0ctq oto oo0cv caiacoo, cpouc auve oto
caiacoo tqv cu0ciu EA ku0ctq otq BI oto oqcio A. Eaioq, auve oto
caiacoo tev tcvocvev cu0ciev AE kui AA cpouc tqv AZ ku0ctq
otqv AE. Tco, auve oto oo0cv caiacoo cpouc tqv cu0ciu HZO au-
puqq apo tqv BI.
Eacioq q BI civui ku0ctq kui oti oo cu0cic AE kui AA, 0u civui
ku0ctq kui apo to caiacoo tou kui uo q HO civui aupuqq c tqv
BI, 0u civui kui uutq (oevu c tqv apotuoq 9) ku0ctq oto caiacoo
tev AE kui AA.
H cu0ciu HO e ku0ctq oto caiacoo tev AE kui AA civui ku0ctq
oc ku0c cu0ciu uuto tou caiacoou aou oicpctui uao to ivo tq Z.
1toi q HO civui ku0ctq kui otq ZA.
Luvcae, q ZA civui ku0ctq tooo otqv EA ooo kui otqv HO,
oaotc civui ku0ctq kui oto caiacoo tou, aou civui to oo0cv caiacoo.
].B.a.

Hpxooq 12 (XI. 12)
An oqueo zo onoo pouezoi oe vo enneo vo oyo0e u0e
zq npo zo enneo

Anctq
Ocepoc cvu tuuio
oqcio B ckto tou oo0cvto
caiacoou.
Aao to B cpouc tqv
ku0ctq cu0ciu BI apo to oo-
0cv caiacoo (oevu c tqv
apotuoq 11).
Lto caiacoo tou oqciou
A kui tq cu0ciu BI cpouc
tqv cu0ciu AA aupuqq apo
tqv BI.
Eacioq q AA civui au-
puqq apo tqv BI, kui q cu-
0ciu BI civui ku0ctq oto oo0cv caiacoo, cactui oti kui q AA civui q q-
tocvq ku0ctq apo to oo0cv caiacoo (apotuoq 8).
].B.a.
l,pu 12

Hpxooq 13 (XI. 13)
An vo oqueo ev eninoo ev evoi ovozv vo oyo0ov
o u0eze npo zo enneo ooz oi onoe vo pouovzoi npo
zo io upo zoo eninoo

Anctq
1ote oti civui ouvutov
uao to oqcio A tou oo0cvto
caiacoou vu ueoouc oo
ku0ctc AB kui AI apo uu-
to, oi oaoic vu piokovtui
kui apo to ioio cpo tou
caiacoou.
To caiacoo tev cu0ciev
AB kui AI 0u tcvci to oo0cv
caiacoo kutu iu cu0ciu, cote
tqv AAE.
Oi cu0cic AB, AI kui
AAE civui ouvcaiacoc, cve q
IA kui q BA civui ku0ctc
oto oo0cv caiacoo. 1toi q IA kui q BA civui ku0ctc oc ku0c cu0ciu tou
oo0cvto caiacoou aou oicpctui uao to ivo tou A, kui ouvcae otqv
AAE.
Apu q eviu
!
BAE civui op0q, oae kui q
!
"&#, cve piokovtui
auve oto ioio caiacoo. Auto civui uovuto, kui ouvcae oi oo cu0cic
AB kui AI ouaiatouv, oaotc ocv civui ouvutov vu ue0ov oo ku0ctc.
].B.o.
Eyk: : no: sy:
Oi tpci apotuoci kuatouv tq ouvutotqtu kutuokcuq cu0ciu
ku0ctq apo cvu caiacoo uao cvu oqcio ckto caiacoou q auve o` uu-
to.
H apotuoq 11 uaotcci tqv uu0cvtikq opq tou veoto 0ce-
pquto "cv icv k0/cv" (cac I. oto oqu 13.1), to oaoio oti
opovc aupouoiuoci tq Ltcpcoctpiu cuvictui kui c ti op-
c II. kui III.
l,pu 13


l,pu 13.1
Mopq I
{ ( ) ( ) ( ) H Z , H B , H A ( ' ( " ) , ZA * BI, AA * BI} + AZ *(H)

Mopq II
{ ( ) ( ) H B , H A ( " ) , AZ * (H), ZA * BI} + AA * BI

Mopq III
{ ( ) ( ) H B , H A ( " ) , AZ * (H), AA * BI} + ZA * BI

Hpxooq 14 (XI. 14)
1o enneo en zov onoov q io eo0eo evoi u0ezq evoi ue
zo zoo nopzzqzo

Anctq
1ote oti q cu0ciu AB ci-
vui ku0ctq apo oo ooocvu
caiacou. Ou uaooci0ci oti tu
caiacou uutu civui aupuqu.
Euv tu caiacou ocv civui
aupuqu, totc (apocktcivocvu)
0u tcvovtui kutu cu0ciu puq,
cote tqv HO.
l,pu 14

Huve otqv cu0ciu HO auipvouc tuuio oqcio K kui cpouc ti
cu0cic AK kui BK aou piokovtui uvtiotoiu auve otu oo oo0cvtu
caiacou.
Eacioq q AB civui ku0ctq otu oo caiacou, 0u civui ku0ctq kui
oti cu0cic AK kui BK tev oo oo0cvtev caiacoev.
1toi oto tpievo ABK oi evic
!
KAB kui
!
,$& civui op0c, aou
civui uovuto. Apu tu caiacou ocv tcvovtui kui ouvcae civui aupu-
qu.
].B.o.

Hpxooq 15 (XI. 15)
Ev o zeuvueve eo0ee evoi ovzozoio nopzzqze npo o
zeuvueve eo0ee uoi e pouovzoi nvo ozo io ue ooz en
neo zze zo enneo zov eo0eiov oozov evoi nopzzqzo

Anctq
1ote oi tcvocvc cu0cic
BA kui BI, aou civui uvtiotoiu
aupuqc apo ti tcvocvc
cu0cic EA kui EZ kui oc pi-
okovtui oto ioio caiacoo c uutc.
Ou uaooci0ci oti tu caiacou aou
opiovtui uao ti BI, BA kui EZ,
EA uvtiotoiu, civui aupuqu.
Aao to oqcio B cpouc tqv
ku0ctq cu0ciu BH apo to caiacoo
tev tcvocvev cu0ciev EZ kui EA.
Aao to H cpouc oto caiacoo tev EZ kui EA ti cu0cic HK
kui HO, aupuqc apo ti EZ kui EA uvtiotoiu.
Eacioq q BH civui ku0ctq oto caiacoo tev cu0ciev EZ kui EA, ci-
vui ku0ctq kui oti cu0cic HK kui HO uuto tou caiacoou, aou oicpo-
vtui uao to ivo tq. 1toi, oi evic
!
BHO kui
!
$-, civui op0c.
Ao oe oi cu0cic BA kui BI civui aupuqc apo ti HO
kui HK uvtiotoiu, tooo oi evic
!
BHO kui
!
HBA, ooo kui oi evic
!
$-, kui
!
-$" couv u0poiou oo op0c.

l,pu 15

1toi oi evic
!
HBA kui
!
-$" civui op0c, oaotc q BH civui ku-
0ctq oti oo tcvocvc cu0cic BA kui BI. Apu q BH civui ku0ctq kui
oto caiacoo tev tcvocvev cu0ciev BA kui BI.
Luvcae, (oevu c tqv apotuoq 14), uo tu oo caiacou tev
tcvocvev cu0ciev BA, BI kui EA, EZ civui ku0ctu otqv ioiu cu0ciu
BH, tu oo uutu caiacou civui aupuqu.
].B.o.

Hpxooq 16 (XI. 16)
Ev o nopzzqzo enneo zuvovzoi on vo enneo zze oi
uoiv zou zov eninov oozov evoi eo0ee nopzzqze

Anctq
1ote oti tu oo aupuqu cai-
acou tcvovtui uao to caiacoo EZOH
kutu ti cu0cic EZ kui HO. Ou uao-
oci0ci oti oi EZ kui HO civui au-
puqc.
Euv oi cu0cic EZ kui HO ocv ci-
vui aupuqc, totc apocktcivocvc
cai tou caiacoou EZOH 0u tcvovtui
apo to cpo tev Z kui O q apo to
cpo tev E kui H.
1ote oti tcvovtui apo to c-
po tev Z kui O, oto oqcio K.
Eacioq oi cu0cic EZK kui HOK
civui cu0cic aou uvqkouv uvtiotoiu
otu oo aupuqu caiacou, cactui oti
tu oo caiacou couv koivo oqcio to
K. Auto oe civui utoao, iuti tu oo caiacou civui aupuqu.
Apu oi ouvcaiacoc cu0cic EZ kui HO ocv tcvovtui kui ouvcae
civui aupuqc.
].B.o.

l,pu 16

Hpxooq 17 (XI. 17)
Ev o eo0ee zuvovzoi on nopzzqzo enneo 0o zuvovzoi
oe upq ovzo,o

Anctq
1ote oti oi cu0cic AB kui IA tcvovtui uao tu aupuqu cai-
acou H, P kui L otu oqciu A, E, B kui I, Z, A uvtiotoiu. Ou uao-
oci0ci oti
%'
"
=
Z
EB
AE
.
4cpouc ti cu0cic AI, BA kui AA, kui cote oti q AA tcvci to
caiacoo P oto oqcio E. 4cpouc ctoi ti EZ kui EE.
Eacioq tu aupuqu cai-
acou P kui L tcvovtui uao to
caiacoo EEBA, oi toc EE kui AB
civui aupuqc.
Ooie, cacioq tu aupu-
qu caiacou P kui H tcvovtui
uao to caiacoo EZIA, oi toc EZ
kui AI civui aupuqc.
Lto tpievo AAB q cu0ciu
EE civui aupuqq c tqv AB,
oaotc:
.'
&.
=
EB
AE
.
Eaioq, oto tpievo AAI q
cu0ciu ZE civui aupuqq c tqv IA, oaotc:
%'
"%
=
EA
AE
.
1toi couc
%'
"%
=
EB
AE
, oaotc oi oo cu0cic tcvovtui uao tu
aupuqu caiacou oc cpq uvuou.
].B.o.

Eyk: : no: -17
Oi apotuoci uutc cotiuovtui otqv aupuqiu caiacoev. Hupu
to covo oti aopci vu uaooci0ci q aupq kui ovuoikotqtu cai-
acoou aupuqou apo oo0cv caiacoo, aou vu oicpctui uao oqcio c-
kto uuto, to uaotccou uuto oc oiutuaevctui cu0ce e apotuoq.
l,pu 17

Aao ti aupuauve tcoocpi apotuoci oi oo apetc pqoi-
oaoiov otqv uaoociq tou tqv koivq ku0cto oo aupuqev cai-
acoev, cve oi oo caocvc caikcvtpevovtui otqv aupuqiu tev to-
ev oo aupuqev caiacoev uao cvu tpito caiacoo.

Hpxooq 18 (XI. 18)
Ev eo0eo evoi u0ezq npo vo enneo zze zo zo enneo
zo onoo ipovzoi on zqv eo0eo oozq 0o evoi enoq u0ezo
npo ooz zo enneo

Anctq
1ote oti q cu0ciu AB ci-
vui ku0ctq apo cvu oo0cv cai-
acoo kui oicpctui uao uutq to
tuuio caiacoo H. Ou uaooci-
0ci oti to caiacoo H civui ku-
0cto apo to oo0cv caiacoo.
To H tcvci to oo0cv cai-
acoo kutu tqv cu0ciu IBE.
Huve otqv IBE auipvou-
c cvu tuuio oqcio Z kui c-
pouc auve oto caiacoo H tqv
ZH ku0ctq otqv IE.
Eacioq q AB civui ku0ctq oto oo0cv caiacoo, civui ku0ctq kui oc
ku0c cu0ciu tou caiacoou aou oicpctui uao to ivo tq, oaotc q AB
civui ku0ctq otq IE.
1toi q eviu
!
ABZ civui op0q, cve civui op0q kui q eviu
!
-%$ ,
oaotc oi cu0cic AB kui HZ tou caiacoou H civui aupuqc.
Luvcae, uo q AB civui ku0ctq oto oo0cv caiacoo, 0u civui ku-
0ctq o` uuto, oae kui q aupuqq tq HZ.
Eacioq oo caiacou civui ku0ctu otuv oi ku0ctc aou uovtui,
apo tqv koivq toq kui aou uvqkouv oto cvu uao uutu civui ku0ctc
kui oto uo (opioo 4), cactui oti to caiacoo H civui ku0cto oto oo0cv
caiacoo. Eacioq ooiu uaoociq ivctui kui iu ku0c uo (tuuio) cai-
acoo aou oicpctui uao tqv cu0ciu AB, to qtocvo uaooci0qkc.
].B.o.

l,pu 18

Hpxooq 19 (XI. 19)
Ev o zeuvuevo enneo evoi u0ezo oe vo enneo zze q
uoivq zouq zoo 0o evoi enoq u0ezq npo ooz zo enneo

Anctq

l,pu 19
1ote oti tu caiacou BA kui BI civui ku0ctu apo cvu oo0cv cai-
acoo kui oti BA civui q koivq toq tou. Ou uaooci0ci oti q BA civui
ku0ctq apo to oo0cv caiacoo.
Av q BA ocv civui ku0ctq oto oo0cv caiacoo, cpouc tq AE auve
oto caiacoo BA ku0ctq otq AA, kui tqv AZ auve oto caiacoo BI ku0c-
tq otq AI, oaotc q AE 0u civui oiuopctikq uao tq AZ.
Eacioq to caiacoo BA civui ku0cto oto oo0cv kui cpuc cu0ciu
AE tou caiacoou BA ku0ctq otqv toq AA tev oo caiacoev, cactui oti
(opioo 4) q AE civui ku0ctq oto oo0cv caiacoo.
Mc ooio tpoao apokatci oti kui q AZ civui ku0ctq oto oo0cv
caiacoo.
Apu uao to ioio oqcio A tou oo0cvto caiacoou uevovtui oo
ku0ctc apo uuto, oi AE kui AZ.
Auto civui utoao (apotuoq 13), oaotc q ovuoikq ku0cto aou
aopci vu ue0ci uao to oqcio A apo to caiacoo civui q AB, aou uao-
tcci tqv koivq toq tev oo tcvocvev caiacoev, tu oaoiu civui ku0c-
tu oto oo0cv caiacoo.
].B.o.

Eyk: : no: - 19
Oi oo apotuoci uvucpovtui otqv ku0ctotqtu caiacoev. H apo-
tuoq 18 aupouoiuci tqv ku0ctq cu0ciu apo cvu caiacoo e opcu iu oc-
oq ku0ctev caiacoev apo uuto, cve q apotuoq 19 uaoocikvci oti ku0c
co tcvocvev caiacoev, ku0ctev oc oo0cv caiacoo, opici kui iu cu-
0ciu ku0ctq apo to oo0cv caiacoo, aou civui q toq tou.
Lqo koxovoq xov npoxocov 1 19
Apikq ctuuoq oto epo, octikc 0coci
cu0ciev kui caiacoev.
3 npoxoct
Ku0ctotqtu cu0ciev kui caiacoev 2 npoxoct
Hupuqiu cu0ciev oto epo. 5 npoxoct
Ku0ctotqtu cu0ciu oc caiacoo
uao oqcio ckto q cai tou caiacoou.
3 npoxoct
Hupuqiu caiacoev. 4 npoxoct
Ku0ctotqtu caiacoev 2 npoxoct

4. Tpcpc oxcpcc yovc kot q pqoq xov
oxqv koxookcvq nopoqcntncov

Levu c ti uauitqoci tev opioev 9 kui 10 tou iiou XI,
tu otcpcu oqutu ku0opiovtui aqpe uao tu caiacou oqutu aou tu
acpiuouv. 1toi oc iu tpicopq otcpcu eviu oi copc 0cepovtui tpie-
vu c kopuc tqv kopuq tq tpicopq kui q uoq tq tpicopq civui tpi-
evo c acupc ti uoci tev copev tq tpicopq. Eai acov, oi ukc
voovtui e (acacpuocvu) cu0puu tqutu. Iiu vu ouvoc0ci oiaov q
tpcouou apuktikq c uutc ti uauitqoci, apcaci auve oti (q ouvcaiac-
oc) ouvtpcouoc qicu0cic Ox, Oy, Oz vu uuvovtui oqciu A, B, I
eotc vu oqioupq0ci q tpicopq O.ABI. Mc uutq tqv oatikq, q tpicopq
civui to uvtiotoio tou tpievou oto epo. Eivui oiaov cvtce uoiko, vu
uvuqtq0ov ococi ctu tev otoiciev iu tpicopq kui vu oiutuae-
0ov kutuokcuuotiku kpitqpiu. Auto ivctui oti apotuoci 23 cpi 26,
oaou oiutuaevovtui tu uaoutu uaupuitqtu uaotccoutu iu tqv kutu-
okcuq aupuqcaiacoev, aou ivctui otqv apotuoq 28. Kuaoic apocktu-
oci tev ouacpuoutev, oae kui kuaoic ctcacitu 0cepqoci, auputi0c-
vtui uao opq ooiev.

40 EYKAEIAH ' LTOIXEIA
Hq 20 (X. 20)
Av uio ozepe ,ovo nepiezoi on zpei ennee ,ove zze
oi o on ooz no uoi vo zq0ov oov 0poiouo ue,o-
zzepo zq zpzq

ntq
1ote q tpicopq otcpcu eviu c kopuq A, aou acpiuctui uao
ti caiacoc evic
!
xAy , , yAz
!

!
zAx . Ou uaooci0ci oti to u-
0poiou tev oo uao uutc civui
auvtu cutcpo uao tqv cvu-
aocvouou tpitq.
H apotuoq apouve i-
oci otuv oi tpci uutc evic
civui ctu tou ioc.
1ote oiaov oti ocv civui
oc ctu tou ioc kui q eviu
!
yAz civui q aio cuq uao uu-
tc. Totc, upkci vu ociouc oti
! ! !
+ < yAx zAx yAz . Xepi uq tq
cvikotqtu, aopoc vu uao0coouc oti
! !
> yAx yAz . Ocepoc oq-
cio A tq Ax kui cvto tq eviu
!
yAz oqcio E, tctoio eotc
! !
= xAy yAE kui AE AA. Tco, uao to E kui cvto tq eviu
!
yAz
uctui q cu0ciu (c), aou ouvuvtu ti cu0cic Ay kui Az otu oqciu B kui
I uvtiotoiu.
Tu tpievu AAB kui ABE civui iou, uo couv tqv AB koi-
vq, AA AE kui
! !
$&# = AAB (uao kutuokcuq). Eaocve oi (uoci)
AB kui BE civui ioc, oquoq AB BE.
Aao tqv tpievikq uviootqtu oto tpievo ABI couc AB AI >
> BI. Oe, uo BI BE EI kui BE BA, 0u ioci oti AI > EI.
Akoo0e, tu tpievu AAI kui AEI couv AA AE, tqv AI
koivq kui AI > EI. Eaocve 0u ioci q ocoq
! !
#&" > AAI .
l,pn 20

Oe, q eviu
!
'&$uaooci0qkc ioq apo tq eviu
!
$&# , oaotc
! ! ! ! !
$&" = #&" + $&# > '&" + '&$ , oquoq
! ! !
> + yAz xAz xAy .
Mc ooio tpoao aopoc vu kuvouc tqv uaoociq kui iu ti
uaooiac acpiateoci.
].B.o.

Hq 21 (X. 21)
K0e ozepe ,ovo nepiezoi on ennee ,ove zo 0poiouo
zov onoov evoi uiupzepo on zooepi op0

ntq
1ote oti q tpicopq otcpcu
eviu c kopuq to A acpicctui
uao ti caiacoc evic ,
!
$&"
!
"&' kui
!
'&$, oaou tu oqciu B,
I kui A couv q0ci (tuuiu) auve
oti ukc kui couv u0ci oi BI,
IA kui AB. Ou uaoociouc oti:
4 BAI < '&$ + "&' +
! ! !
op0c.
H otcpcu eviu c kopuq
to B acpicctui uao tpci caiacoc
evic, iu ti oaoic to u0poiou,
oo oaoievoqaotc uao uutc civui cutcpo uao tqv tpitq. Eaocve,
0u ioci:
! ! !
"$' > &$' + "$& . Iiu tov ioio oo 0u couc oti
! ! !
"'$ > &'$ + "'& , oae kui
! ! !
$"' > &"' + & $I . Octovtu oiaov
! ! ! ! ! ! !
+ + + + + = AAB IAA AIA BIA ABA IBA o , couc:
! ! ! !
+ + > IAB BIA IBA o . Oe oi evic
! ! !
$"' $'", , IBA (e evic
tou tpievou BIA) couv u0poiou oo op0c, caocve
!
o > 2 op0c.
Ooie, ku0c cvu uao tu tpievu ABI, AIA, AAB cci u0poiou
eviev oo op0c, caocve ioci:

l,pn 21

= $&' + '$& + &'$ + "&' + "'& + &"' + $&" + &"$ + "$&
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
6 op0c, oquoq
!
o + 6 BAI = $&' + "&' +
! ! !
op0c
Oe, uo couc
!
o > 2 op0c, 0u apcaci vu civui:
4 BAI < $&' + "&' +
! ! !
op0c.
].B.o.

Hopozqpqoq
Maopci caioq vu uaooci0ci oti to u0poiou tev caiacoev eviev
tq kopuq tuuiu otc-
pcu (kui oi ovo tpi-
copq) eviu ocv aopci
vu uacpuivci ti tcoocpi
op0c. Auto ivctui u-
uvovtu uaoq tooo tqv
uviootikq ocoq iu ti
caiacoc evic tpicopou
aou oi uaooci0qkc,
ooo kui to uaotccou
iu to u0poiou tev coe-
tcpikev eviev kupto
aouevou. A oqcie0ci oti uuto to cviko uaotccou, uv kui ocv oiu-
tuaevctui aou0cvu otu "loi,i", pqoioaoicitui oto iio XIII (cac
Luacpuou ctu tqv apotuoq XIII.18).

ntq
Hpuuti, iu tq otcpcu eviu O. ABIA, oaou tu oqciu A, B, I,
A, . . . civui ouvcaiacou, oqcievouc , , O , O
u

! ! !
ti (caiacoc) evi-
c tq kopuq, ), , (
2 1
! !
$ & ), , (
2 1
! !
" $ . . . , ti evic tev tpievev OAB,
OBI, . . . kui
! ! !
" $, , A , . . . ti evic tou (kupto) aouevou ABIA . . .
(cac oqu 21u) kui 0ctouc:
o . . . + / + / + /
0
!
1
!
2
!

l,pn 21

L
! ! ! !
& + + ' + " + $ ... = (2v 4) op0c

o
= = $ + & +
! ! !
2 1
O 2 op0c, o
= = " + $ +
! ! !
2 1
2 op0c, ka.

Aao to uvtiotoio uaotccou (apotuoq 21) iu ti tpicopc e-
vic B.AIO, I.BAO, . . . couc caioq ti uviootikc ococi:
2 1 2 1
, B
! ! ! ! ! !
" + " < " $ + $ < , . . .
Tciku, uuvovtu uaoq tu aio auve, piokouc (c apoo0c-
oq kutu cq):
(2v 4) op0c L (
! !
+
2 1
A A ) + (
! !
+
2 1
B B ) + =
= (
! !
+
2 1
B A ) + ) I B (
2 1
! !
+ + =
(2 op0c
u
!
/ ) (2 op0c
!
/ ) + (2v) op0c o,
oaotc apokatci oti o 4 op0c.

Hq 22 (X. 22)
Av o0ov zpei ennee ,ove ,io zi onoe zo 0poiouo o
onoiovqnoze on ooz evoi ue,ozzepo zq zpzq uoi nvo
ozi nzeop zoo zq0ov oo zuquozo zze evoi ovozv vo
uozooueooo0e zp,ovo noo vo ei o nzeop zi oei zov
zpiov iooouezov zpi,ovov zo onoo npounzoov

ntq
A 0cepqoouc tpci caiacoc evic c kopuc B, E, O, kui u
kutuokcuuoouc tu (ioookcq) tpievu ABI, AEZ kui HOK c acu-
pc BA BI EA EZ OH OK, iu tu oaoiu ioci:
! ! !
-3, > '#% + ABI ,
! ! !
&$" > -3, + '#% ,
! ! !
'#% > &$" + -3, .


l,pn 22
Ou uaooci0ci oti tu cu0puu tqutu AI, AZ kui HK aopci
vu uaotccoouv acupc tpievou, oti oquoq to u0poiou oo c uu-
tev civui cutcpo tou tpitou.
Av oi evic
! ! !
-3, '#% , , ABI civui ioc, totc civui uvcpo oti
kui tu tqutu AI, AZ, HK civui iou kui uao uutu kutuokcuuctui (i-
ooacupo) tpievo.
1ote oti oi evic ocv civui
oc ioc ctu tou kui oti kutu-
okcuuctui q eviu
!
,34 , ccq
tq
!
-3, kui ioq apo tq eviu
!
&$" . To oqcio A cci q0ci ctoi
eotc OK OA. 4cpouc kui ti cu-
0cic KA, HA. Aao tqv iootqtu tev
tpievev ABI kui KOA apokatci
oti AI KA.
Ao
! ! !
'#% > -3, + ABI kui , ABI
! !
,34 = 0u civui kui
!
HO >
!
'#% (cac auputqpqoq ctu to tco tq uaoociq). Tu tpie-
vu oiaov HOA kui AEZ couv OH EA, OA EZ kui
! !
'#% > HO .
Eaocve 0u civui kui HA > AZ.
Oe, oto tpievo HKA civui HK KA > HA, upu 0u civui kui
HK KA > AZ .
Oe, uo KA AI, 0u civui kui HK AI > AZ.

l,pn 22

Ooie aopci vu uaooci0ci oti couc AZ HK > AI, oae kui
oti AI AZ > HK.
Eaocve, civui ouvutov vu kutuokcuuo0ci cvu tpievo c acu-
pc ioc apo ti AI, AZ kui HK .
].B.o.

l,pn 22

Hopozqpqoq
Miu aupooiu uaoociq caituuvctui, uao0ctovtu oti iu uao
ti evic, a.. q eviu
!
ABI, civui q ciotq (cac oqu 22).
Hpuuti, uo
! !
-3, 5 &$" kui
! !
'#% 5 $" A , 0u couc:
AI 5 HK kui AI 5 AZ. Apkci oiaov vu uaoociouc oti AZ HK > AI.
Lto coetcpiko tq eviu
!
&$" cpctui q BA, ctoi eotc vu io-
ci
! !
&$4 = -3, , oaou cci q0ci BA AB BI kui couv u0ci oi
AA kui IA.
Aao tqv iootqtu tev tpievev HOK kui ABA, apokatci oti
HK AA. Eaioq, aopoc vu auputqpqoouc oti:
! ! ! ! ! !
'#% < -3, 6 &$" = &$4 6 &$" = 4$" , oaotc uao tu tpievu AEZ
kui ABI couc AI AZ.
Mc pqoq tpievikq uviootqtu oto tpievo AAI, apokatci oti:
AI AA AI HK AI HK AZ,
oquoq oti AI HK AZ, oaotc aopci vu kutuokcuuo0ci tpievo c
acupc AI, HK, AZ.

Hq 23 (X. 23)
No uozooueooo0e ozepe ,ovo on zpei ennee ,ove ,io
zi onoe zo 0poiouo o e oozov no uoi vo zq0ov evoi
nvzo ue,ozzepo on zqv zpzq Ouo npnei zo 0poiouo uoi
zov zpiov ,oviov vo evoi uiupzepo zov zeoopov op0ov.

ntq
1ote oti oi oo0cioc evic civui oi
! ! !
-3, '#%, , ABI kui oti to
u0poiou tev oo c uutev, oae kui vu q0ov, civui auvtotc cu-
tcpo uao tqv tpitq, kui caiacov civui 4 ABI < -3, + '#% +
! ! !
op0c.
Hpcaci oiaov uao tpci evic ioc apo ti
! ! !
-3, '#%, , ABI vu
kutuokcuuo0ci otcpcu eviu.

l,pn 23

1ovtu qoq uci ti acupc AB, BI, AE, EZ, HO, OK ioc kui
cpovtu ti AI, AZ, HK civui (cao-
cve) ouvutov vu kutuokcuuo0ci
tpievo, aou vu cci acupc ioc apo
ti AI, AZ, HK (apotuoq 22).
1ote AMN to tpievo aou ku-
tuokcuuctui, ote eotc AI AM,
AZ MN kui HK NA. Ocepoc to
kcvtpo O tou acpicpucvou kkou
oto tpievo AMN kui ti uktivc OA,
OM, ON.
Ioupiouotc oti AB > OA.
l,pn 23

Av ocv ioci uuto, totc 0u capcac vu ouuivci citc AB OA,
citc AB OA.
1ote oti ioci to apeto, (oquoq oti AB OA). Totc tu tpievu
ABI kui OAM couv BA OA, BI OM kui ioc uoci AM AI, upu
0u civui kui
! !
4/7 = ABI . Iiu tov ioio oo 0u civui
! !
7/8 = '#% kui
! !
8/4 = -3, .
Totc oe couc:
= -3, + '#% +
! ! !
ABI
! !
7/8 + 4/7
!
8/4 + 4 op0c.
Auto civui utoao, uo uao tqv uao0coq ioci
4 ABI < -3, + '#% +
! ! !
op0c.
Eaocve, oi BA kui OA ocv aopci vu civui ioc.
1ote AB AO. Totc aopoc vu aupouc OL AB, OT BI
kui vu cpouc tqv LT. Ao BI BA, 0u civui kui OL OT, AL
MT, oaotc q LT 0u civui aupuqq apo tqv AM kui ouvcae to
tpievo AMO 0u civui iooevio apo to tpievo LTO. 1toi ioci
9:
/9
=
AM
OA
, uao oaou uuvctui
9:
47
=
OL
OA
(:ioiotqtu cvuu).
Oe AO > OL, oaotc 0u couc AM > LT. Ao oe civui AM
AI, 0u civui kui AI > LT. Ltu tpievu ABI kui OLT civui BA OL,
BI OT kui LT AI. Apu, 0u civui kui
! !
9/: > ABI =
!
.
Mc ooio tpoao uaoocikvctui oti 0u civui
! !
7/8 > AEZ kui
! !
8/4 > HO .
Eaocve 4 ABI = 8/4 + 7/8 + 4/7 > -3, + '#% +
! ! ! ! ! !
op0c.
Auto civui utoao, uo 4 ABI < -3, + '#% +
! ! !
op0c. Apu, ocv
aopci vu civui AB OA. Oe, cci uaooci0ci oti ocv aopci vu civui
otc kui AB OA. Eaocve 0u civui AB > AO.
Yevctui tepu to cu0puo tqu OP ku0ctu apo to caiacoo
tou kkou, oto oqcio O, ctoi eotc vu ioci
OP
2
AB
2
AO
2

kui cpovtui tu PA, PM, PN.
Ao q OP civui ku0ctq
apo to caiacoo tou kkou, oq-
utici op0c evic c ku0c iu
uao ti cu0cic AO, MO, NO. Tu
op0oeviu tpievu AOP , MOP ,
NOP couv ti ku0ctc acupc
tou ioc iu apo iu, upu civui
iou, oaotc PA PM PN.
Akoo0e, uo to tpievo
AOP civui op0oevio, couc:
AP
2
OA
2
OP
2
=
OA
2
AB
2
AO
2
AB
2
.
Ooie to AB civui ioo c ku0c cvu uao tu BI, AE, EZ, HO, OK, kui to
PA ioo apo ku0c cvu uao tu PM, PN. Eaocve kui ku0c cvu uao tu
AB, BI, AE, EZ, HO, OK civui ioo c ku0c cvu uao tu PA, PM, PN.
Ltu tpievu APM kui ABI oi acupc AP, PM civui uvtiotoiu
ioc apo ti acupc AB, BI, oae kui q uoq AM civui ioq apo tq
uoq AI. Eaocve, 0u civui
! !
&$" = . Iiu tov ioio oo 0u civui
! !
'#% = kui
! !
= HO N .
Apu kutuokcuuo0qkc otcpcu eviu c kopuq to P aou acpicc-
tui uao ti caiacoc evic
! ! !
4;8 , , , oi oaoic civui uvti-
otoiu ioc apo ti caiacoc evic
! ! !
-3, , AEZ , ABI .
o.c.a.

Aq
1o eo0,pouuo zuquo OP
unope vo zq0e zoi ooze vo
ioei
OP
2
AB
2
AO
2
.

ntq
1ovtu oti AB > AO, c oiu-
ctpo AB puctui qikkio, oto
oaoio aopci vu q0ci opoq AI AO, uo q AO ocv civui cutc-

l,pn 23
l,pn 23.y

pq tq oiuctpou. 4cpouc kui tqv IB.
H eviu
!
AIB civui ccpucvq oto qikkio AIB, upu civui
op0q kui caocve AB
2
AI
2
BI
2
. Apu 0u civui kui BI
2
AB
2
AI
2
.
Ao civui AI AO, 0u ioci BI
2
AB
2
AO
2
. Auuvovtu oiaov
OP BI, couc OP
2
AB
2
AO
2
.

Hopozqpqoq (H uaoociq tq apotuoq 23 oc cioikc acpiateoci).
() v o k/vo O oo aiyynn/voo kkoo iki aovc
ni ao i ao/ oo iycvoo AMN, a.,. pv aoo
MN, o ki aoi 0 i,i ~ AO.
Hpuuti, u uao0coouc apetu
oti aopci vu ioci AB AO. Totc 0u
couc MN 2AO. Ao oe civui
MN AZ kui AO AB EA EZ, oto
tpievo AEZ 0u ioci AZ AE EZ,
aou civui uovutov. Acv aopci oiaov
vu couc AB AO.
Iiu tou ioiou oou, uv ou-
uivci AB AO, 0u apokci q ocoq
AZ > AE EZ, aou civui kui aui uo-
vuto.
Apu, auvtotc couc: AB > AO,
oaotc uevovtu tqv OP ku0ctq oto
caiacoo tou kkou kui ctoi eotc vu ioci OP
2
AB
2
OA
2
, tuvouc
otqv ov0coq tou apoquto.
() v o k/vo O oo aiyynn/voo kkoo iki o -
ciko oo iycvoo AMN, o ki aoi 0 i,i ~ AO.
Hpuuti, u uao0coouc apetu
oti aopci vu ioci AB AO. Totc, tu
tpievu ABI kui AMO civui iou, oae
kui tu tpievu AEZ kui ANO.
Eaocve couc:
! !
7/4 = ABI kui
! !
4/8 = AEZ , uao
ti oaoic apokatci oti
! ! !
7/8 = '#% + ABI , eviu q oaoiu

l,pn 23

l,pn 23

cuiu civui ioq apo tq eviu
!
HO. 1toi tuvouc otq iootqtu
! ! !
-3, = '#% + ABI , aou ooqci oc utoao. Eaocve ocv aopci vu
ioci AB AO.
Av uao0coouc oti ioci AB AO, totc c caicipqutu aupo-
oiu c uutu tq kupie uaoociq (oquoq c pqoq ooiev tpievev)
aopoc vu kutuqouc oae apiv oc utoao.

Eyk:o Kxu :sou
y vnyo
Miu (ouvtootcpq) kutuokcuq tpicopou, aou kivcitui otu ioiu
auioiu c uutu tq apotuoq 23, aopci vu ivci e cq:
Mc ocoocvc ti caiacoc evic u, , , iu ti oaoic ioouv oi
ococi: u 4 op0c, u kui uao0ctovtu oti q civui q
ciotq, kutuokcuuouc ti evic apetu oiuooikc c kopuq O kui
c tq ocipu u, , kui kutoaiv caikcvtpc. Aoe tq ouv0qkq u
4 op0c, ocv caikuatctui q acpicpciu (cac oqu 23.1).

l,pn 23.1
Kutuokcuuovtu A
1
kui A
1
eotc oi opoc AA
1
kui AA
1
vu ci-
vui uvtiotoiu ku0ctc oti uktivc OB kui OI, no v not0
oti oi AA
1
kui AA
1
tcvovtui oc cvu oqcio K cvto tou kkou, oquoq
OK OB.
Yevovtu ku0ctq KL oto caiacoo, ctoi eotc KL
2
OB
2
OK
2
,
apokatci q tpicopq O. LBI, aou aopci vu uaooci0ci oti civui q q-
tocvq.

Hq 24 (X. 24)
Av vo eepo nepiezoi uezo nopzzqzov ov o enin
ov zze oi onvovzi pe zoo evoi nopozzqz,pouuo oo

ntq
A 0cepqoouc otcpco (cucopo) aou acpikcictui uao tu cq
aupuqev caiacoev (P
1
ABIA, P
1
ABIA), (P
2
ABBA,
P
2
IAAI) kui (P
3
BIIB , P
3
AAAA). Ou uaoociouc oti
oi uacvuvti copc tou otcpco civui aupuqopuu, ctu tou iou.

l,pn 24
Oi toc tev caiacoev P
1
, P
1
c to P
2
0u civui aupuqc (apo-
tuoq16), oquoq AB // AB. Ooie oi toc tev P
3
, P
3
c to P
2
0u
civui aupuqc, oquoq AA// BB. Eaocve to tctpuacupo ABBA
civui aupuqopuo.
Mc tov ioio ukpie tpoao uaoocikvctui oti kui oi uaooiac c-
opc tou otcpco civui aupuqopuu.
Euou oi evic
! !
'< &< $<
, BAA couv acupc aupuqc,
upu civui ioc (apotuoq 15). Tu tpievu oiaov ABA, ABA civui iou,
uo ioouv oi ococi AB AB , AA AA kui
! !
'< &< $< = BAA
(apotuoq I. 4).
Oe to aupuqopuo ABIA civui oiauoio tou tpievou
ABA kui to aupuqopuo ABIA, oiauoio tou tpievou
ABA. Apu kui tu aupuqopuu ABIA, ABIA civui iou.
Ooie uaoocikvctui oti kui oi uaooiac copc tou otcpco ci-
vui ioc.
].B.o.

Hopozqpqoq
Ltu loi,i tou Eukcioq q oiutaeoq tq apotuoq 24 uvuc-
pctui oc tuuio otcpco kui oi oc cucopo. Hpouve, kuti tctoio ocv
aopci vu ioci epi oicukpivioci, a.. oc apiou c uoci kuvoviku
cuevu.
Euou, oae civc uvcpo uao tqv uaoociq aou apoqq0qkc,
c tov opo iop cv a/vvi cv coe cvvooc oi ovo iocuoi-
ku uu kui ouateoiu oqutu.

Hq 25 (X. 25)
Av vo nopozzqzenneo zuq
0e on enneo nopzzqzo
npo o onvovzi pe zoo
zze zo o nopozzqzenneo
ozo onoo ioipezoi zo opiu
evoi ovzo,o zov oeov
zoo noo opovzoi nvo oe
unoio zzq po zoo opiuo

ntq
Ocepoc iu toq KAMN
aupuqq oti uoci A
1
B
1
I
1
A
1
,
A
1
B
1
I
1
A
1
cvo aupuqcaiacoou.
A ouoioouc c V, V tu
aupuqcaiacou KAMN A
1
B
1
I
1
A
1
,
kui KAMN A
1
B
1
I
1
A
1
uvtiotoiu.
Totc upkci vu ociouc oti:
( )
( ) 8 '< &< ,
8 ' ,&
=
<
1 1
1 1
V
V

Huve oti qicu0cic KA, NA
0cepoc tu oto aq0o iou ctu
tou cu0puu tqutu KA
1
, A
1
A
2
,
A
2
A
3
, , A
-1
A
kui NA
1
, A
1
A
2
,
A
2
A
3
, . . . , A
-1
A
uvtiotoiu Eaioq,
auve oti qicu0cic KA, NA tu iou tqutu KA, AA
1
, A
1
A
2
, ... ,
A
-1
A

, kui NA
1
, A
1
A
2
, A
2
A
3
, . . . , A
-1
A
uvtiotoiu.

l,pn 25

Tu aupuqcaiacou c aupuacupc ukc tu tqutu KA
1
,
A
1
A
2
, A
2
A
3
, . , A
-1
A
kui uoci ioc c tqv KAMN civui iou c to

V, cve tu aupuqcaiacou c aupuacupc ukc KA
1
, A
1
A
2
,
A
2
A
3
, . . . , A
-1
A
kui uoci ioc c tqv KAMN civui iou c to V.

Huputqpoc ukoq oti ioouv oi ouvcauec:
= (KA
1
A
1
N) > (KA
1
A
1
N) +
+ (KA
N) > (KA
N) +
+ KA
> KA
+ = V > = V (I)
Ooie
= (KA
1
A
1
N) (KA
1
A
1
N) +
+ = V = V (II)
kui
= (KA
1
A
1
N) (KA
1
A
1
N) +
+ = V = V (III)
Oaotc, oevu c tov opioo iootqtu oev kutu tov Eooo
(V. opioo 5), 0u couc:
( )
( ) 8 '< < ,
8 ' ,&
=
<
1 1
1 1
A V
V

].B.o.

Hopozqpqoq
Oi ouvcauec I, II, III tq apotu-
oq 25 (XI.25) apokatouv uv auve oti
qicu0cic KA
, NA
aupouc tqutu
KA
KA
, NA
NA
uvtiotoiu,
oaotc
(KA
N) (KA
N) k.a.

Hq 26 (X. 26)
Hvo oe oouvq eo0eo uoi ue vo oqueo zq o uopoq vo
uozooueoooze ozepe ,ovo zpepq oq ue oouvq ozepe
,ovo

ntq
Aivovtui q qicu0ciu Ax kui q tpicopq A
1
.x
1
y
1
z
1
. Ocepoc tu-
uio oqcio A
1
tq A
1
z
1
kui tqv apooq tou A
1
oto caiacoo x
1
A
1
y
1
.

l,pn 25


l,pno 26
Kutuokcuuouc eviu
!
xAy ioq c tqv
!
1 1 1
y A x kui auve oto cai-
acoo xAy tq eviu
!
xAt ioq c tqv , A A x
1 1 1
!
<
ctoi eotc oi Ay, At vu c-
ouv e apo tqv Ax tqv ioiu 0coq aou couv oi A
1
y
1
, A
1
A
1
e apo tqv
A
1
x
1
(apotuoq I. 23). Huve otqv qicu0ciu At 0cepoc to oqcio Z,
tctoio eotc AA A
1
A
1
kui to tqu AA A
1
A
1
ku0cto oto caiacoo
xAy (apotuoq 12). 1ote Az q qicu0ciu c upq A aou acpicci to A.
Ou ociouc oti q otcpcu eviu A.xyz civui ioq c tqv A
1
.x
1
y
1
z
1
.
Huve oti Ax, A
1
x
1
0cepoc tu oqciu B, B
1
uvtiotoie ctoi
eotc AB A
1
B
1
. Hpouve q A
1
A
1
civui ku0ctq oti A
1
A
1
, A
1
B
1

kui q AA ku0ctq oti AA, AB.
Tu tpievu A
1
B
1
A
1
kui ABA couv A
1
B
1
AB, A
1
A
1
AA
kui
! !
'< $& = '< &
1 1 1
. Apu civui iou (apotuoq I. 4), oaotc
A
1
B
1
AB. (1)
Tu op0oeviu tpievu oiaov A
1
A
1
B
1
, AAB couv ti ku0ctc
acupc tou ioc iu apo iu (B
1
A
1
BA , A
1
A
1
AA). Apu civui
iou, oaotc
B
1
A
1
BA (2)
Ooie tu op0oeviu tpievu A
1
A
1
A
1
, AAA couv ti ku0ctc
acupc tou ioc iu apo iu (A
1
A
1
AA , A
1
A
1
AA). Apu civui
iou, oaotc
A
1
A
1
AA (3)

Aao ti ococi (1), (2), (3) apokatci q iootqtu tev tpievev A
1
B
1
A
1

kui ABA (couv tpci acupc ioc iu apo iu). Apu
! !
$&' = ' &
1 1 1
B .
Evtce uvuou, uv uouc uaoq u oti kui oi evic
, y A
1 1 1
!
<

!
& '<
y civui ioc (e u0poioutu q oiuopc ioev eviev) kui
0cepqoouc auve oti Ay, A
1
y
1
tu oqciu I, I
1
, ctoi eotc AI A
1
I
1
,
aopoc vu ociouc oti:
! !
"& = ' &
1 1 1
.
Oi tpicopc oiaov acpicovtui uao caiacoc evic ioc kui ooi-
e kcicvc, oaotc 0u civui ioc.
].B.o.

Hxooq XI
M ouvq uuq v uuo npzzqznno uoio ui
ouoo uuvo npo ouvo npzzqznno
Anctq
Aioovtui to tqu AB kui to aupuqcaiacoo
A
1
B
1
I
1
A
1
A
1
B
1
I
1
A
1
.
Ocouc vu kutuokcuuoouc aupuqcaiacoo ABIA ABIA
ooio kui ooie kcicvo apo to ooocvo.

l,pno 27
Levu c tqv apotuoq 26, aopoc vu kutuokcuuoouc tpic-
opq eviu A.Bxy ioq c tqv A
1
.B
1
A
1
A
1
, tctoiu eotc:
=
!
x
!
<
1 1 1
A A B (u) ,
! !
< =
1 1 1
A xAy (),
kui
! !
$ = ' $ y A A
1 1 1
().

Huve otqv Ax opiouc to oqcio A, ctoi eotc
&< &
&$
=
<
& &
$
1 1
1 1 A
(1)
(apouve to AA uuvctui e tctuptq uvuoo tev cu0puev
tqutev A
1
B
1
, A
1
A
1
, AB).
Ltq ouvcciu auve otqv Ay opiouc ooie to oqcio A, ctoi eotc
&'
&< &
=
' &
<
1 1
1 1
A
(2)
Aao ti ococi (1), (2) c cupoq tq ioiotqtu "oi' iooo" (apo-
tuoq V. 22) q, c oqcpivo opou, aouauoiuovtu kutu cq,
apokatci
&'
&$
=
' &
$
1 1
1 1
A
(3)
Ocepoc to aupuqcaiacoo c tpci ouvtpcouoc ukc AB,
AA, AA, cote to ABIA ABIA. Aao ti ococi (u), (1) apok-
atci q ooiotqtu tev aupuqopuev ABBA, A
1
B
1
B
1
A
1
. Ooie
uao ti () , (2) q ooiotqtu tev AAAA , A
1
A
1
A
1
A
1
kui uao ti (),
(3) q ooiotqtu tev ABIA, A
1
B
1
I
1
A
1
.
Eaocve kui tu cq tev ioev apo uutc uacvuvti copev civui
caioq ooiu kui ooie kcicvu aupuqopuu. To aupu-
qcaiacoo oiaov ABIA ABIA civui ooio kui ooie kcicvo
apo to ooocvo.
].B.o.

Lto nve oxt xcc yevc

5.1. Ktxqto toxqxo xtcev yevtev.

O tpicopq otcpcu eviu 0cepqouc to "oqu" tou epou aou
apokatci uao tpci q ouvcaiacoc qicu0cic (Ox, Oy, Oz) koivq up-
q O. Kpiu otoiciu tq tpicopq otcpcu eviu civui oi tpci caiac-
oc evic tq ) zOx , yOz , xOy (
! ! !
kui oi tpci oicopc evic tq
) , , u (
! ! !
.

(x - Oz - y)
>
?
@
A
B
C
$ D
! ! !
xOy
(y - Ox - z)
>
?
@
A
B
C
" D
! ! !
yOz
(z - Oy - x)
>
?
@
A
B
C
& D
! ! !
xOz u

Lti tpicopc otcpcc evic
aopci vu uaooci0ci oti oi caiacoc
evic couv tqv ioiu ocipu cc0ou c ti uacvuvti oicopc evic kui
uvtiotpoe. 1toi, tu kpiu otoiciu tq tpicopq ku0opiovtui kui oiu-
tuooovtui "ctpiku" oto epo uvu oo.
Mctu tev oqciev kui tev cu0ciev oto caiacoo uaupci iu u-
vtiotoiqoq aou oqcpu kutuvocitui e oukotqtu. Av oc ku0c apo-
tuoq q oc ku0c oqu cvuuov oi cci "opnsio" kui "so0sio", "ksi-
:oi" kui "oi/,s:oi", ":/nvov:oi" kui "oovo/ov:oi ns" k.a., apokatci iu
vcu "apotuoq" q cvu vco "oqu", aou kucitui ookp q ooko tou upi-
ko. 1toi a.. to uieu "oo opnsio oovo/ov:oi ns nio novooikp so0sio"
cci e ouko to "uieu" "oo so0sis :/nvov:oi os /vo novooiko opnsi-
o" kui uvtiotpoe.
Hupooiu kutu tqv ctuuoq oto epo kui aui oi cci "opnsi-
o", "koop", "so0yonno :npno", "asoo" kui "saiasoo ycvio", uvti-
otoiov c "so0sio", "oknp", "saiasoo ycvio", "/oo" kui "oisoo yc-
vio" ka.
1toi, ctu tpicopq otcpcu eviu kui tpievou, c pqoq kui
tq oukotqtu oqioupcitui iu cvvoiooikq ouoctioq.

TPIIONO ABI

TPIEAPH IONIA OABI

acupu AB

caiacoq eviu

!

caiacoq eviu
!
AIB

oicopq eviu A - OI - B

l,pno 5.1

Kut` uuto tov tpoao iu ocoq iootqtu oo tpicopev aou ku-
0opictui uao tu uqocuptecvu kpiu otoiciu tev oo tpicopev,
aopci vu ouoctio0ci cvvoiooiku kui vu "uvukuu0ci" uao tu kpitq-
piu iootqtu oo tpievev, upkci vu cku0upiotci aoou kui aoiu otoi-
ciu upkov iu tov aqpq ku0opioo iu tpicopq.

l,pno 5.2
E 1o oo :iycvo :oo o,pno:o 5.2 /,oov oo aso/ ns n/:o 12 koi 18
novoos.
E Eivoi onoio, oo 5 , 1
18
27
12
18
8
12
= = = oao:s
! ! ! !
= = A , I c F , koi
! !
= B 0 oo oi ycvis osv /,oov :pv ioio oio:op (osv sivoi ios "nio
ao nio".

Akou, cvvoic oae aooapcno:ikp ycvio aopov vu cac-
ktu0ov oto epo, oaotc oi caiacoc evic iu tpicopq ivovtui oic-
opc tq aupuaqpeutikq tq. Tciku, uao tu 0cepqutu kutuokcuq
iu tpicopq uao tu otoiciu tq, apokatci oti civui ouvutov c cq
ooocvu kpiu otoiciu q tpicopq aou kutuokcuuctui vu qv civui o-
vuoikq. Auto ocv apcaci vu uvci acpicpo, otuv ukou kui q kutuokcuq
cvo tpievou uao acvtc ooocvu otoiciu aopci vu qv civui ovuoi-
kq, uv q0ov uaoq uauitqoci oiutuq tev otoiciev kui apoouvu-
toioo oto caiacoo.
Iiu tqv uaoociq tq q ovuoikq tpicopq uao tu ci kpiu
otoiciu ivctui caikqoq tq kutu kopuq tpicopq.

Oi oo kutu kopuq tpicopc couv:
, y O x xOy
! !
< < < = , z O y yOz
! !
< < =
! !
< < = x O z zOx kui
x - Oy - z = x- Oy- z
y - Oz - x = y- Oz- x
z - Ox - y = z- Ox- y
oe aopci vu civui ioc q ouctpikc.
(Maopci vu uaooci0ci oti ivovtui ioc (: ouateoic) otuv oo
caiacoc evic tou civui ioc: ioookcq tpicopq eviu).

l,pno 5.3
z - Ox - y G z - Oy x,
! !
< < G y O x xOy
z - Ox - y = z - Oy x,
! !
< < = y O x xOy

Tciku, tu kpitqpiu iootqtu oo tpicopev oiuopevovtui e cq:
Euv oo tpicopc evic couv iu copu ioq kui ti apookcic-
vc o` uutqv oicopc uvu iu ioc, totc uutc civui ioc q ou-
ctpikc

Euv oo tpicopc couv oo caiacoc evic ioc iu apo iu
kui ti acpicocvc oc uutc oicopc uvtiotoiu ioc, totc uu-
tc civui ioc q ouctpikc.

Euv oo tpicopc evic couv ti caiacoc evic tou ioc
iu apo iu, totc uutc civui ioc q ouctpikc.

Euv oo tpicopc evic couv ti oicopc evic tou ioc iu
apo iu, totc uutc civui ioc q ouctpikc (:oe tpievu
c 3 evic ioc civui iou q ooiu).

Aao tqv aupu0coq uaotccoutev aou apoqq0qkc aopoc
vu uaouv0oc oti oo tpicopc otcpcc evic c ti caiacoc evic
tou ioc kui ooie kcicvc civui ioc, oquoq ounoiu oae
ukpie caituooouv oi opiooi 9 kui 10 tou iiou XI.

5.2 Kox kovqv xcc yevc

o H cvvoiu tq iootqtu oo tpicopev ouaiatci oiuio0qtiku
c tqv uv0peaivq ouvutotqtu tutioq tou.
Oae apokatci uao tqv apotuoq 22, tpci uvioc caiacoc evic
aqpov ti apoao0coci kutuokcuq iu tpicopq eviu otuv:
i) ku0ciu civui ikpotcpq uao to u0poiou tev oo uev kui
ii) to u0poiou tou civui ikpotcpo uao 4 op0c.
Otuv kutuokcuuoouc tpicopq eviu O.ABI uao tpci ooocvc
copc (caiacoc evic) OAB, OBI kui OAI, kui apocktcivouc ti ukc
tq, piokouc kui tqv kutu kopuqv tq tpicopq eviu O.ABI (Lqu
5.4). Ltu "l:oi,sio" oe q tpicopq ku0opictui uuotqpu uao ti copc
aou tqv acpiuouv, oi oaoic civui tpievu. Hpoqovtui oquoq cv-
voic, oae ko:o koopv, aooapcno:ik/ k.a.

l,pno 5.4

Oi oo tpicopc oiaov aou apockuuv, couv ioc copc kui ioc
oicopc, uu civui uvioc, c tqv cvvoiu oti ocv aopov vu ctu-
kivq0ov coe iu "otcpcu" kivqoq kui vu ivouv ouateoic. Ou
caicipq0ci iu caoatikq oicpcvqoq tou tpoaou kivqoq kui tq o-
ateoq.
Eacioq o auputqpqtq piokctui oto epo, aopci vu 0cepci
ukivqtq tqv tpicopq O.ABI kui vu kivci tqv O.ABI iu vu ccci uv
ouaiatci c tqv oo0ciou otu0cpq tpicopq. Yaupouv oe, oc uvti0coq
c tu apoqutu oto caiacoo, aoc ouvutotqtc vu ivci uutq q otc-
pcu kivqoq oto epo.
Ltpcovtu a.. tq eviu
!
< <
B A O kutu 180
o
, eotc vu ouacoci
c tqv
!
/&$, q OI acpvu uao tov qiepo aou piokotuv e apo to
caiacoo ABOAB otov qiepo aou piokctui q OI (L. 5.4).
To uv q OI 0u ouacoci q oi c tqv OI cuptutui uao to uv q
upuq iu qicu0ciu uao to O aou vu oqutici ooocvc evic c
ti OA kui OB civui ovuoikq oto epo.
Oc oi qicu0cic aou
oqutiouv c tqv OA eviu ioq
c tqv
!
AOI piokovtui auve
otqv caiuvciu cvo kevou c u-
ovu OA (L. 5.5).
Ooie, oi qicu0cic aou
oqutiouv c tqv OB eviu ioq
c tq
!
BOI piokovtui auve otqv
caiuvciu cvo kevou c uovu
OB.
Oi oo kevoi tcvovtui kutu
oo cu0cic OK
1
kui OK
2
, uo
!
O +
! !
> AOB BO .
1toi, uao ti copc
!
O kui
!
O oqutiovtui oo tpicopc,
oi O.AK
1
B kui q O.AK
2
B, oaotc q
ukq OI tq kutu kopuqv tpicopq ocv ouaiatci c tqv ukq OI
tq upikq.

l,pno 5.5

2quoq
To caiacoo aou oicpctui uao tqv AB kui tcvci tou oo kevou
kutu ccici, pqoioaoiq0qkc iu caoatiko oou. H aqpq c-
ctq tou apoquto uauitci tq pqoq ctuoqutioev oto epo,
kuti aou pqoioaoiqoc ouotqutiku o Euler otq cctq tq kivqoq
cvo otcpco oeuto.

y Ltq ouvcciu 0u uaooci0ci iu oiuoikuoiu aou cacktcivci oto
epo tq oiuoikuoiu iu tqv oateoq oto caiacoo oo tpievev c iou
cq oooev acupev kui aou oicukpivici tq ouvutotqtu o-
ateoq oo kutu kopuqv ioookcev tpicopev.
4cpouc tq oiotoo xy tev kutu kopuq copev OAB kui OAB
kui caiacoo (H) ku0cto oto caiacoo tev copev OAB, OAB, aou vu to
tcvci kutu tqv xy (L. 5.6). H tpitq ukq OI kui q apocktuoq tq pi-
okovtui oc oo oiuopctiko qiepou (H) - B kui (H) - B uvtiotoiu
(uv q ukq IOI piokotuv cai tou (H), q tpicopq 0u qtuv ioookcq).
4cpouc tqv cu0ciu z ku0ctq
oto (H) oto oqcio O. Av otpc-
ouc tq eviu
!
< <B A O kutu 180
o

oto epo pe uao tov uovu z,
eotc q qicu0ciu OA vu ouacoci
c tqv OB kui q OB c tqv OA,
totc q otu0cpq kutu 0coq (oto e-
po) OI 0u uvupc0ci otov ioio
qiepo (H) - B aou qtuv upiku.
1toi, q OI
1
aou uaotcci tq vcu
0coq tq OI, oc ouaiatci c tqv
OI, uo piokovtui oc oo oiu-
opctiko qiepou.
Ou auputqpqoouc oti iu
uvuoq oiuoikuoiu oto caiacoo
ooqci auvtu otqv tutioq oo tpi-
evev aou couv ti tpci acupc tou uvtiotoiu ioc (epi vu u-
uvovtui uaoq uauitqoci apoouvutoioo). Eoe oe pciuctui vu
oc ce uao to caiacoo iu vu uvuatu0ci q tutioq otov acpiu-
ovtu epo.
l,pno 5.6

6. Mcxqoq nooqcntncev
kot xtyevtkev ntoxev

H okpioq tev cu0puev oqutev oto caiacoo cvtuooctui
oto oiko oqu: Iozqzo ouoizqzo euov.
Levu c uutq tqv kiukeoq, otuv oo oqutu ocv civui ou-
ateoiu, aopci vu civui ooiu kui otuv ocv caiatouv oti uauitqoci
tq ooiotqtu, aopov vu oukpi0ov e apo tqv caiuvciu aou acpi-
kciouv. H op0otqtu uutq tq caioq oikuievctui uao uuto aou oqc-
pu civui veoto e to "o:oi,sicos :p 0scio :oo suooo o:pv saiasop
Iscus:io", kui aou uaooci0qkc oi oto tco tou 19
ou
uievu.
H octikq 0cepiu 0ccievctui kui uvuatooctui caitue otu
iiu I kui II tev l:oi,sicv. H cacktuoq kui uvuatuq tou uvtiotoiou
oquto oto epo, ouacpiuuvovtu tqv cvvoiu ,uo, aupouoiuci
uvuacpqtc ouokoic. Oe, uv acpiopiotoc oc aupuqcaiacou,
uvuatooctui iu ikuvoaoiqtikq 0cepiu, oc aqpq uvuoiu c to caiac-
oo. Auto ukpie civui kui to uvtikcicvo tev apotuocev 28 cpi 39.
Lc uutu tu auioiu q iootqtu otcpcev, otuv ocv civui oateoq, cvvoci-
tui e iootqtu okev, oquoq "iooouvuiu". 1toi uaoocikvctui oti "O
oyo (:cv oykcv) oo ouoicv aoopsaia/ocv sivoi o ko :oo o-
yoo ouoio:p:o" (apotuoq 33), oae kui oti "ls oo ioo (.iocv oykcv)
aoopsaiasoo oi oosi sivoi ov:io:oc ovooys :cv o,cv" (apo-
tuoq 34).
Mc oqcpivq opooiu o` uutq tq oiutaeoq cackovtui tu cc0q
"upko", "suooov", "oyko", aou octiovtui c cu0puu tqutu, cai-
acou kui otcpcu oqutu uvtiotoiu. Tco, apcaci vu oqcie0ci q uaou-
oiu ouacpuoutev aou uaotcov oqcpu "ucoq" veoq oc apooc-
ioci aou caikcvtpevovtui otq ctpqoq, oae a.. oti oc cvu aupuqc-
aiacoo to ivocvo cuoo uoq kui ou civui otu0cpo.
Iiu vu ivci kutuvoqtq q oiuapuutcuoq tev cvvoiev oti apo-
tuoci aou ukoou0ov 0u apcaci vu kuvouc iu ovtoq uvuopoq
otov tpoao cipioo tou cuoo tev cu0puev caiacoev oqu-
tev. Oi uaupc iu ouv0ctikq uvuatuq tq 0cepiu tou Euoo
iu tu caiacou oqutu piokovtui qoq oto iio I tev l:oi,sicv (ctu
tqv apotuoq 35). Ekci oukpivovtui aupuqopuu c tqv ioiu uoq
kui iou q kui ukoou0citui (c opovq opooiu) q cq oiuoikuoiu,
oaou cvto aupcv0coce oqcievovtui tu epiu tou caiacoou aou uao-
oqevouv tu uvtiotoiu puutu.


l,puo A l,puo B

Ltqv apetq acpiateoq (L.A)

H
1
(ABIA), H
2
(ABEZ)
T (ABEA), T
2
(ZAA)
T
1
(EIB)
H
1
T
1
T
H
2
T
2
T,
Oe, tpievo (ZAA)
tpievo (EIB),

oaotc T
1
T
2
, kui ctoi H
1
H
2

Ltq octcpq acpiateoq (L. B)

H
1
(ABIA), T (EAO),
T
1
(EIB), T (AOB)
T
2
(ZAA), H
2
= (ABEZ)
H
1
T T
1
T,
H
2
T T
2
T
Oe, tpievo (EIB)
tpievo (ZAA),

oaotc T
1
T
2
, kui ctoi H
1
H
2

Tu aio auve uaoocikvouv oti to cuoov aopoc vu to cipi-
o0oc e cc0o, oaou:
(u) 1ou oqutu couv iou cuou.
() To cuoov civui 0ctiko kui apoo0ctiko c tqv cq cvvoiu:
Otuv cvu oqu oiucpiotci ko:o oaoosk:o :oao, to cuoov
tou oquto apokatci e to u0poiou tev cuoev tev oq-
utev tq oiucpioq.
H upq () citopqoc otqv acpiateoq aou oi aupouoiuotqkc
c oo tpoaou:

(
1
) Ioooio,cioiuo ,cio, (
2
) Ioooouapcoiuo ,cio,
oaou to qtocvo cuoov apo-
ckuc uao u0poiou cuoev
ioev oqutev (L. A)
oaou to qtocvo cuoov apoc-
kuc uo to oqu ouaqpe-
0qkc, eotc vu apokci u0poiou
ioev oqutev (L. B)

Oi oiuoikuoic (u) kui () aopov c ti uvukuic aupuooc vu
cacktu0ov oc (kuptu) aoueviku epiu, oaotc ooqov oc aoevu
ioooiuepioiu kui oc aoevu iooouaqpeoiu. Xpqoioaoievtu
tpievoaoiqoci kui tqv upq tou Apiqoq-Euooou, aopci vu uao-
oci0ci oti tu ioooiuepioiu epiu civui iooouaqpeoiu kui uvti-
otpoe.
H ctuuoq otq ctpqoq uauitci tqv kutuokcuq iu oovo:pop
suooo. H iocu iu tqv kutuokcuq tq piokctui otov opioo tou cu-
oo apetu otu tpievu kui kutoaiv tqv cacktuoq (apoo0ctiku) otu aou-
eviku epiu, coe tpievoaoiqocev. Hpuuti, uuto caituuvctui au-
putqpevtu oti oc cvu tpievo to ivocvo iu acupu kui tou uvti-
otoiou o` uutqv ou civui uvcuptqto uao tq 0cepocvq acupu.
Totc opiouc to cuoov otu tpievu coe tou veoto taou:
cuoov
2
1
(uoq) = (o).
Maopoc ctoi vu uaooioouc to cuoov cvo aouevou e
to u0poiou tev cuoev tev tpievev iu tpievoaoiqoq, uo c-
uiu uaooci0ci oti civui uvcuptqto uao tqv tpievoaoiqoq.
H 0cepiu tou cuoo oto caiacoo aou uvuatooctui c uutov
tov tpoao civui o:oi,sicop c tqv ukoou0q cvvoiu: Ao aoueviku
epiu civui iocuoiku ukpie totc, uv civui ioooiuepioiu (upu kui
iooouaqpepiu). Lc iu uaq, cvtuaeoiukq (uu iooovuq) oiut-
aeoq: Iosuooiko aooycviko ,cio (,cio us :o ioio suooov) uaoov
vo oiousio0ov o:ov ioio oi0uo iocv :iycvcv.
H uvuatuq iu uvtiotoiq 0cepiu ctpqoq oto epo aupou-
oiuci ouokoic kui tciku uaooci0qkc oti ocv aopci vu uaupci otoi-
cieoq 0cepiu okou oto epo. Miu ovoq tq oq kutuotuoq cci
e cq:
(1) Lto ouv0ctiko cpo tq apoocioq, uvtiku0iotevtu tu tpi-
evu c tctpucopu uaooci0qkc (to 1943 uao tov Sylder) oti iooou-
aqpeoiu aocopu civui kui ioooiuepioiu.
(2) Ooov uopu otqv kutuokcuq iu ouvuptqoq okou, uuto c-
aituuvctui opiovtu tov oko oto tctpucopo e to
3
1
tou ivocvou
tou cuoo iu copu kui tou uvtiotoiou o` uutqv ou. Kutoaiv,
cacktcivctui otu aocopu c pqoq oiucpiocev oc tctpucopu.
(3) Autq q kutuokcuq cci e ouvcaciu, aupuqcaiacou (q kui
apioutu) c ioou okou vu civui ioooiuepioiu Oe, oae uao-

ocikvctui c pqoq uaotccoutev tou M. Dehn, cvu kuvoviko tctpu-
copo ocv aopci vu civui ioooiuepioio c cvu ko tou ioiou okou.
(Bcac kui ooio ctu tqv apotuoq 39).
Eaocve, q 0cepiu ctpqoq oto epo aou uvuatooctui kut`
uuto tov tpoao ocv civui otoicieoq, acpuv tev apioutev. Iiu iu
ouotqutikq cctq uauitovtui u/0oooi sov:pop q pqoq tq o,p
:oo Cavallieri (oquoq uacipootiko oioo).
To uio0uuoto ckcitui oto covo oti to XI iio tev l:oi-
,sicv (aou oiuapuutcctui tq okpioq tev apioutev) otuutu ckci
ukpie aou uauitcitui q uuq tev c0ooev, cve q u/0ooo :p so-
v:pop cupoctui oto iio XII.

Hxooq 28 (XI. 28)

Av nopozzqzenneo zuq0e on zo enneo zo onoo ipezoi
on zi io,ovie o onvovzi epov zoo, zze ioipezoi oe
o oo (: ioovouo) npouozo.

Anctq
Ocepoc to aupuq-
caiacoo ABIA ABIA
kui ti oiuevic AI, AI oo
uocev tou. Tu apioutu ABI
ABI kui AAI AAI
civui iou, uo oi copc tou
civui iu apo iu ioc kui au-
puqc q tuutiocvc.

Hopozqpqoq
O poo tq apotuoq 28 civui 0ccieoq oc o,ti ukoou0ci.
Oae tovio0qkc q 0cepiu tq okpioq tev aupuqcaiacoev
kui tev apioutev uvuatooctui oc aqpq uvtiotoiiu c tqv 0cepiu
okpioq aupuqopuev kui tpievev uao to apeto iio, c to
caiacov covo tq ouotqutikq pqoq ococev ooiotqtu kui u-
vuoiev aou uutq ouvcauctui.
Ltqv cioueikq apotuoq 28, cvu aupuqcaiacoo oiuipcitui oc
oo tpieviku apioutu, oae cvu aupuqopuo oiuipcitui (uao
iu oiuevio) oc oo (iou) tpievu. Oe, tu apioutu aou apokatouv,

l,puo 28

ovtu ouctpiku, osv uaosi vo sivoi ooua:coiuo. 1toi to uaotccou
aou apokatci ocici vu cpqvcu0ci otu auioiu aou 0ctci o opioo 10
kui c oqcpivo opou vu uaooo0ci c ioooovouio, oquoq ioo:p:o
oykcv.
O tpoao c tov oaoio cupoctui to ouacpuou civui kutuu-
tiko. Eaitpcaci iu ouv0ctikq apoocioq tq 0cepiu tou okou, oae
civc kui c to cuoov kui tciku tqv uvticteaioq tou e cc0ou.
Mc tqv apotuoq 34 ookqpevctui q 0cepiu iu tu aupuqc-
aiacou, uo c pqoq tq aopci vu uaooci0ci oti oc cvu aupuqc-
aiacoo to ivocvo tq uoq kui tou ou aou uvtiotoici o` uutq ci-
vui otu0cpo.

Hxooq 29 (XI. 29)
Av o nopozzqzenneo oov uio oq uoivq, zo io yo uoi
oi ouu noo ipovzoi on zi uopo oozq zq oq uo-
zozq,oov ozi ie eo0ee, zze evoi oo (: ioovouo).

Anctq
Ocepoc tu aupuq-
caiacou ABIA - ABIA kui
ABIA - ABIA, aou iku-
voaoiov ti apoao0coci tou
0cepquto. Totc uao tu au-
puqopuu ABBA kui
ABBA couc:
AB AB AB (I.34), oao-
tc AA BB kui uo AA
BB, AA BB tu tpievu
AAA , BBB 0u civui iou (couv tpci acupc ioc iu apo iu).
Ooie tu tpievu AAA, III civui iou, ku0e kui tu aupu-
qopuu AAAA, AIIB.
Tco, tu tctpuacupu AAAA kui BIIB civui iou (c-
ouv ti acupc ioc iu apo iu, ku0e kui ti evic tou).
Tu apioutu oiaov AAA - AAA kui BBB - III civui
iou. Av apootc0ci o` uutu to otcpco aou acpikcictui uao ti copc
ABIA, ABIA, AAAA, BIIB, 0u apokci q iootqtu (iooou-
vuiu) tev upikev aupuqcaiacoev.

l,puo 29

Hxooq 30 (XI.30)
Av o nopozzqzenneo oov uoivq oq, zo io yo uoi oi
ouu noo ipovzoi on zi uopo oozq zq oq ev uo-
zozq,oov ozi ie eo0ee, zze evoi oo (: ioovouo).

Anctq
Ocepoc tu au-
puqcaiacou ABIA-
-ABIA kui ABIA -
-ABIA, aou iku-
voaoiov ti apoao0c-
oci tou 0cepquto.
1ote I
1
to oqcio toq
tev AI kui BI, B
1

to oqcio toq tev
AB kui BI uvtiotoi-
u. Opiovtui tu oqciu
A
1
kui A
1
, oaotc apokatci to otcpco ABIA A
1
B
1
I
1
A
1
.
Levu c tqv apotuoq 29 couc (ABIA - ABIA)
(ABIA - A
1
B
1
I
1
A
1
), uo oi ukc tou aou oicpovtui uao ti kopu-
c tq uoq ABIA kutuqouv oti ioic cu0cic AA, BI .
Eaioq, (ABIA - ABIA) (ABIA - A
1
B
1
I
1
A
1
), uo oi
ukc tou aou oicpovtui uao ti kopuc tq uoq ABIA kutuq-
ouv oti ioic cu0cic AB, IA.
Apu (ABIA - ABIA) (ABIA - ABIA).
].B.o.

Hxooq 31 (XI. 31)
Av o nopozzqzenneo oov oe oei uoi zo yq noo o-
vziozoiov o' ooz oo, zze ooz evoi oo (:ioovouo).

Anctq
Ocepoc tu aupuqcaiacou ABIA - ABIA kui KAMN -
KAMN c uoci ABIA KAMN kui tu ca` uutev q iou. Ocou-
c vu uaoociouc oti tu aupuqcaiacou uutu civui iooovuu.
o) Yao0ctouc upiku oti tu aupuqcaiacou civui op0u, oquoq
AA* ABIA kui KK * KAMN kui, epi uq tq cvikotqtu, oti
l,puo 30

AB // KA. 1ote BTLP aupuqopuo c to oqcio T otqv apocktu-
oq tq qicu0ciu BA tctoio, eotc
! !
,87 = TP kui BT KA.
Totc tu aupuqopuu BTLP kui KAMN civui iou kui ooiu.
Ocepoc to aupuqcaiacoo, BTLP-BTLP.
Ao
! !
< = <
KA K BT B ( 1 op0q) kui BB KK (e q tev up-
ikev aupuqcaiacoev), tu op0oeviu aupuqopuu BTTB,
KAAK 0u civui iou kui ooiu (ouateoiu).
Iiu tov ioio oo tu
BBPP , NNKK civui
iou kui ooiu.
Tu aupuqcaiacou
oiaov BPLT - BPLT
kui KAMN - KAMN ci-
ui iou kui ooiu, uo oc
oi copc tou civui ioc kui
ooic kui tu caiacou tou
aupuqu cvu apo cvu
(uo AB // KA kui
AA // KK).
1ote O to oqcio to-
q tev BI, PL kui to au-
puqopuo BTHO. Av
Z to oqcio toq tq IA c
tqv TH, totc tu aupuqc-
aiacou BOHT - BO1T
kui BPLT - BPLT civui
iou (apotuoq 29) , oaotc 0u
civui kui
(BOHT - BO1T) (KAMN - KAMN) (i)
Au civui (BPLT) (BOHT) (apotuoq I.35), upu 0u couc kui
(BOHT) (ABIA).
Oe ioci (apotuoq V.7)
( )
( )
( )
( ) $"%:
$3-:
=
$"%:
ABIA
(1)
Eaioq, uo to caiacoo BBII civui aupuqo oti uoci tou
aupuqcaiacoou AAAA - TTZZ , oevu c tqv apotuoq 25, 0u
civui:

l,puo 31

( )
( )
=
$"%:
ABIA ( )
( ) :< %< "< $< 6 $"%:
< < < <
A I B A - ABIA
(2)
Evtce ooiu, uo to caiacoo BBTT civui aupuqo oti
uoci tou aupuqcaiacoou OHHO- IZZI, 0u couc:
( )
( )
=
$"%:
$3-: ( )
( ) :< %< "< $< 6 $"%:
:< -< 3< $< 6 $3-:
(3)
Aao ti ococi (1), (2), (3) apokatci oti
(ABIA - ABIA) (BOHT - BO1T), caocve 0u couc kui
(ABIA - ABIA) (KAMN - KAMN), oe tq (i).

l,puo 31 o

) Av tu aupuqcaiacou ocv qtuv kui tu oo op0u, oquoq:
AA ocv civui ku0ctq oto ABIA q KK ocv civui ku0ctq oto KAMN,
totc apouovtu op0u ti copc KAMN kui ABIA cai tev
KAMN, ABIA uvtiotoiu, oqioupoc tu op0u aupuqcaiacou
K
1
A
1
M
1
N
1
- KAMN kui A
1
B
1
I
1
A
1
- ABIA.
Oe, (K
1
A
1
M
1
N
1
-KAMN) (KAMN - KAMN) kui
(A
1
B
1
I
1
A
1
- ABIA) (ABIA - ABIA) (apotuoq 30) kui
(K
1
A
1
M
1
N
1
- KAMN) (A
1
B
1
I
1
A
1
- ABIA) oevu c tqv apoqo-
cvq acpiateoq tev op0ev aupuqcaiacoev.
Apu kui aui 0u couc
(ABIA - ABIA) (KAMN - KAMN).
].B.o.

Hxooq 32 (XI. 32)
Ao nopozzqzenneo ue oo yq evoi ovzo,o zov oeov
zoo.

Anctq
Ocepoc tu aupuqcaiacou ABIA - ABIA kui KAMN -
KAMN c iou q aou uvtiotoiov oti uoci ABIA, KAMN. Oc-
ouc vu ociouc oti civui uvuou tev uocev tou ABIA, KAMN.

l,puo 32
Ocepoc to aupuqopuo MALT ioo c to ABIA, oaou to
L uvqkci otqv apocktuoq tq qicu0ciu AK (apotuoq I.45), kui ou-
aqpevouc to oqu eotc vu apokci aupuqcaiacoo MALT -
MALT ioo (iooovuo) c to ABIA - ABIA, oevu c tqv
apotuoq 31 (couv iooovuc uoci kui iou q).
Ao to caiacoo MAAM civui aupuqo oti uoci tou au-
puqcaiacoou KNNK - LTTL, 0u couc:
( )
( ) :< 9< 4< 7< 6 749:
< < < <
N M A K - KAMN
=
( )
( ) 749:
,478
(apotuoq 25).
Au couc (MALT) (ABIA) kui
(MALT - MALT) (ABIA - ABIA).

Apu 0u ioci
( )
( ) &$"'
,478
=
( )
( ) '< "< $< &< 6 &$"'
< < < <
N M A K - KAMN

].B.o.

Hxooq 33 (XI. 33)
O z,o o ouoov nopozzqzeninov ioozoi ue zo z,o zov
uov zov ouzo,ov ouuov zoo.

Anctq
Ocepoc tu ooiu aupuqcaiacou V ABIA - ABIA kui
V
1
= A
1
B
1
I
1
A
1
- A
1
B
1
I
1
A
1
, oaou (AB, A
1
B
1
) , (AA, A
1
A
1
) , (AA,
A
1
A
1
) civui tu cq tev oooev ukev tou.
Ocouc vu ociouc oti:
( )
( )
3
3
1
1 1
V
V
$ &
&$
=

l,puo 33
Hpocktcivouc ti qicu0cic tev ukev BA, BI, BB kutu BK
A
1
B
1
, BA A
1
A
1
, BM A
1
A
1
, oaotc oqioupovtui tu aupuq-
caiacou BKPM - AKPM kui A
1
B
1
I
1
A
1
- A
1
B
1
I
1
A
1
, tu oaoiu civui
iou kui ooiu (ouateoiu), oevu c tqv apotuoq 24, uo tu cq
(BKKA, A
1
B
1
I
1
A
1
) , (BAMM , A
1
A
1
A
1
A
1
) kui (BKPM, A
1
B
1
B
1
A
1
)
tu oaoiu kcivtui cai caiacoev aou civui uvu oo aupuqu, uaotcovtui
uao iou aupuqopuu.
Ocepoc tu aupuqcaiacou BKKA - BK
1
K
1
A
1
kui IBKN -
IBK
1
N
1
.
Ao ioci
<
& &
&< &
=
' &
&'
=
$
1 1
1 1 1 1 A
AB
(apotuoq VI.1) kui

BK A
1
B
1
, BA A
1
A
1
, BM A
1
A
1
, 0u couc kui
$7
&< &
=
$4
&'
=
$,
, oquoq
$7
$< $
=
$4
$"
=
BK
BA
.
Au
( )
( ) "$,8
&$"'
=
$,
$&
,
( )
( ) , ,< $4
"$,8
=
$4
$"
,
( )
( ) $,;7
$< $,,
=
$7
$< $ 1
.
Eaocve 0u ioci
( )
( )
( )
( ) , ,< $4
"$,8
=
"$,8
&$"'
=
( )
( ) $,;7
$< $,,1
.
Eaiacov couc
( )
( )
( )
( ) 1 18 , $< "< 6 "$,8
'< "< $< &< 6 &$"'
=
"$,8
&$"'
,

( )
( )
( )
) (
1 1
1 1
, ,< 4 $< 6 , ,< $4
8 , $< "< 6 "$,8
=
, ,< $4
"$,8
,

( )
( ) ( ) ; ;< < 6 , ,< $4
, ,< 4 $< 6 , ,< $4
=
$,;7
$< $,,
M M
) (
1 1 1 1
.
Av oe tcoocpu cc0q u, , , o piokovtui oc ouvcq uvuo-
iu, oquoq ioci
H
0
=
0
1
=
u
, totc o oo tou apetou apo tov tc-
tupto iootui c to oo tev kev tou apetou kui tou octcpou, oq-
uoq
3
3
u
o
u
= (V, opioo 10).
|Hpuuti, uv
H
0
=
0
1
=
u
, totc u
2

3
o +
+
3
3
3
3
=
>
>
?
@
A
A
B
C
= = ].
Apu
( )
( )
( )
( )
3
1 1
3
A I B A - ABIA
8 , $< "< 6 "$,8
'< "< $< &< 6 &$"'
=
; ;< 7< 7 6 , ,< $4
< < < <
=
=
( )
( )
( )
( )
3
3
3
3
$,
&$
=
"$,8
&$"'
, oaotc
( )
( )
3
1 1
3
1
AB
V
V
$ &
= .
].B.o.

Hxooq 34 (XI. 34)
Av o nopozzqzenneo evoi oo (:ioovouo), zze oi oei
zoo evoi ovziozpo ovzo,e zov oyov zoo.
Av oi oei o nopozzqzeninov evoi ovziozpo ovzo,e
zov oyov zoo, zze zo nopozzqzenneo evoi oo (:ioovouo).

Anctq
Ocepoc tu aupuqcaiacou V
1
ABIA - A
1
B
1
I
1
A
1
kui
V
2
KAMN K
2
A
2
M
2
N
2
c q u
1
, u
2
, aou uvtiotoiov oti uoci
ABIA, KAMN.
(i) Yao0ctouc upiku oti tu aupuqcaiacou civui op0u, oqu-
oq AA
1
* ABIA kui KK
2
* KAMN.

o) Acouotc oti V
1
= V
2
kui 0couc vu ociouc oti:
1
2
u
u
KAMN
ABIA
=
Av u
1
u
2
, totc:
1
2
2
1
u
u
1
V
V
KAMN
ABIA
= = =
Av u
1
G u
2
, a.. u
1
u
2
, totc 0u uaupci ctu tev K, K
2
oqcio
K tctoio eotc KK u
1
. (L. 34).

l,puo 34
Ocepoc to aupuqcaiacoo V
1
KAMN - KAMN.
Ao V
1
= V
2
, 0u couc
1
2
1
1
V
V
V
V
<
=
<
(1)

Eaioq, uo u
1
KK 0u couc
( )
( ) KAMN
V
V
1
1
=
<
(2)

Euou
( )
( )
1
2 2 2 2
1
u
u
K K
KK
N N K K
N N KK
V
V
2
=
<
=
< <
=
<
(3)
( )
( )
1
2
u
u
KAMN
= .

) Acouotc oti
( )
( )
1
2
u
u
KAMN
= kui 0couc vu ociouc oti:

V
1
= V
2
.
Av u
1
u
2
, totc ABIA KAMN, oaotc V
1
= V
2
.
Av u
1
G u
2
a.. u
1
u
2
, totc 0cepevtu to apiou V
1
, oae tu
kutuokcuuouc apoqoucve, 0u couc

( )
( ) ,< ,
,,
=
2
KAMN
(4)
Au
( )
( )
<
=
1
1
V
V
KAMN
ABIA
(5)
uo couv iou q (apotuoq 32).
Eaioq, (apotuoq 25)

K K
KK
V
V 2
1
2
<
=
<
(6)
1
2
1
1
V
V
V
V
<
=
<
, oaotc V
1
= V
2
.

(ii) A uao0coouc tepu oti ocv civui kui tu oo aupuqc-
aiacou op0u, oquoq citc oti q ukq AA
1
ocv civui ku0ctq otq uoq
ABIA, citc oti q ukq KK
2
ocv civui ku0ctq otq uoq KAMN.
Ocepoc totc ti op0c apooc ABIA, KAMN tev
A
1
B
1
I
1
A
1
kui K
2
A
2
M
2
N
2
oti uacvuvti copc uvtiotoiu (L. 34 u).


l,puo 34 o
1ouc V
1
ABIA- A
1
B
1
I
1
A
1
kui V
2
KAMN- K
2
A
2
M
2
N
2

(apotuoci 29 kui 30).
o) Acouotc oti V
1
= V
2
kui 0couc vu ociouc oti:
( )
( )
1
2
u
u
KAMN
= , oaou u
1
A
1
A kui u
2
K
2
K.
Iiu tu op0u apioutu ABIA - A
1
B
1
I
1
A
1
kui KAMN-
K
2
A
2
M
2
N
2
oevu c tqv apoqocvq acpiateoq (cu0), 0u couc:
( )
( )
1
2
1
2
2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1
u
u
A A
K K
N M A K
A I B A
=
<
<
= , oaotc kui
( )
( )
1
2
u
u
KAMN
= .
) Acouotc oti:
1
2
u
u
KAMN
= kui 0couc vu ociouc oti:

V
1
= V
2
.
Iiu tu op0u apioutu ABIA- A
1
B
1
I
1
A
1
kui KAMN-
K
2
A
2
M
2
N
2
0u couc
( )
( )
1
2
u
u
N M A K

=
< < < <
< < < <
, oaotc
(ABIA- A
1
B
1
I
1
A
1
) (KAMN- K
2
A
2
M
2
N
2
)
(oevu c tqv apoqocvq acpiateoq, (i) ).

Apu kui V
1
= V
2
.
].B.o.

Hopozqpqoei ozi npozoei 28 - 34
Mc tqv apotuoq 34 ookqpe0qkc q ouv0ctikq aupouoiuoq tq
0cepiu tou okou iu tu aupuqcaiacou. Apiovtu c tq 0ccie-
oq auputqpqoq tq apotuoq 28 iu tqv oiuipcoq aupuqcaiacoou
uao cvu oiuevio caiacoo tou kui ouvciovtu c caicipqutu oiuc-
pioq kui ouaqpeoq cvo aupuqcaiacoou, kutuqouc otqv
apotuoq 34, uao tqv oaoiu c opovq opooiu aopci vu uaooci0ci
oti: ls /vo aoopsaiasoo :o yivousvo uio oop koi :oo ,oo aoo
ov:io:oi,si o oo:p sivoi o:o0so.
H oiuoikuoiu kui q ocipu aou ukoou0q0qkc civui uoq, oe
ocv apoocpctui oc uaooioo. O Legendre cioqq0qkc tq opovq
0cepiu tou okou, uuovtu tq ocipu tq aupouoiuoq e cq:
Akoou0evtu to cviko opioo tq iootqtu otcpcev oqutev,
aopci vu uaooci0ci oti oo apioutu tu oaoiu couv ti copc iu
ovov otcpcu tou eviu ioc kui ooie kcicvc civui iou (ouate-
oiu), oaotc op0u (q koou) apioutu c ioc uoci kui iou q civui
iou.
Akoo0e, cvu auio apiou civui iooovuo c cvu op0o api-
ou aou cci e uoq iu ku0ctq toq tou apiouto kui o iu au-
puqq ukq tou.
Xpqoioaoievtu uuto ukpie to
uaotccou aopoc vu uaoociouc oti
cvu oiuevio caiacoo oiuipci to aupuq-
caiacoo oc oo iooovuu apioutu. Hpu-
uti, ku0c cvu uao tu apioutu aou apo-
katouv civui iooovuo c cvu tpieviko
apiou aou cci e o tqv aupuacupq
ukq tou aupuqcaiacoou kui e uoq
cvu uao tu (iou) tpievu, otu oaoiu q oiu-
evio oiuipci to aupuqopuo tq
ku0ctq toq. 1toi tuvouc otq 0cc-
ieoq apotuoq 28.

Hxooq 35 (XI. 35)
Av o ennee ,ove evoi oe uoi on zi uopo zoo o0ov
o eo0ee euz zov eninov zoo noo oquozoov ue zi o-
vzozoie nzeop zoo oe ,ove, ui ov npozq0ov o zooo
oqueo zov eo0eiov noo pouovzoi euz zov eninov ozo enne-

l,puo 34

o zov opiuov ,oviov, zze oi eo0ee noo opovzoi on zi npo-
oz zov oqueov oozov uoi zi uopo zov ,oviov oq-
uozoov oe ,ove ue zi eo0ee oi onoe ipovzoi on zi uo-
po zoo uoi uevzoi euz zov eninov zoo.

Anctq
Ocepoc ti ioc evic
! !
1 1 1
y O x , xOy auve otu caiacou (P),
(P
1
) uvtiotoiu, kui ti cu0cic Oz, O
1
z
1
ckto tev caiacoev uutev, tc-
toic eotc . z O y yOz , z O x xOz
1 1 1 1 1 1
! ! ! !
= = Ocepoc caiacov tu oqciu
A
1
, I
1
auve oti Oz, O
1
z
1
uvtiotoiu kui ti apooc tou A, I
1
auve
otu (P), (P
i
). Ocouc vu ociouc oti:
! !
"< " = <
1 1 1
O O .

l,puo 35
Huve otqv Oz 0cepoc oqcio I, tctoio eotc OI O
1
I
1
kui tqv
II // AA.
Ao AA* (P), 0u civui kui II * (P).
Av IA * Ox kui I
1
A
1
* O
1
x
1
, totc: (OI)
2
(OA)
2
(AI)
2
kui
(AI)
2
(AI)
2
(II)
2
, oaotc (OI)
2
(OI)
2
(II)
2
=
(OA)
2
(AI)
2
(II)
2
(OA)
2
(AI)
2
. Apu
!
/&" 1 op0q.
Ooie piokouc
!
" & /
1 1 1
1 op0q, oaotc
!
/&" =
!
" & /
1 1 1
.
Tu tpievu oiaov OAI, O
1
A
1
I
1
couv OI O
1
I
1
kui
!
&/" =
=
!
" / &
1 1 1
,
!
/&" =
!
" & /
1 1 1
( 1 op0q). Apu civui iou , oaotc OA O
1
A
1
.
Evtce ooiu, uv IB * OY , I
1
B
1
* O
1
Y
1
, 0u couc:

!
" / =
!
" $ /
1 1 1
1 op0q kui OB O
1
B
1
. Tu tpievu oiaov OAB ,
O
1
A
1
B
1
civui iou, uo OA O
1
A
1
, OB O
1
B
1
kui
! !
$ / & =
1 1 1
O .
Apu ABA
1
B
1
,
! !
& / =
1 1 1
B OAB kui
! !
& $ / =
1 1 1
OBA oaotc kui
! !
$ & "< = &$ "<
1 1 1
,
! !
& $ "< = "<
1 1 1
BA e ouaqpeutikc ioev eviev.
Tu tpievu ABI kui A
1
B
1
I
1
couv acov AB A
1
B
1
,
! !
$ & "< = &$ "<
1 1 1
,
! !
& $ "< = $& "<
1 1 1
. Apu civui iou, oaotc IA I
1
A
1
,
IB I
1
B
1
(apotuoq I. 26)
Tu tpievu OAI kui O
1
A
1
I
1
couv OA O
1
A
1
, IA I
1
A
1
kui
! !
"< & / = <
1 1 1
O ( 1 op0q). Apu civui iou, oaotc OI O
1
I
1
.
Au OI O
1
I
1
+ (OI)
2
(O
1
I
1
)
2
+
+ (OI)
2
- (II)
2
= (O
1
I
1
)
2
- (I
1
I
1
)
2
+ (II)
2
= (I
1
I
1
)
2
+ II= I
1
I
1

(uo OI = O
1
I
1
). Tu tpievu oiaov OII kui OI
1
I
1
couv OI O
1
I
1
,
OI O
1
I
1
kui II I
1
I
1
. Ou civui caocve iou, oaotc
! !
"< / " = <
1 1 1
O .
].B.o.

Hopozqpqoq
H uaoociq 0u aopooc vu ouvtocutci uio0qtu c tq pqoq tou
0cepquto tev tpiev ku0ctev. Euou, c tu kpitqpiu iootqtu op-
0oeviev tpievev aopoc vu uaoouc tqv cauvuuuvocvq
pqoq tou Hu0uopciou 0cepquto.
Tco, kutu tqv ckevqoq oi cu0cic apcaci vu ckq0ov e q-
icu0cic aou kcivtui apo to ioio cpo tou caiacoou tev eviev.

Htoo
Av o ennee ,ove evoi oe uoi o0ov on zi uopo zoo
euz zov eninov zoo o oo nz,io zuquozo, noo oquozoov
oe ,ove ue zi nzeop zov opiuov ,oviov ovzozoio zze zo
upo oozov zov nzo,ov zuquzov ioonoov on zo enneo zov
,oviov.
Anctq
Hpuuti, otqv apoqocvq apotuoq, oaou ciuc kui OI O
1
I
1
,
ociuc oti: II I
1
I
1
.

Hxooq 36 (XI. 36)
Av zpo zuquozo evoi ovzo,o, qzoq ooviozov ooveq ovo-
zo,o, zze zo nopozzqzenneo ue nzeop ooz zo zpo zuq-
uozo evoi oo (:ioovouo) ue zo ionzeopo nopozzqzenneo
ue nzeop zq uoq ovzo,o uoi ioo,ovio npo zo npozo.

Anctq
Ocepoc tpiu tqutu u, , tctoiu eotc
= (1)
Ocouc vu ociouc oti oo iooeviu aupuqcaiacou, uao tu
oaoiu to apeto cci acupc u,
, kui to octcpo civui ioo-
acupo c acupu , civui ioo-
ovuu.
A uao0coouc oti tu au-
puqcaiacou ABIA - ABIA
kui KAMN - KAMN couv
AB u, AA , AA kui
KA KN KK , cve
! !
4,8 = ,
! !
,< 4, = &< $&
kui
! !
,< 8, = &< '& .
Aao tq ocoq (1) cou-
c:
&'
,8
=
,4
&$
, oquoq tu cu-
0puu tqutu AB, AA civui uvtiotpoe uvuou tev KA, KN.
Ao tu aupuqopuu ABIA , KAMN couv ti evic
! !
4,8 $&' , ioc kui ti acupc tou uvtiotpoe uvuoc, 0u civui
iooovuu (iocuoiku) (apotuoq VI. 14).
Kui oevu c to apoqocvo aopiou, uo tu tqutu AA,
KK oqutiouv ioc evic c ti acupc tev eviev ,
!
$&'
!
4,8 u-
vtiotoiu, oi uaootuoci AA
1
, KK
1
tev oqciev A, K uao tu caiacou
ABIA kui KAMN 0u civui ioc.
Tu aupuqcaiacou oiaov AI kui KM couv iooovuc u-
oci kui iou q. Apu civui iooovuu.
].B.o.

l,puo 36

Hxooq 37 (XI. 37)
Av zooepo zuquozo evoi ovzo,o, zze uoi zo en' oozov uoio
uoi ouoo ovo,pouevo nopozzqzenneo (qzoq zo nopoz-
zqzenneo noo oov zo zuquozo ooz o ouzo,e ouu) e-
voi ovzo,o.
Av zo en zeoopov zuquzov uoio uoi ouoo ovo,pouevo
nopozzqzenneo evoi ovzo,o, zze uoi zo zooepo zuquozo
evoi ovzo,o.

Anctq
o) 1ote oti tu tqutu u, , , o civui uvuou, oquoq ouvi-
otov tqv uvuoiu
H
0
=
. Ocepoc tu ooiu aupuqcaiacou

V
1
,V
2
,V
3
,V
4
c oooc ukc ti u, , , o uvtiotoiu. Ocouc vu
ociouc oti
4
3
2
1
V
V
V
V
= .

l,puo 37
Hpuuti, uo tu V
1
, V
2
civui ooiu, 0u couc
3
2
1
V
V
>
>
?
@
A
A
B
C
= (apo-
tuoq 33). Eaioq, uo tu V
3
kui V
4
civui ooiu, 0u couc
3
V
V
4
3
>
?
@
A
B
C
= .
Au
4
3
2
1
V
V
V
V
3
3
= +
>
?
@
A
B
C
=
>
>
?
@
A
A
B
C
+ = .

) 1ote oti ioci
4
3
2
1
V
V
V
V
= . Totc 0u uaoociouc oti
= .
1ouc kui aui ti ococi
3
V
V
2
1
>
>
?
@
A
A
B
C
= ,
3
V
V
4
3
>
?
@
A
B
C
= . Oaotc
4
3
2
1
V
V
V
V
= +
o
u
o
u
3
3
= +
>
?
@
A
B
C
=
>
>
?
@
A
A
B
C
.
].B.o.

Hxooq 38 (XI. 38)
Av oi nzeop oo onvovzi epov uoo iozouq0ov uoi on
zi zou iz0oov enneo, zze q zouq zov eninov uoi uo
io,ovio zoo uoo iozouovzoi.

Anctq
Ocepoc tu cou K,A,M,N
tev acupev tq copu ABIA cvo
kou kui tu uvtiotoiu cou
K,A,M,N tev acupev tq uac-
vuvti copu tou ABIA. Tu caiacou
tev aupuqopuev KMMK
kui ANNA tcvovtui kutu tqv cu-
0ciu OO. Av O to oqcio toq tq
OO c tq oiuevio AB tou kou,
0u ociouc oti OO OO kui OB
OA.
Tu tpievu OAN, OBA c-
ouv AN BA, NO OA kui
! !
34$ = N , e cvto cvuu tev aupuqev AA, BI, aou tcvo-
vtui uao tqv NA (apotuoq I.29). Apu civui iou , oaotc
! !
$34 = N .
Eaocve:
! ! !
83$ + '38 = =
! ! !
= 83$ + NOA BOA 2op0c,
oaotc tu oqciu A, O, B civui ouvcu0ciuku.
Ooie tu oqciu A, O, B civui ouvcu0ciuku.

l,puo 38

Au to AA civui ioo kui aupuqo apo tu BB, AA, oaotc
tu BB kui AA civui iou kui aupuqu (apotuoq 9) kui uao uuto apo-
katci oti tu AB kui AB civui iou kui aupuqu (apotuoq I.33).
Tu tpievu oiaov OBO kui OAO couv BO AO (e iou
ioev tqutev),
! !
3< '< / = OBO (e cvto cvuu tev aupuqev
AB, AB aou tcvovtui uao tqv BA) kui
! !
'< / 3< = 3/$ (e kutu ko-
puqv), (apotuoq I.15).
Apu civui iou, oaotc couv kui ti uc acupc tou ioc iu
apo iu (apotuoq I.26), oquoq OO OO kui OB OA.
].B.o.

Hxooq 39 (XI. 39)
Av oe o zpi,oviu npouozo uio nopnzeopq po zoo npo-
zoo evoi inzoio on zq oq zoo ezepoo, uoi q onozooq
zq onvovzi ouuq on oozq zqv nopnzeopq po zoo npozoo
evoi oq ue zo yo zoo ezepoo, zze zo npouozo evoi oo
(:ioovouo).

Anctq
Ocepoc tu tpieviku apioutu ABI - ABI kui KAM - KAM,
tctoiu eotc q copu BIIB tou apetou vu civui oiauoiu uao tq uoq
KAM tou octcpou kui to o KK
1
tou octcpou vu civui ioo c tqv
uaootuoq AA
1
tq ukq AA uao tqv copu BIIB tou apetou. Ou u-
aoociouc oti tu tpieviku apioutu civui iooovuu.

l,puo 39

Luaqpevouc tu apioutu uutu oqioupevtu tu oiauoiu
tou aupuqcaiacou ABIL - ABIL kui KAMT - KAMT uvti-
otoiu.
Lto octcpo aupuqcaiacoo q uoq KAMT civui oiauoiu uao
tq uoq KAM tou uvtiotoiou apiouto, upu ioq c tq uoq BIIB
tou apetou aupuqcaiacoou. Tu aupuqcaiacou oiaov couv ioo-
ovuc uoci kui iou q, upu civui iooovuu (apotuoq 31).
Eaocve kui tu upiku apioutu 0u civui iooovuu e iou uu-
tev tev aupuqcaiacoev.
].B.o.

Hopozqpqoq
H oiutaeoq tq apoqocvq apotuoq (apotuoq 39) otu l:oi-
,sio uaooioctui e cq: "Av oo aiouo:o sivoi iooi,p koi :o /vo /,si
oop aoopoyouuo svc :o oo :iycvo, koi sivoi :o aoopo-
youuo oiaooio oao :o :iycvo, :o:s :o aiouo:o sivoi ioo".
Oe cvu apiou c uoq aupuqopuo civui aupuqc-
aiacoo. 1toi uivctui vu ioupiouotc to cq. "Av /vo aoopsaias-
oo (: to apeto apiou) /,si oop oiaooio oao :p oop :oo os:soo :i-
ycviko aiouo:o koi :o oo aiouo:o sivoi iooi,p, :o:s 0o sivoi ioo".
Eivui oe apouvc oti cvu tctoio aupuqcaiacoo civui oiauoio uao
to octcpo tpieviko apiou.
Iiu tqv uaouq iu tctoiu aupuvoqoq, caic0qkc q apoq-
ocvq oiutaeoq.

7. Lto oxq cxqoq xev ntoxev

7.1 To "q oxotctec" xq 0ceo xov ykov

Lti apotuoci 28 cpi 39 uvucp0qkuc ocoov uaokciotiku
oc otcpcu aou civui aupuqcaiacou kui q okpioq uutev tev oqu-
tev civc pqoioaoievtu oiuoikuoic oiucpioq q ouaqpeoq, c
uaotccou vu aopoc vu iuc iu iooovuu oqutu.
Tu iooovuu oqutu (aqv tev aupuqcaiacoev) oto epo
aopci vu qv civui auvtu ioooiuepioiu. Xpqoioaoievtu tq 0c-
cieoq auputqpqoq tou Cauchy, oti ku0c kupto aocopo aopci vu
oiuipc0ci oc tctpucopu tu oaoiu couv iu kopuq koivq kui oi uaooiac

kopuc civui kopuc tou upiko aocopou, ku0c aocopo oiucpi-
ctui oc tctpucopu. Tu iooovuu aocopu aopov oe vu oiuc-
pio0ov otov uuto upi0o tctpucopev aou aopov vu uvtiotoiq0ov,
eotc vu oqioupovtui cq tctpucopev aou vu couv iooovuc u-
oci kui iou q!
Ltoicieoe aopci vu uaooci0ci oti iu oo aocopu, c oic-
opc evic u
1
,. . .,u
n
},
1
, . . . ,
n
} , aou civui iooouaqpeoiu (q
ioooiuepioiu) uaupouv ukcpuioi p
1
, . . . ,p
n
, q
1
, . . . ,q
n
, p, p , q, q
tctoioi, eotc vu ioci q ocoq:
p
1
u
1
+ . . . + p
n
u
n
+ (p + 2p) a q
1
1
+ . . . + q
m

m
+ (q + 2q) a.
Av oiaov uaupouv aocopu iooovuu (ioev okev) iu tu
oaoiu uutq q ocoq ocv ioci, uutu ocv aopci vu civui ioooiuepioiu
(q iooouaqpeoiu). Eaocve, q 0cepiu tou okou oto epo auci vu
civui otoicieoq. Auto ukpie uaoocikvci to ukoou0o 0cepqu:

Oceqo (Dehn, 1902).
1vo uovoviu zezpepo uoi vo ioovouo (ooo ,uoo) npo
ooz uo ev unope vo evoi oze iooioopoiuo oze ioooo-
unzqpooiuo.

Lvxoq oktoyqoq xq Anctq.
Av 0 civui q oicopq eviu tou tctpucopou, uo q eviu tou k-
ou civui ioq c a/2, q uvukuiu ouv0qkq puctui:
I
=
= < + +
6
1 i
a ) p 2 (p 0 p
i
( )a q 2 q
2
a
q
12
1 i
i
I
=
< + +
>
?
@
A
B
C

Aao tq ocoq uutq apokatci oti: r0 sa (oaou r,s apetoi ctu-
tou ukcpuioi). Oe, ouv0
3
1
kui, oae aopci vu uaooci0ci, ocv
uaupouv ukcpuioi r, s tctoioi eotc r toouv
>
?
@
A
B
C
3
1
= sa.

7.2 Hooqcnnco kot koxookcvooxtk noqoxo

H apotuoq 33 uaotcci iu to
epo tqv uvtiotoiq tq apotuoq VI.
23, oaou uaoocikvctui oti "o oyo
:cv suoocv oo ouoicv aoopo-
youucv sivoi ioo us :o :s:oycvo :oo
oyoo ouoio:p:o".
Etoi, kutu tq ctuuoq uao to
caiacoo oto epo kui uao to cuoov
otov oko, uvuiuctui q ovuq tou
oou kutu cvu (uao oo oc tpiu). O-
e, oae toviotqkc kui oto cioue-
iko oqcieu, q oq kutuotuoq oto
epo civui acpioootcpo ov0ctq.
Miu acpiateoq aou octictui c tqv apotuoq 34 cci e cq:
Lto iio VI kui ucoe ctu tqv apotuoq 23 ti0ctui kui vctui
to cq apoqu (apotuoq VI. 25).
"No ko:ooksooo0si saiasoo so0youuo o,puo ouoio ao koaoio
oo0/v koi iosuooiko ao koaoio oo".
Ltou Hu0uopciou uaooioctui q oiuaioteoq oti, uv oo0ci cvu
tctpuevo acupu u, totc civui ouvutov vu kutuokcuuo0ci c kuvovu
kui oiuqtq cvu vco tctpuevo oiauoiou cuoo (o. 7.2u). Aoiku,
cacioq oi Hu0uopcioi uooovtuv kui c tq cctq otcpcev, civui ai-
0uvo vu c0couv to uvuoo apoqu kui iu tov uo.To apoqu
uuto cuiu civui cioikq acpiateoq tq uauitqoq: "No ko:ooksooo0si
o:sso aoopsaiasoo ouoio ao koaoio oo0/v koi iooo oykoo ao
koaoio oo", aou 0u uaotcooc kui tq uoiooikq cacktuoq tq apo-
tuoq VI. 25 oto epo.
H oq uuto tou apoquto ocv civui ucoq, oae tou uvti-
otoiou apoquto tq Eaiacooctpiu, kui oi ucauqc apooau-
0cic kui uaotuic ooqqouv otq oqioupiu 0pev iu tqv uitiu aou
oqiopqoc uuto to apoqu iu tov ko.
"Aoci" iu to oiauoiuoo tou kou oo0qkuv uao aoo ce-
ctpc tq upuiotqtu, tou Mcouievu, kui tev Ncev povev. Kutu po-
vooikq ocipu uvucpovtui oci : tou Iaaokputou, tou Aptu, tou
Euooou, tou Mcvuiou, tou Hutevu, tou Eputoo0cvou, tou Nikoq-
oou, tou Aaoeviou, tou Aiokcou, tou 1pevo, tou Huaaou, tou
Descartes, tou Longchamps kui uev.

l,puo 7.2o

O Eutokio (6
o
.X. uievu), aou uaqpc ooiuotq tev cpev
tou Apiqoq, uvucpci upkctc uao ti oci tev upuiev Eqvev
cectpev iu to apoqu tou oiauoiuoo tou kou. Ltqv iotopikq
uutq aupouoiuoq tev ocev, otuv o Eutokio iu iu tq oq tou
Eputoo0cvou (276-195 a.X.), uvucpci oti o Eputoo0cvq uacuc tq
oq tou otov uoiiu tq Aiatou Htocuio tov III (246 a.X.), c
caiotoq otqv oaoiu aupouoiuoc kui ti oiuopc ckooc tq cvvqoq
tou apoquto. Kutu iu ckooq o Miveu cic oiutuci vu kutu-
okcuuo0ci iu to io tou "Iuko" tuo oquto kou. Otuv oe
tov cioc, ckpivc oti "p:ov ao uiko yio /vo ooiio" kui oictuc vu
oiauoiuo0ci. Kutu uq ckooq cvu pqoo cacuc otou kutoikou
tq vqoou Aqou vu oiauoiuoouv cvu kuiko eo tou 0co Aaoe-
vu, c ou kui to apoqu aqpc tqv ovouoiu Aqzio Hpzquo.
Ltq opovq u0qutikq oiutaeoq, uuto aou ouvocctui c to
Apio Hopuo civui q oiuaioteoq oti: O oyo oo kcv sivoi ioo us
:ov ko :oo oyoo oo okucv :oo, aou apokatci ucou uao tqv apo-
tuoq XI.33.
Oc oi oci tou "Apioo aopuo:o" oto acpuou tou po-
vou ouoiuotiku otqpiovtuv otqv apetq iocu aou coeoc o Iaaokputq o
Xio. Levu c tov Iaaokputq, to apoqu tou uaooioo tq
acupu kou aou 0u cci oiauoio oko uao cvu oo0cvtu ko acu-
pu u, uvuctui otqv cpcoq kui kutuokcuq oo coev uvuoev oc
ouvcq uvuoiu, ctu tev oo oo0cvtev cc0ev u kui 2u.
Oi oci apoouvutoio0qkuv uotc otqv "upi0qtikq" q "q-
uvikq" kutuokcuq tev oo coev uvuoev x kui y kui uotc otqv
"uvuutikq", c tq pqoq tev toev oo kuaev.
H oq oe aou cvupovici tqv uaotqtu c tq opovq uvuu-
tikq veoq tev kuaev octictui c tq oiaq oq aou coeoc o Mc-
vuio (u0qtq tou Euooou kui tou Hutevu). O Eutokio uvucpci oti
o Mcvuio cactuc tq oq c tq oq0ciu oo oiuopctikev kutuokcuev,
aou uoiovtui oti kevikc toc (aupuoq kui uacpoq).
Mc opovq opooiu, q cioeoq x
2
2u
3
apokatci, uv uao tq
ouvcq uvuoiu
2u
y
y
x
x
u
= = 0cepqoouc ti iootqtc
y
x
x
u
= kui
2
y
y
x
= kui ivci uauoiq tou y ctu tev oo ococev uy = x
2
kui
2ux = y
2
aou apokatouv uao uutc.

1toi, uao tq opq
2
y
y
x
x
= = tou Iaaokputq couc iooovuu tu

ukoou0u oo ouotqutu:

(1)
2x y
y x
2
2
J
K
L
=
=
kui (2)
2 xy
y x
2
2
J
K
L
=
=

Eaocve, oi oo cooi uvuooi opoi x kui y, ctu tev cc-
0ev u kui 2u, aopov vu apokouv e "oi ouvtctucvc" tou oq-
ciou toq, citc tev oo aupuoev (ootqu (1)), citc tq aupuoq
kui tq uacpoq (ootqu (2)).

l,puo 7.2
Oae cci uvuutiku uvucp0ci kui ooiuo0ci, q cectpikq
kutuokcuq uutev tev ocev c kuvovu kui oiuqtq civui uovutq.

.
Kcoto 2
BIBAIO XII

Oykot kot
q c0oo xq cvxqoq

1. Etooyeyq

Lto Biio XII oiutuaevovtui kui uaoocikvovtui 18 ouvoiku
apotuoci, tu uoiku ouacpuoutu tev oaoiev couv ouvoatiku e
cq:
Apiku, otqv apotuoq 2, uaoocikvctui oti oo kkoi civui uvu-
ooi tev tctpuevev tev oiuctpev tou. A oqcie0ci oti, c oqc-
pivo opou, to cuoov kkou uuvctui e opio tq ukoou0iu
(
2
E ), aou opiouv tu cuou tev ccpucvev otov kko kuvovi-
kev aouevev c 2
n
acupc.
Ltq ouvcciu uaoocikvctui oti oo aupuioc (tpievikc upiku
kui ctu aouevikc) c iou q civui uvuoc tev uocev tou, iu
vu kutuqouc otqv apotuoq 7, uao oaou apokatci to 0ccieoc
ouacpuou, oevu c to oaoio ku0c tpieviko apiou oiuipcitui oc
tpci ioc (iooovuc) tpievikc aupuioc. 1toi, o oo oo ooiev
tpievikev aupuioev uvuctui oc oo aupuqcaiacoev, iu vu u-
aooci0ci tciku oti iootui c tov ko tou oou tev oooev uk-
ev tou (apotuoq 8).

Akoou0ci q okpioq kevou kui kuivopou c ioc uoci kui
iou q. Apiku uaoocikvctui oti, uv oo kevoi (q kivopoi) couv i-
ou q, totc civui uvuooi tev uocev tou (apotuoq 11). Akoo0e
uaoocikvctui oti oo ooioi kevoi (q kivopoi) civui uvuooi tev
kev tev oiuctpev tev uocev tou (apotuoq 12).
Mc uvuopu otqv iootqtu tev oev kutu tov Eooo, uaooci-
kvctui oti oo kivopoi (q kevoi) c ioc uoci civui uvuooi tev
uev tou, kutuqovtu oto oti oo iooi kivopoi (q kevoi) couv
q uvtiotpoe uvuou tev uocev tou uu kui uvtiotpou (apo-
tuoq 15).
Mc oqcpivo opou, o oko V cvo kuivopou kui o oko V,
cvo kevou uuvovtui e opiu tev ukoou0iev (
n
2
V ) kui (
n
2
V
<
), aou
opiovtui uao tou okou tev ccpucvev apioutev kui aoupu-
ioev uvtiotoie, c uoci kuvoviku aoevu c 2
n
acupc.
To kcuuio tccievci c tqv apotuoq 18, otqv oaoiu uaoocikv-
ctui oti oo ouipc civui uvuoc tev kev tev oiuctpev tou. Tq
uaoociq uutq apoqcitui q upkctu ookoq kui cvoiucpouou apotu-
oq 17, oevu c tqv oaoiu, uv oo0ov oo ookcvtpc ouipc, totc
uaupci ouvutotqtu vu cpuouc otq cuq ouipu aocopo aou
vu qv cci koivu oqciu c tq ikpq ouipu.

2. H c0oo xq cvxqoq

Lto iio XI oi oukpioci aupuqcaiacoev kui apioutev c-
ivuv c uoq tq ouaqpeoq q tqv oiucpioq tev oqutev uutev,
eotc vu apokouv iou otcpcu.
Lto iio XII aupouoiuctui q uvukq vu opio0ci to cuoov
tou kkou c uoq to cuoov aouevou q o oko kuivopou (kui
kevou) c uoq tov oko apiouto (aupuiou). Eaioq aupouoiuctui
q uvukq vu oukpi0ov aupuiou kui apiou aou couv ioc uoci kui
iou q. Lc oc uutc ti acpiateoci kutucouc otqv uio0uu-
otq c0ooo tou Eooou, tq "u/0ooo :p sov:pop".
Oi upuioi 1qvc ciuv ouvcioqtu cocioci tqv cvvoiu tou
opiou kui tou uacipou uao ti uaoociktikc tou oiuoikuoic. Auto cic
e uaotccou vu kutucouv oc uio0uuotc cv, uu upkctu
okuatc c0ooou, acpuv tq cvtuaeoiukq apuuti oiuoikuoiu
aou ukoou0oouv iu vu uaoiuotov ck tev apotcpev tqv tiq B ku-

OIKOI KAI H MEOOAOL THL EEANTAHLHL 91
aoiu, kutu kuvovu cectpikq, aoootqtu A, tqv oaoiu apooau0o-
ouv vu uaooioouv.
Buoq uutq tq apooau0ciu apo tqv tcikq uaoociq tq iootq-
tu uaotcci q u/0ooo :p sov:pop, aou cioquc o Eooo, kui c-
upooc c cuipctikq caituiu o Apiqoq, uv kui cviotc c kuaoic
aupuuc.
H c0ooo, c oqcpivq apoocioq cci kutu uoq e cq:
Bpiokouc iu uouou ukoou0iu (u
v
) kui iu 0ivouou ukoou0iu
(
v
), ctoi eotc vu ioouv oi ococi: u
v
M A M
v
, u
v
M B M
v
, N v
E
8 O
kui
v1
u
v1
M
2
1
(
v
u
v
), N v
E
8 O (1)
Lto iio X tev l:oi,sicv uaoocikvctui, c oqcpivo opou
oiutuaecvq, q cq apotuoq:
Av ,io o ouozoo0e (t
v
), (e
v
) 0eziuov pov ioei: t
v+1
= t
v
- e
v

ue e
v
5
2
t
v
, N v
E
8 O , (qzoq t
v+1
M
2
1
t
v
, Nv
E
8 O ), zze N c > 0 ,
Pp O N zzoio, ooze vo ioei t
p
c.
Mc uoq uutq tqv apotuoq, apouve veotq otov Eooo, q
ocoq (1) u ooqci otq oiuaioteoq oti: N c > 0, PpON
*
, tctoio eotc
vu ioci:
p
- u
p
c. Au,
u
v
M A M
v
kui u
v
M B M
v
N v
E
8 O +
+ u
v
-
v
M A - B M
v
- u
v
, N v
E
8 O +
+ B - A M
v
- u
v
, N v
E
8 O
Av oiaov octoc oti A G B, totc iu c
2
B - A
> 0, 0u uaup-
ci pON
*
tctoio, eotc B - A M
p
u
p
<
2
B - A
, oaotc B - A <
<
2
B - A
, oquoq B - A 0, aou civui utoao. Apu 0u couc A B.

3. Lyktoq o kkev
Otuv otu caocvu uvucpouotc oc u0poiou, oiuopu q oo
oo oqutev L
1
, L
2
(ouoiku L
1
L
2
, L
1
6 L
2
,
L
L
1
2
), c opovq
opooiu cvvooc u0poiou, oiuopu q oo tev uvtiotoiev cu-
oev, uv tu oqutu civui caiacou, q tev uvtiotoiev okev, uv civui
otcpcu oqutu.
Avuoq auputqpqoq ioci kui iu tqv iootqtu L
1
L
2
, cve c
vL
1
0u cvvooc to u0poiou v-opev, (L
1
L
1
. . . L
1
), iu ku0c vOIN
*
.
Icvikotcpu, c =L
1
, OIR cvvooc to .(L
1
), oaou (L
1
) civui to cu-
oov q o oko tou uvtiotoiou oquto.
Ltu auioiu uutu q apotuoq aou ukoou0ci ocici vu cvvoq0ci
e cq:
"O oyo :cv suoocv oo ouoicv aooycvcv syysyouu/vcv os
kkoo ioo:oi us :o oyo :cv :s:oycvcv :cv oiou/:cv :cv kkcv
oo:cv".

Hxooq 1 (XII. 1)
Ao uoio noz,ovo e,,e,pouuvo oe uuzoo evoi ovzo,o
zov zezpo,ovov zov iouzpov zov uuzov oozov.

Anctq
A 0cepqoouc, iu aupuociu, tu ccpucvu ooiu acvtu-
evu ABIAE, ABIAE otou kkou (O,p) kui (O,p) uvtiotoiu,

l,puo 1

c ooou cq kopuev (A, A), (B, B), (I, I), (A, A), (E, E) kui
ti uvtiotoic oiuctpou BM, BM. Ou uaooci0ci oti
( )
( )
2
2
M B
BM
< <
=
(ABIAE)
(ABIAE)

Ao
!
BAE =
!
< < <
E A B kui
AB
AE
=
AB
AE
(VI, opioo 1), tu tpievu
ABE, ABE 0u civui iooeviu (apotuoq VI. 6). Apu
!
AEB =
!
< < <
B E A .
Au
!
AEB =
!
AMB kui
!
< < <
B E A =
!
< < <
B M A , oioti uivouv oc iou
tou. Eivui oc kui
!
BAM =
!
< < <
M A B (=90
o
). Tu tpievu oiaov ABM,
ABM civui iooeviu, oaotc
BM
BM
=
AB
AB
(apotuoq VI. 4).
Oe
BM
BM
C
B
A
@
?
>
2
=
(BM)
(BM)
2
2
kui
AB
AB
C
B
A
@
?
>
2
=
(ABIAE)
(ABIAE)
(apotu-
oq VI. 20). Apu
( )
( )
2
2
M B
BM
< <
=
(ABIAE)
(ABIAE)
.
Avuoq uaoociq aopci vu ivci otuv tu aoevu couv o-
aoiooqaotc upi0o acupev.
].B.o.

Hxooq 2 (XII. 2)
Ao uuzoi evoi ovzo,oi zov zezpo,ovov zov iouzpov zoo.

Anctq
Ocepoc tou kkou K, K c uktivc p, p kui kcvtpu O, O
uvtiotoiu.
Apkci vu ociouc oti
K
K
=
2
p
p
>
>
?
@
A
A
B
C
.
1ote
K
K
G
p
p
C
B
A
@
?
>
2
. Totc
p
p
C
B
A
@
?
>
2
=
K
S
oaou S G K.


l,puo 2
o) 1ote upiku S < K.
Av 0cepqoouc tov upi0o, c K6 S > 0 totc, oevu c to
Icviko Aqu aou uvucpctui oto tco tq uaoociq, 0u uaupci ao-
evo E
v
ccpucvo otov kko K tctoio, eotc, K E
v
c. Apu
K E
v
K S, oaotc
E
v
> S (1) ,
Av E
v
civui to uvtiotoio kuvoviko aoevo to ccpucvo
otov kko K, totc, oe tq apotuoq 1, 0u couc
E
E
v
v <
=
p
p
C
B
A
@
?
>
2
=
K
S
.
Oe ioci
S
Ev <
=
K
Ev
> 1, uo K > E
v
. Apu 0u couc
S > E
v
(2)
Oi ococi (1), (2) ooqov oc utoao, oquoq ocv aopci vu ioci
S < K.
) 1ote tepu oti S > K. Totc uao tq ocoq
p
p
C
B
A
@
?
>
2
=
K
S
auip-
vouc
2
p
p
>
>
?
@
A
A
B
C
=
S
K
. Av ioci
S
K
=
K
T
, totc 0u couc kui
K
T
=
S
K<
>1,
uo S > K. Apu K > T (cac kui to qu aou ukoou0ci). Eaocve
p
p
C
B
A
@
?
>
2
=
T
K
c T K.

To apoqu oiaov uvuctui otqv apoqocvq acpiateoq (u)
kui c tou ioiou oae apiv ouoioo ooqci oti ococi E
v
> T
kui E
v
T, aou uvtiuokouv. Eaocve ocv aopci vu ioci S > K.
Tciku, ioci S K, oaotc
K
K
=
p
p
C
B
A
@
?
>
2
.
].B.o.

Aqo
Av vo opo S evoi ue,ozzepo ev uuzoo K, zze o z,o
zoo S npo vov zzo uuzo K evoi oo ue zo z,o zoo K npo
vo opo 1 uiupzepo zoo uuzoo K. Aqzoq, ov S > K uoi
$
<
=
, zze 1 < K.

Hpuuti, uao tqv
S
K<
=
K
T
apokatci
< K
T
=
S
K
> 1, uo S > K.
Apu T < K.

Hopozqpqoq. Mc iu iooovuq oiutaeoq to qu uuto cci
e cq:
"Av S > K, :o:s oksi vo osioous o:i oao,si ,cio T < K' :/:oio,
co:s
$
<
=
".
Hpuuti, couc
S
K
> 1 kui
S
K

K
K
<
=
< K
T
, oaou T
< K
.
Apu
< K
T
>1, oaotc Tu K kui uo
S
K
=
< K
T
, 0u couc kui
S
K<
=
K
T
.

Kutu tqv uaoociq tq apotuoq 3 uoiko poo cauic q ukoou-
0q 0ccieoq auputqpqoq, aou 0u uvucpctui otu caocvu e Ieviu
Aquuo.

Icvtk Aqo:
Av o0e opi0u e > b uoi uuzo K, zze onpei e,,e,pouuvo
uovoviu v-,ovo E
v
, ooze q ioop zoo on zov uuzo vo evoi
uiupzepq zoo e, qzoq K - E
v
< e.

Anctq
Ocepoc to ccpucvo tctpuevo ABIA kui to acpicpu-
cvo tctpuevo EZHO otov kko K. Hpouve to ABIA civui ioo c
to ioo tou EZHO, upu cutcpo uao
K
2
. Auipevtu oiaov uao
tov kko to tctpuevo ABIA, ouoiuotiku tou uuipoc aoootqtu
cutcpq uao to
K
2
.
Av 0cepqoouc to ccpu-
cvo kuvoviko oktuevo
AMBNIPALA kui to uuipcoouc
uao tov kko, totc uuipoc ou-
oiuotiku uao to apoqocvo uao-
oiao, u
1
= K - E
4
, tu tpievu
AMB, BNI, IPA, ALA.
Oe, oqutiovtu to au-
puqopuo AABB c tqv
acupu AB cuatocvq tou k-
kou oto M, auputqpoc oti to
tpievo civui ioo c to ioo tou
aupuqopuou ABBA, kutu
ouvcaciu cutcpo uao to kuki-
ko tqu AMBA.
Auipevtu oiaov tu tpievu MAB, NBI, PIA, LAA uao to
uaooiao, u
1
, uuipoc aoootqtu cutcpq uao to ioo tou u
1
kui
piokouc uaooiao u
2
K - E
8
. H oiuoikuoiu uutq, oevu c tqv
apotuoq X.1, 0u u ooqqoci oc uaooiao u
K - E
2
1
ikpotcpo
uao tov upi0o c.

l,puo 2.1

4. Lto oxo 0ceqo oyktoq kkev.

Ltu l:oi,sio tou Eukcioq kui otqv apotuoq 2 aou apoqq0qkc,
iu vu uaooci0ci q ocoq
2
p
p
K
K
>
>
?
@
A
A
B
C
<
=
<
, uaooci0qkc oti oi ococi
2
p
p
K
K
>
>
?
@
A
A
B
C
<
<
<
kui
2
p
p
K
K
>
>
?
@
A
A
B
C
<
>
<
ooqov oc utoao.
H aopciu oe tq uaoociq aou ukoou0citui otqv acpiateoq
2
p
p
K
K
>
>
?
@
A
A
B
C
<
<
<
kui uoictui oto Aqu, ocv aopci vu cupootci otqv
acpiateoq
2
p
p
K
K
>
>
?
@
A
A
B
C
<
>
<
.
Iiu to oo uuto, q ocoq
2
p
p
K
K
>
>
?
@
A
A
B
C
<
>
<
puctui e
2
p
p
K
K
>
>
?
@
A
A
B
C
<
<
<

kui totc cupoctui q oiuoikuoiu aou ukoou0q0qkc auve oto kko
K uvti tou K.
H coqq uutq uaouq tq cu0ciu uaoociq iu tqv acpiate-
oq
2
p
p
K
K
>
>
?
@
A
A
B
C
<
>
<
apokucoc oiuopu ooiu, uvukuovtu tov Heath vu
apotuci cvu ukou qu, apokcicvou vu caitci cu0ciu uaoociq. To
qu aou ciaci ivctui ucou uvcpo, uv uvuveoouc apoocktiku
tqv apoqocvq acpiateoq
2
p
p
K
K
>
>
?
@
A
A
B
C
<
<
<
.
Ekci 0couc
S
K
p
p
2
=
>
>
?
@
A
A
B
C
<
, oaotc K> S kui oiuaioteouc oti
uaupci v O N eotc
K- E
v
K- S (1)
oquoq E
v
> S.

Tepu couc
2
p
p
K
K
>
>
?
@
A
A
B
C
<
>
<
, oaotc uv 0coouc
S
K
p
p
2
=
>
>
?
@
A
A
B
C
<
, 0u ci-
vui S > K. Iiu vu uauci0ci oe to K upkci vu pc0ci ocoq uvuo-
q tq (1), aou 0u cci uoiku tq opq X - K S - K. Eivui oiaov
coo, to X vu aupiotuvci to cuoov kuvoviko aouevou acpic-
pucvou otov kko K.
Av ouoioouc c E
v
, E
v
tu cuou tev kuvovikev aouevev
aou civui acpicpucvu otou kkou K, K, totc to qu oto oaoio 0u
kutuouc kui to oaoio apuuti ckuvc o Heath, civui to cq:
"Iio ko0s s ~ 0 oao,si vON co:s E
v
- K < s, (ov:io:oi,o E
v
'- K'< s)".
H uaoociq tou oe civui aio ookoq uao to apoqocvo Aqu.

l,puo 2.2
Apiku auputqpoc kui aui oti
2
1
E
4
= E
8
< K, oaotc E
4
K
2
1
E
4
.
Ltq ouvcciu couc E
8
- K E
4
- K - (E
4
- E
8
)
Apkci oiaov vu ociouc oti:
E
4
E
8
>
2
K E
4
6
(2)
Hpouve E
4
- K = 4E
x
, E
8
- K = 8E
y
kui E
4
- E
8
= 4 (ABI)
(cac oqu 2.2). Apkci oiaov uvti tq (2) vu ociouc oti:
4 (ABI) > 2 E
x
, q 2 (ABI) > E
x
,

q 2 (ABI) > (ABI) 2E
y

q (ABI) > 2 E
y
, q 2(AMI) > 2 E
y
, q (AMI) > E
y
.
Hpuuti, apouve couc IA IM AI kui cacioq tu tpie-
vu AMI, AMI couv koivo o uao to M , 0u ioci
( )
( )
1
AMI
>
'"
&"
=
'7"
, oaotc (AMI) > (AMI) > E
y
.
Evtce uvuou, couc E
16
- K E
8
- K - (E
8
- E
16
) kui ti ococi:
E
8
- E
16
>
2
K E
8
6
k.a. H io tou Aquto civui acov uvcpq.
H uvticteaioq tq acpiateoq
2
p
p
K
K
>
>
?
@
A
A
B
C
<
>
<
, epi uvueq
otqv apoqocvq acpiateoq
2
p
p
K
K
>
>
?
@
A
A
B
C
<
<
<
, aopci vu ivci e cq:
1ote
2
p
p
K
K
>
>
?
@
A
A
B
C
<
>
<
=
S
K
. Totc S > K, oaotc S - K > 0 .
Iiu c S - K 0u uaupci, oevu c to qu, v O N tctoio
eotc: E
v
- K S - K. Apu
E
v
< S (i).
Oe, uo K E
v
, 1
E
K
E
S
S
K
p
p
E
E
v v
2
v
v
< =
<
+ =
>
>
?
@
A
A
B
C
<
>
<
,
Eaocve,
S < E
v
(ii).
Oi ococi (i) , (ii) ooqov oc utoao.
Miu uq uaoociq tq apotuoq 2 civc uao tov Legendre. H u-
oikq iocu tq uaoociq uutq uaupci otu l:oi,sio, iio XII, kutu
tqv uaoociq tou uvtiotoiou 0cepquto iu ouipc (oquoq tou oti
oi okoi oo ouipev civui uvuooi tev kev tev uktivev tou). Ekci
oiaov uaoocikvctui to cq:
"Av oo0ov oo ouoksv:s oois, :o:s oao,si aosoo syys-
youu/vo o:pv sc:sikp ooio, :oo oaoioo oi /os osv /,oov
koivo opusio us :pv soc:sikp ooio".
O Eukcioq ai0uve kutcuc o` uutq tqv caioq, cacioq ukpi-
e q cupoq uvtiotoiev oiuoikuoiev c uutc tq uaoociq tq

apotuoq 2, 0u uauitooc cpuq (oc ouipu) kuvovikev aoucopev.
Oe, ocv uaupci ouvutotqtu cpuq uacipev kuvovikev aoucopev
oc ouipu, uo tu kuvoviku aocopu civui ovo acvtc (tctpucopo, c-
ucopo, oktucopo, oeockucopo kui cikooucopo).
O Legendre oiaov uacocic oti iu oo ookcvtpou kkou i-
oci to cq:
"Yao,si kovoviko aoycvo syysyouu/vo o:o usyoo kko aoo
ioks:oi sk:o :oo uiko, ko0c koi kovoviko aoycvo asiys-
youu/vo o:o uiko kko aoo ioks:oi sv:o :oo usyooo".
H kuvovikotqtu cuiu tev aouevev civui cuvc oti ocv ci-
vui uaupuitqtq. Apkci vu 0cepqoouc uvtiotoiu c uutu ooiu ao-
evu oto octcpo kko (K) kutu tov uaokcioo tq acpiateoq
2
p
p
K
K
>
>
?
@
A
A
B
C
<
G
<
.
H uaoociq tou Legendre cci acov e cq: 1ote
K
K
p
p
K
K
2
<
< <
=
>
>
?
@
A
A
B
C
<
>
<
(3) , oaotc K > K .
Eoe, oc uvti0coq c tov Eukcioq o Legndre occtui oti to K
civui cuoov kkou, cve o Eukcioq to 0cepci tuuio cuoov S.
To uv aopci vu kutuokcuuotci kko K ookcvtpo tou K c
uktivu p p aou vu ikuvoaoici tqv ocoq (3), ocv civui ku0oou apo-
uvc.
l,puo 2.3

Av octoc oiaov tqv aupq cvo tctoiou kkou K cvto
tou K, aopoc vu 0cepqoouc kuvoviko aoevo A
1
A
2
. . . A
v
cc-
pucvo otov K ckto tou K kui to ooio tou kuvoviko aoevo
A
1
A
2
. . . A
v
ccpucvo otov kko K.
l,puo 2.4

Av E
v
, E
v
tu uvtiotoiu cuou tou, 0u couc:
K
K
p
p
E
E
2
v
v
<
< <
=
>
>
?
@
A
A
B
C
<
=
<
(4)
Au E
v
K
,<
>
<
+
1
E
1
v
kui uo E
v
> K, 0u couc:
K
K E
v
<
< <
>
#<
Q
(5).
Oi ococi (4), (5) ooqov oc utoao.
1ote tepu
K
K
p
p
K
K
2
<
< <
=
>
>
?
@
A
A
B
C
<
<
<
. Totc K > K.
Ocepoc oiaov kko K ookcvtpo tou K c uktivu p.
Totc p> p.
Ocepoc kuvoviko aoevo E
v
A
1
A
2
. . . A
v
acpicpucvo
otov K kui ckto tou K kui to ooio tou kuvoviko aoevo E
v

A
1
A
2
. . . A
v
acpicpucvo otov kko K.

l,puo 2.5
Totc 0u couc
K
K
p
p
E
E
2
v
v
<
< <
=
>
>
?
@
A
A
B
C
<
= (6)
Au E
v
> K
,<
<
#<
+
Q
1 1
kui E
v
K, oaotc
K
K
v
<
< <
<
#<
#
Q
(7).
Oi ococi (6), (7) ooqov oc utoao.
Tciku oiaov 0u couc
2
p
p
K
K
>
>
?
@
A
A
B
C
<
=
<
.

5. Ttyevtkc nvoc kot nooxo

Hxooq 3 (XII. 3)
K0e zpi,oviuq nopouo ioipezoi oe o nopoue oe uoi
uoie npo zqv opiuq uoi oe oo oo (:ioovouo) npouozo.
1o 0poiouo zov o oozov npiouzov onepovei zo uio zq
nopouo.

Anctq
Ocepoc tu cou
E, Z, H, O, K, A tev ukev
AB, BI, IA, AA, AB, AI
tq aupuiou A. ABI.
Hpouve, EO // AB
kui OK // AB (apotuoq
VI.2). To OEBK civui oi-
aov aupuqopuo, o-
aotc (apotuoq I. 34) OK
EB EA. Eivui oe
OA OA kui
!
OAE=
!
AOK
(apotuoq I.29), oaotc tu
tpievu AEO, OKA civui
iou. Iiu tov ioio oo civui
iou kui tu tpievu AOH, OAA. Oi evic
!
HOE ,
!
AAK, couv acupc
aupuqc upu civui ioc (apotuoq XI.10). Eivui oe kui AA OH,
AK OE, oaotc tu tpievu HOE, AAK civui iou (apotuoq I. 4)
Iiu tov ioio oo 0u civui iou kui tu tpievu AHE, OAK. H au-
puiou oiaov O.AHE civui ioq kui ooiu c tqv aupuiou A.OAK
(apotuoq XI.10). Oi otcpcc evic tou civui apouve ioc, uo
oqutiovtui uao aupuqu caiacou.
Ao OK // AB, tu tpievu AAB, AOK civui iooeviu (apotuoq
I. 29), upu civui ooiu (VI, opioo 1).
Iiu tov ioio oo civui ooiu tu tpievu ABI, AAK, ku0e kui tu
AAI, AOA.
Eaioq oi evic
!
BAI,
!
KOA civui ioc, uo couv acupc au-
puqc.
Eivui oe kui
AB
AI
=
2OK
2OA
=
OK
OA
, oaotc tu tpievu ABI, OKA
civui ooiu (apotuoq VI. 6).
H aupuiou oiaov A. ABI civui ooiu apo tqv A.OAK, upu kui
apo tqv O.AHE . Oi otcpcc evic tou civui apouve ioc, uo
oqutiovtui aupuqu caiacou.
Ao BZ ZI, to aupuqopuo EBZH civui oiauoio uao
to tpievo HZI (apotuoq I. 41)

l,puo 3

Av 0cepqoouc kui to aupuqopuo OKAT, totc to apiou
OHE.KZB civui to ioo tou apiouto HEOT.ZBKA EBZH.OKAT,
upu ioo c to apiou HIZ . OKA (apotuoq XI. 39). Hpouve, to api-
ou OHE . KZB civui cutcpo uao tqv aupuiou K. EBZ, aou civui
ioq c tqv aupuiou O. AHE, uo couv ti copc tou ioc iu apo
iu, ku0e kui ti otcpcc evic tou.
Etoi oiaov q aupuiou A. ABI oiuipc0qkc oc oo aupuioc
A.OAK, O.AHE ioc kui ooic apo tqv upikq kui otu oo iooovuu
apioutu OHE.KZB, HIZ.OAK.
Ao ku0c cvu uao uutu tu apioutu civui cutcpo uao ku0c
aupuiou, tu oo apioutu ui uacpuivouv ti oo aupuioc, upu
uacpuivouv to ioo tq upikq aupuiou.
].B.o.

Aqo
Av 0eopqoooue uoi ezepq nopouo iooyq zq A.ABI, zqv
A.ABI, uoi 0eopqoooue zo ovzozoio uoo zov ouuov zq,
zze zo npouozo KAO - ZIH uoi KAO- ZIH evoi ovzo,o
zov oeov ABI uoi ABI.

Anctq
Ao to caiacoo KAO oi-
otoci tqv AA kui civui aupu-
qo otq uoq ABI, 0u oioto-
ci kui to o AA
1
tq aupui-
ou A.ABI. Ooie, to KAO
0u oiotoci to o AA
1
tq
aupuiou A.ABI.
Tu apioutu oiaov
KAO-ZIH kui KAO- ZIH
0u civui iooq, ku0e kui tu
aupuqcaiacou KATO-BZHE
kui KATO- BZHE. Tu
aupuqcaiacou oiaov uutu
0u civui uvuou tev uocev
KATO kui KATO, aou civui oiauoic tev KAO kui KAO uvti-
otoiu. Au kui tu aupuqcaiacou uutu civui oiauoiu tev apiou-
tev KAO - ZIH kui KAO- ZIH uvtiotoiu.

l,puo 4.1

Apu ioci
( )
( )
( )
( ) O A K 2
KAO 2
H I Z O A K 2
ZIH - KAO 2
< < <
=
< < < 6 < < <
, oaotc couc

( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
=
< < <
=
< < <
=
< < < 6 < < <
H I Z
ZIH
O A K
KAO
H I Z O A K
ZIH - KAO

=
( )
( )
( )
( ) I B A
ABI
I B A
4
1
ABI
4
1
< < <
=
< < <
.

Hxooq 4 (XII. 4)
1o 0poiouo zov npiouzov ozo onoo ioip0que q nopouo
A.ABI uoi zo 0poiouo zov npiouzov ozo onoo ioip0que q
iooyq zq nopouo A. ABI, ouovo ue zqv npzooq 3
uoi zo Aquuo noo zqv ouozo0qoe, evoi ovzo,o zov oeov
zoo.

Anctq
Oae ociuc, tu apioutu EHO - BZK kui EHO- BZK civui
uvtiotoie iou c tu apioutu KAO - ZIH kui KAO- ZIH (c-
ac oqu 4.1).
Ao oe ioci
( )
( )
( )
( ) I B A
ABI
H I Z O A K
ZIH - KAO
< < <
=
< < < 6 < < <
, 0u civui kui
( )
( )
( )
( ) I B A
ABI
K Z B O H E
BZK - EHO
< < <
=
< < < 6 < < <
.

Eaocve couc

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) I B A
ABI
K Z B O H E H I Z O A K
BZK EHO ZIH - KAO
< < <
=
< < < 6 < < < + < < < 6 < < <
6 +
.

Hxooq 5 (XII. 5)
Av o zpi,oviu nopoue oov oo yq, zze evoi ovzo,e
zov oeov zoo.

Anctq
Luoiouc c V, V ti iooci tpievikc aupuioc A. ABI
kui A. ABI kui c b, b ti uoci otou ABI, ABI uvtiotoiu.
Ocouc vu ociouc oti:
b
b
V
V
<
=
<
.

l,puo 5
1ote oti civui
b
b
V
V
<
G
<
. Totc 0u ioci
X
V
b
b
=
<
c V X
< G .

o) Apiku uao0ctouc oti: X < V. Totc, oae ociuc, uuipe-
vtu uao tqv aupuiou V oo apioutu iou c to HIZ6OAK, u-
uipoc ouoiuotiku aoootqtu cutcpq uao .
2
V<
Av cupooouc
tqv ioiu oiuoikuoiu oti aupuioc O.AHE kui A.OKA aou uac-
civuv, totc 0u uuipcoouc uao uutc aoootqtu cutcpq uao to
ioo tou.
Eaocve, oevu c to Icviko Aqu (aou oiutuae0qkc ctu
tqv apotuoq 2), iu c V X > 0 kui iu P
1
, P
2
, . . . , P
v

tu apiou-
tu aou uuipcouc uao tqv V, 0u uaupci kuaoio uaooiao
V (P
1
+ P
2
+ . . . + P
v
) < c.

Aquoq V 6 (P
1
P
2
. . . . . P
v
) V 6 X , upu
X < P
1
+ P
2
+ . . . . .+ P
v

(1)
Av P
1
, P
2
, . . . , P
v
civui tu uvtiotoiu apioutu aou uuipoc
uao tqv V, totc tu apioutu P
k
, P
k
, k 1, 2 , . . ., v, aou civui tpievi-
ku kui couv uoci ooic c ti b, b, couv iou q, oaotc 0u ioci
b
b
<
=
;<
;
R
R
, iu k 1, 2, . . . ,v.
1toi, tciku 0u couc:
b
b
P
P
P
P
P
P
v
v
2
2
1
1
<
=
<
= =
<
=
<
. Apu 0u civui kui
X
V
b
b
2 1
2 1
=
<
=
;< + + ;< + ;<
; + + ; + ;
Q
Q
, oaotc
v 2 1
P P P
X
< + + < + <
=
=
v 2 1
P P P
V
+ + +
>1,
uo V > P
1
P
2
. . . P
v
.
Eaocve 0u ioci q ocoq
X > P
1
P
2
. . . P
v
(2)
Oi ococi (1), (2) oe ooqov oc utoao, upu ocv aopci vu i-
oci X < V.

) 1ote X > V . Totc
V
X
b
b
=
<
. Av
T
V
V
X
<
= , totc
V
X
T
V
<
= > 1,
uo X > V . Apu V > T.
Eaocve
:
<
=
<
V
b
b
c T V. To apoqu oiaov uvuctui otqv
apoqocvq acpiateoq kui ooqci oti ococi T P
1
P
2
. . . P
v

kui T > P
1
P
2
. . . P
v
, oi oaoic uvtiuokouv. Eaocve ocv ao-
pci vu ioci otc q ocoq X > V.
Apu couc
V
V
b
b
<
=
<
. Hpcaci oiaov vu ioci X V.
].B.o.

Hxooq 6 (XII. 6)
Ao iooye nopoue ue oei noz,ovo evoi ovzo,e zov
oeov zoo.
Anctq
A 0cepqoouc, iu aupuociu, ti iooci aupuioc
M.ABIAE kui M.ABIAE c uoci acvtuevu. Ou uaooci0ci oti
ioci q ocoq:

( )
( ) E A I B A
ABIAE
E A I B A . M
ABIAE . M
< < < < <
=
< < < < < <
.

l,puo 6
Luoiouc c H
1
, H
2
, H
3
ti tpievikc aupuioc c kopu-
q M kui uoci
1
ABI,
2
AIA,
3
AAE kui c H
1
, H
2
, H
3
,
1
,
2
,
3
tu uvtiotoiu oqutu aou uvucpovtui otqv aupuiou
M.ABIAE. Totc (oevu c tqv apotuoq 5) 0u couc
2
1
2
1
H
H
= ,
oquoq
2
2 1
2
2 1

H
H H +
=
+
(1)
Ooie 0u ioci
3
2
3
2
H
H
= (2)

Aao ti ococi (1), (2) apokatci oti
3
2 1
3
2 1

H
H H +
=
+
(apotu-
oq V. 22). Apu:
3
3 2 1
3
3 2 1

H
H H H + +
=
+ +
(3)
Ooie, otqv aupuiou M. ABIAE couc:

<
< + < + <
=
<
< + < + <
3
3 2 1
3
3 2 1

H
H H H
, oaotc
3 2 1
3
3 2 1
3
H
H
1< + 1< + <
<
=
S< + S< + <
<
(4)
Au oi tpievikc aupuioc H
3
, H
3
civui iooci, oaotc:

< 1
1
=
<
S
S
3
3
3
3
(5)
Aao ti ococi (3) , (5) (oevu c tqv apotuoq V.22) apokatci
3
3 2 1
3
3 2 1

H
H H H
<
+ +
=
<
+ +
(6)
Aao ti (4) , (6) apokatci oti:
3 2 1
3 2 1
3 2 1
3 2 1

H H H
H H H
< + < + <
+ +
=
< + < + <
+ +
,
oquoq
( )
( ) E A I B A
ABIAE
E A I B A . M
ABIAE . M
< < < < <
=
< < < < < <

].B.o.

Hxooq 7 (XII. 7)
K0e zpi,oviu npouo ioipezoi oe zpei oe (:ioovoue)
nopoue.

Anctq
Ocepoc to apiou ABI . AEZ 4cpouc ti EA, EI, AI, oaotc
to apiou oiuipcitui oc tpci aupuioc E.ABI, E.AIA, E.AIZ. Ou oci-
ouc oti uutc civui iooovuc, oquoq couv ioou okou.
Ao tu oqutu ABEA, AIZE civui aupuqopuu, oi oiu-
evic tou AE, IA tu oiuipov oc oo iou tpievu (apotuoq I. 34),
oquoq ABE AAE, AIA ZIA. Apu:
E.ABI I.ABE I.AAE E.AIA E.AIZ
Ao oi aupuioc E.ABI, E.AIA,
E.AIZ civui ioc, ku0c iu 0u civui ioq c to
3
1
tou apiouto ABI AEZ,
a.. (A.ABI)
3
1
(ABI.AEZ)
].B.o.

Htoo
K0e zpi,oviuq nopouo evoi oq (:ioovouq) ue zo
zoo
zpi,oviuo npouozo noo ei zqv io oq uoi zo io yo.

Hxooq 8 (XII. 8)
Ao uoie zpi,oviu nopoue evoi ovzo,e zov uov zov
ouoz,ov nzeopov zoo.

Anctq

Lqu 8

l,puo 7

Ocepoc oo ooic tpievikc aupuioc A.BIA kui A.BIA.
Ocepoc caioq tu aupuqcaiacou c uoci BIEA, BIEA kui q
iou c tu uvtiotoiu q tev aupuioev uao ti kopuc A, A. Ou uaooci-
0ci oti
( )
( )
3
I B
BI
A I B . A
BIA A.
>
?
@
A
B
C
< <
=
< < < <
.
Totc oqioupovtui tu cq tev ooiev aupuqopuev
ABIK T ABIK, ABAM T ABAM kui BIEA T BIEA, uo
oe tq ooiotqtu tev aupuioev tu aupuqopuu uutu couv
oo acupc uvuoc kui ti acpicocvc evic ioc.
Iiu tov ioio oo kui tu uacvuvti tev ABIK, ABAM, BIEA au-
puqopuu civui ooiu apo tu aupuqopuu aou piokovtui
uacvuvti tev ABAK, ABAM, BIEA uvtiotoiu, uo uvu oo
civui iou.
Tu otcpcu BA - KA kui BA - KA couv ti otcpcc evic tou
ioc kui acpicovtui uao to ioio aq0o ooiev aouevev, upu 0u civui
ooiu. Oaotc, oevu c tqv apotuoq XI. 33, 0u ioci
( )
( )
3
I B
BI
A K - A B
KA - BA
>
?
@
A
B
C
< <
=
< < < <
.
Eaiacov, q aupuiou A.BIA civui to
3
1
tou apiouto
BIA.AKM kui to apiou BIA.AKM civui to
2
1
tou aupuqcaiacoou
BA.KA. Tciku oiaov 0u couc (A.BIA) =
6
1
(BA.KA), q (BA.KA)
6 (A.BIA)
Eaocve 0u ioci:
( )
( )
3
I B
BI
A I B . A 6
BIA A. 6
>
?
@
A
B
C
< <
=
< < < <
, oquoq
( )
( )
3
I B
BI
A I B . A
BIA A.
>
?
@
A
B
C
< <
=
< < < <

].B.o.

Htoo
Ao uoie nozo,oviu nopoue evoi ovzo,e zov uov
o ouzo,ov ouuov zoo.
Anctq

l,puo 8.1
A 0cepqoouc, oo ooic aupuioc K.ABIAE kui K.ABIAE
c uoci acvtuevu.
Luoiouc c H
1
, H
2
, H
3
ti aupuioc c uoci
1
ABI,
2
AIA,
3
AAE kui c H
1
, H
2
, H
3
,
1
,
2
,
3
tu uvtiotoiu
oqutu aou uvucpovtui otqv aupuiou K. ABIAE.
Levu c tqv apotuoq 7 couc
3
3
3
2
2
1
1
H
H
H
H
H
H
=
<
=
<
=
<
, oaou
civui o oo oo oooev acupev (oquoq, =
< <
=
< <
A K
KA
B A
AB
= ).
Eaocve, 0u ioci
3
3 2 1
3 2 1
H H H
H H H
=
< + < + <
+ +
, upu 0u couc:
( )
( )
3
3
3
3
) B A (
(AB)
B A
AB
E A I B A . K
ABIAE K.
< <
=
>
?
@
A
B
C
< <
= =
< < < < < <
.

Hxooq 9 (XII. 9)
Av o zpi,oviu nopoue evoi oe (:ioovoue), zze oi
oei zoo evoi ovziozpo ovzo,e zov oyov uoi ovz-

ozpoo, ov oi oei o zpi,oviuov nopouov evoi ovzi-
ozpo ovzo,e zov oyov, zze oi nopoue evoi oe (:ioo-
voue).

Anctq
A 0cepqoouc ti aupuioc A.BIA kui A.BIA c q u, u,
uoci BIA, BIA kui tu iooq apo uutc aupuqcaiacou BA-KA
kui BA-KA uvtiotoie (cac oqu otqv apotuoq 8).

(o) 1ote oti oi aupuioc (A.BIA) , (A.BIA) civui iooovu-
c, oquoq ioci (A.BIA) (A.BIA). Ou uaoociouc oti
( )
( ) u
u
A I B
BIA
<
=
< < <
.
Ao (BA - KA) 6(A.BIA) kui (BA- KA) 6(A.BIA), tu
aupuqcaiacou (BA-KA) , (BA-KA) civui iooovuu, oquoq i-
oci (BA-KA) (BA-KA). Levu c tqv apotuoq XI. 34, iu ti
uoci tev aupuqcaiacoev uutev (aou civui aupuqopuu) 0u
couc
( )
( ) u
u
E A I B
BIAE <
=
< < < <
, oaotc
( )
( ) u
u
A I B 2
BIA 2 <
=
< < <
(apotuoq I. 34).
Tciku oiaov ioci
( )
( ) u
u
A I B
BIA
<
=
< < <
.
() 1ote tepu oti oi uoci tev aupuioev civui uvtiotpoe
uvuoc tev uev,
( )
( ) u
u
A I B
BIA <
=
< < <
. Ou uaoociouc oti oi aupuioc
(A.BIA) , (A.BIA) civui iooovuc, oquoq (A.BIA) (A.BIA).
Ao
( )
( ) u
u
A I B
BIA <
=
< < <
, oevu c tqv apotuoq I. 34, 0u couc:
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) u
u
A I B
BIA
A I B 2
BIA 2
A E I B
BIEA
<
=
< < <
=
< < <
=
< < < <
.
Eaocve (BA.-KA) (BA-KA) (apotuoq XI. 34), oquoq
6(A.BIA) 6(A. BIA), oaotc (A. BIA) (A.BIA).
].B.o.

6. Lto oxq cxqoq nvoev kot ntoxev

6.1. Mcxqoq nvoo

Maopoc vu uaoociouc ua` cu0ciu oti oo aupuioc c iou
q kui iocuoikc uoci couv ioou okou, c c0ooo aou aqoiu-
ci acpioootcpo otq opovq oiuoikuoiu ookqpeoq.
Hpuuti, 0cepoc ti aupuioc V L - ABI, V L- ABI
c o u kui uoci cuoo (cac oqu 6.1). Apkci vu ociouc
oti uaokciovtui oi ococi V > V kui V < V.

l,puo 6.1.1
Xepiouc tqv ukq LA oc n iou tqutu c oqciu oiuipcoq
tu oqciu A
1
, A
2
,, A
n-1
kui uao tu oqciu uutu cpouc tu aupuqu
otq uoq ABI caiacou. Ovououc B
1
I
1
, B
2
I
2
,, B
n-1
I
n-1
ti toc
tev caiacoev uutev c tqv copu LBI kui B
1
I
1
, B
2
I
2
,, B
n-1
I
n-1

ti aupuqc apo tqv LA apooc tev B
1
I
1
, B
2
I
2
,, B
n-1
I
n-1
cai

tev copev A
2
B
2
I
2
, A
3
B
3
I
3
,, A
n-1
B
n-1
I
n-1
, ABI uvtiotoiu.
Ltqv aupuiou L-ABI, 0cepoc tu apioutu H
1
, H
2
,, H
n
c
uoci
1
A
1
B
1
I
1
,
2
A
2
B
2
I
2
,,
n-1
= A
n-1
B
n-1
I
n-1
, ABI uvti-
otoiu, aou to ku0cvu tou cci o
n
u
kui tu uvtiotoiu iooq api-
outu P
1
, P
2
, , P
n-1
c uoci
1
,
2
,,
n-1
.
Av 0coouc S
n
H
1
H
2
+ H
n
kui s
n
= P
1
+ P
2
+ + P
n-1
,
totc apouve ioci: s
n
< V < S
n
.
Akoou0evtu tqv ioiu oiuoikuoiu otqv aupuiou L-ABI kui
pqoioaoievtu uvtiotoiou ouoioo, 0u couc s
n
V S
n
,
oaou S
n
H
1
H
2
H
n
, s
n
P
1
P
2
P
n-1
.

Oe H
i
H
i
, iu ku0c i O {1, 2, , n} kui P
i
= P
i
, iu ku0c
i O {1, 2, , (n-1)}, uo couv iou q kui uoci iocuoikc, co-
oov
2
i
n
i
>
?
@
A
B
C
= , iu ku0c i O {1, 2, , (n-1)}.
Apu S
n
= S
n
kui s
n
= s
n
, oaotc s
n
< V S
n
.

1ote oti ioci V > V. Totc, ovouovtu W to apiou ABI - LTY
c o u kui cuoov uoq kui uuvovtu uaoq ti ococi
P
i
H
i
, iu ku0c i O {1, 2, . . .(n-1)}, 0u couc
V < S
n
, - V - s
n
+ V - V S
n
- s
n
=
(H
1
H
2
. . . H
n
) - (P
1
P
2
. . . P
n-1
) = H
n
=
n
W
(1).
Levu oe c to uieu Euooou Apiqoq, uaupci nON
tctoio, eotc n (V V) >W, oaotc V V >
n
W
kui oe tq (1),
n
W
> V V aou civui utoao. Eaocve ocv aopci vu ioci V>V.
1ote tepu oti ioci V < V. Totc ooie 0u couc
V- V < S
n
- s
n
= H
n
=
n
W
(2),
kui uo V V > 0, oevu c to uieu Euooou Apiqoq,

0u uaupci nON tctoio, eotc n(V- V) > W. Oaotc V V >
n
W
kui o-
e tq (2),
n
W
> V V, aou civui utoao.
Eaocve ocv aopci vu ioci V < V.
Tciku oiaov 0u couc V = V.

Hopozqpqoq:
Mc uoq ti ococi
2
i
n
i
>
?
@
A
B
C
= , iu ku0c i O {1, 2, . . . , (n-1)}
kui 0cepevtu veoto oti iu tov oko tou apiouto W c uoq kui
o u couc W
.
u (cac kui ooio aou ukoou0ci), aopoc vu
uaooioouc ua` cu0ciu tu opiu tev ukoou0iev (S
n
), (s
n
) kui vu oci-
ouc oti civui iou c
3
W
e cq:
1ouc S
n
H
1
H
2
. . . H
n
(
1

2
. . .
n-1
)
.

n
u
=
=
n
u

n
1 - n
...
n
2
n
1
2 2 2
=
U
U
V
W
X
X
Y
Z
+ =
>
?
@
A
B
C
+ +
>
?
@
A
B
C
+
>
?
@
A
B
C
=
=
( ) ( ) ( )
n
u
n 6
1 2n 1 n n
n
u
n
n 1 - n ... 2 1
2 2
2
2
2 2
= =
+ +
= = =
+ + + +
=
=
6
u
n
1
2
n
1
1
=
=
>
?
@
A
B
C
+
>
?
@
A
B
C
+ , oaotc lim S
n
= 1 =2 =
3
W
3
u
6
u
=
=
=
=

Eaioq s
n
= P
1
+ P
2
+ . . . + P
n-1
(
1

2
. . .
n-1
)
n
u
=
( ) ( ) ( )
6
u
n
1
2
n
1
1
n
u
n 6
1 - 2n n 1 - n
n
u
n
1 - n ... 2 1
2 2
2
2 2
=
=
>
?
@
A
B
C
6
>
?
@
A
B
C
6 =
= = =
=
= = =
+ + +
=

1ouc oiaov lim s
n
= 1 = 2 =
3
W
3
u
6
u
=
=
=
=
. To koivo opio
tev (S
n
), (s
n
) 0cepoc acov e oko tq aupuiou.

6.2 Mcxqoq nooxo

Av 0cepqoouc tov ko, tou oaoiou q ukq civui ovuou ctpq-
oq qkou e ovuou ctpqoq okou, oquoq c oko V
o
1, totc
ckou aopoc vu ociouc oti o oko aupuqcaiacoou c uoq
kui o u civui ioo c V = u.
Kutu tqv uaoociq 0u 0cepqoouc ocoocvo oti to cuoov op-
0oeviou aupuqopuou civui ioo c to ivocvo tev oiuotuocev
tou, to oaoio apokatci c ouoioo uvtiotoiou c uuto aou
ukoou0ov kui uao tqv uvuatuq aou apoqq0qkc oto iio II.
Hpuuti, cote o ko V ABIA - ABIA (cac oqu 6.2).

l,puo 6.2
Maopoc vu kutuokcuuoouc op0oevio aupuqopuo
KAIA iocuoiko c to ABIA kui otq ouvcciu op0oevio aupuqc-
aiacoo V
1
KAIA - K
1
A
1
I
1
A
1
c tqv copu K
1
A
1
I
1
A
1
cai tou caiacoou
P ABIA. Totc, oevu c tqv apotuoq XI.32, 0u couc:
( )
( )
1
V
V
1
=
,4"'
&$"'
= , oaotc V = V
1
.
Octouc KA x, KA y kui 0cepoc to op0oevio aupuq-
caiacoo V c oiuotuoci x, 1, 1.

Levu aui c tqv apotuoq XI. 32 0u couc u y
1 1
u y
V
V
1
= =
=
=
=
<
,
x
1 1
1 x
V
V
0
=
=
=
=
<
. Apu u y x
V
V
0
1
= = = , oaotc
V = V
1
= x y u
.
V
0
= x y u (KAIA) = u (ABIA) u = u .
Ku0c tpieviko apiou c uoq aopci vu 0cepq0ci e to i-
oo aupuqcaiacoou c to ioio o u kui uoq 2. Eaocve, o oko
tou iootui c V =
2
1
2 = u = u .
Tco, ku0c apiou c uoq kui o u aopci vu uvuu0ci
oc tpieviku apioutu, oaotc o oko tou kui aui 0u pc0ci ioo c
V = u.

6.3 H Aq xov Kootct

H okpioq tev cuoev oo caiacoev oqutev q tev okev
oo otcpcev oqutev c iou q aopci vu ivci ckou c uoq tqv
uvuaoociktq cv uu c caituiu cupoocvq opq zoo Koozipi,
otqv oaoiu kui 0u uvucp0oc aupukute.

l,puo 6.3.1

"Av o enneo oquozo (o), (o) zuvovzoi on zi nopzzq-
ze eo0ee (c
0
), (c
1
), (c
2
), (c
3
) , . . . ,(c) uoz zo ovzozoio e,q eo0-
,pouuov zuquzov (A
0
B
0
, A
0
B
0
), (A
1
B
1
, A
1
B
1
), (A
2
B
2
, A
2
B
2
),
(A
3
B
3
, A
3
B
3
), , (AB, AB) zoi ooze: (A
0
B
0
) (A
0
B
0
),
(A
1
B
1
) (A
1
B
1
), (A
2
B
2
) (A
2
B
2
), (A
3
B
3
) (A
3
B
3
), . . . ,
(AB) (AB), zze ioei (o) = (o)".
Moiuci ctoi ouv vu 0cepovtui tu oqutu (o), (o) e ovou
cu0puev tqutev, oquoq oqutev c qocviko cuoov.
1toi oiaov 0u couc (o) ( )
I
i i B A kui
(o) = ( )
I
< < i i B A = ( )
I
i i B A = ( )
I
[ i i B A = (o).
Kuti tctoio cuiu cacpicci to ioio aupuooo aou cuvictui
otu aupuoou tou Zqvevu, oaou iu kivqoq 0cepcitui e cvu ovoo
uao ukivqoic q cvu cu0puo tqu e ovoo oqciev, oquoq ao-
ootqtev c qocviko qko.
Hupoq tqv aupuooooiu tou uivocvou q upq uutq oivci op-
0u ouacpuoutu, kuti uiotu to oaoio o Leibniz cupooc oc aupu
aoc acpiateoci uaoococvo tqv upq epi kuiu uioqtqoq.
Ho apiv uao tov Kuuicpi, o Apiqoq cic pqoioaoiqoci
aupooiu ouoiotikq apokcicvou vu tctpuevioci to aupuoiko e-
pio, 0cepevtu ckci to epio e ovoo cu0puev tqutev. To
0cepqoc oquoq e iu caiacoq auku c oukckpicvo upo, q oaoiu
uauptictui uao cu0puu tqutu, aou to ku0cvu tou cci caioq
cvu oukckpicvo upo. Oe, oc uvti0coq c tov Leibniz, o Apiq-
oq tovici oti uutq civui uae iu c0ooo iu vu uaoiuotci tq ocoq
tou cuoo tou aupuoiko epiou c to cuoov cvo tpievou kui
ocv uaotcci uaoociq. Iiu vu oeoci uuotqpq uaoociq ckeioc to
cuoov tou aupuoiko epiou ctu oo u0poioutev aou uaotc-
ovtui uao uacipu tpievu to ku0cvu.

l,puo 6.3.2

Miu uaq cauq0cuoq tq upq tou Kuuicpi couc otqv acpi-
ateoq tev oo tpievev otu oaoiu epictui cvu aupuqopuo
ABIA uao tq oiuevio tou BA.
Hpuuti, tu tpievu ABA, BIA, tu oaoiu couv iou q AA,
BB, aopci vu 0cepq0ov e uaotcocvu uao iou cu0puu tq-
utu A
i
B
i
kui I
i
A
i
aupuqu oti uoci tou AB, IA kui oc ioc u-
aootuoci uao uutc.
1toi oiaov, uo A
i
B
i
I
i
A
i
, 0u civui kui L(A
i
B
i
) = L(I
i
A
i
), oq-
uoq (ABA) (BIA).
Av 0cepqoouc cuiu veotq tqv cvvoiu tou opiocvou ookq-
peuto, totc iu cuou oqutev aou acpikciovtui ctu tev pui-
kev aupuotuocev oo ouvuptqocev uuto civui ckou uaoociio.
Iiu aupuociu, uv (oto oqu 6.3.3) 0cepqoouc tu caiacou
oqutu (o
1
), (o
2
), (o
3
) aou opiovtui uao tu cq tev ouvuptqocev:
J
K
L
+ =
=
1 - x x - y
1 - y
2
,
J
K
L
+ =
=
x 2 x y
3x y
2
,
J
K
L
+ =
+ =
6 2x y
6 2x y
2
.
kui civui toao0ctqcvu ctu tev aupuqev cu0ciev x 0 kui x = 1
totc, ku0c cu0ciu x p c 0 M p M 1 tcvci tu oqutu o
1
, o
2
, o
3
kutu tu
tqutu A
1
B
1
, A
2
B
2
, A
3
B
3
kui ioci A
2
B
2
A
1
B
1
, A
3
B
3
=
2A
1
B
1
.

l,puo 6.3.3

Ekou oiaov oiuaiotevouc oti (o
2
) (o
1
) kui (o
3
) 2(o
1
), uo
(o
1
) = ( ) ( )
\ \ \
= + 6 = 6 6 6 + 6
1
0
1
0
2
1
0
2 2
dx x - x dx x x dx 1 1 x x kui
(o
2
) = ( ) ( )
\ \ \
= = +
1
0
1
0
2
1
0
2 2
dx x - x dx x - x dx x 2 x - x 3 ,
(o
3
) = ( ) dx 6 x 2 - 6 x 2
1
0
2
\
+ + = dx 2x - x 2
2
1
0
\
=
= ( ) dx x - x 2 dx x - x 2
2
1
0
2
1
0
\ \
=
H uvtiotoiq o,p Kooi/i oto epo aopci vu cupootci oc
otcpcu oqutu c iou q e cq:
"Av o ozepe V, V zuvovzoi on zo nopzzqzo enneo (P
0
),
(P
1
), (P
2
), (P
3
), . . . , (P) uoz zo ovzozoio e,q eninov oquzov
(o
0
, o
0
), (o
1
, o
1
), (o
2
, o
2
), (o
3
, o
3
), . . .(o, o) zoi ooze:
(o
0
) (o
0
), (o
1
) (o
1
), (o
2
) (o
2
), (o
3
) (o
3
) , . . . , (o) (o)
zze ioei: (V) = (V) ".

l,puo 6.3.4

Kui aui oiaov uivctui vu 0cepovtui tu oqutu V, V e o-
vou caiacoev oqutev, oquoq oqutev c qocviko oko.

1toi oiaov (cac oqu 6.3.4) 0u couc: (V) L( )
i
o kui
(V) L ( )
i
o
<
= ( )
i
o
I
( )
I i
o (V).

7. Lyktoq kvvev kot kevev

Hxooq 10 (XII.10)
K0e uovo evoi oo (:ioovouo) ue zo
3
1
uozvpoo o ono-
o ei zqv io oq uoi oo yo.

Anctq
Ocepoc tov kivopo V kui tov kevo V tov ccpucvo
otov kivopo. Ocouc vu ociouc oti V
3
1
V , oquoq V = 3V.

l,puo 10
o) 1ote oti V > 3V, oaotc 0u couc V63V c > 0. Aaokoato-
vtu uao tq uoq kuvoviku aoevu E
v
, v 4, 8, 16, . . . ccpucvu
otov kko, uuipoc uao tq uoq ku0c opu, aoootqtu cutcpq
uao to ioo tou apoqocvou uaooiaou, oae uaooci0qkc oto Icviko
Aqu.
Aaokoatovtu ukoo0e uao tov kivopo tu apioutu iooq
apo uutov kui c uoci tu aoevu E
v
, v 4, 8, 16, . . ., uuipoc

uao tov kivopo ku0c opu, aoootqtu cutcpq uao to ioo tou
apoqocvou uaooiaou.
Levu kui aui c to Icviko Aqu, 0u apokouv kuaoiu oti-
q e uaooiao cpiku kuivopiku tqutu, aou to u0poiou tou x civui
ikpotcpo uao to c V 3V, oquoq x < V - 3V, oaotc 3V V - x.
Oe totc to otcpco y = V 6 x civui to ccpucvo otov k-
ivopo apiou, oaotc 0u couc 3V y.
To apiou oe uuto cci oko tpiauoio uao tov oko V
o
tq
aupuiou c tqv ioiu uoq kui ioo o (apotuoq 7, aopiou), oquoq
y = 3 V
o
, oaotc 3V 3V
o
, upu V V
o
.
Oe V
o
< V, uo q aupuiou uutq civui ccpucvq otov
kevo. Auto oe civui utoao, caocve ocv aopci vu ioci V > 3V.
) 1ote tepu oti V < 3 V. Totc V >
3
1
V, oaotc V6
3
1
V c > 0.
Aaokoatovtu uao tov kevo ti iooci apo uutov aupuioc
c uoci tu kuvoviku aoevu E
v
, v 4, 8, 16 . . ., uuipoc uao tov
kevo ku0c opu aoootqtu cutcpq uao to ioo tou apoqocvou
uaooiaou.
Levu c to Icviko Aqu, 0u apokouv kuaoiu otiq e
uaooiao cpiku keviku tqutu c u0poiou x, ikpotcpo uao to
c V6
3
1
V, oquoq x < V
3
1
V, oaotc V x >
3
1
V. Oe V x =
= V
o
=
3
1
y, oaou tepu V
o
civui q ccpucvq otov kevo aupuiou
kui y to ccpucvo otov kivopo apiou. Apu
3
1
y >
3
1
V, oaotc
y > V. Au y < V , uo to apiou civui ccpucvo otov kivopo.
Auto oe civui utoao, oaotc ocv aopci vu ioci V < 3V.
Apu 0u ioci V = 3V.
].B.o.

Hxooq 11 (XII.11)
Ao iooye uovoi q uzivpoi evoi ovzo,oi zov oeov zoo.

ntq
A 0cepqoouc oo iooci kevou V
1
, V
2
c uoci tou
kkou K
1
, K
2
. Ocouc vu ociouc oti
2
1
2
1
K
K
V
V
= .
1ote
2
1
2
1
V
V
K
K
G . Totc
S
V
K
K
1
2
1
= c
2
V S G .
) 1ote oti ioci S < V
2
. Totc 0u couc V
2
- S c > 0.

l,pn
Oae oiuaioteouc oto Icviko Aqu, uaokoatovtu uao tq u-
oq K
2
tu ccpucvu kuvoviku aoevu E
v
, v 4, 8, 16, . . .,
uuipoc uao tov kko K
2
ku0c opu aoootqtu cutcpq uao to
ioo tou apoqocvou uaooiaou.
Ooie, uaokoatovtu uao tov kevo V
2
ti aupuioc c uoci
E
v
, v 4, 8, 16, . . ., kui ioio o c tov kevo, uuipoc uao tov
kevo V
2
ku0c opu aoootqtu cutcpq uao to ioo tou apoq-
ocvou uaooiaou.
Levu kui aui c to Icviko Aqu 0u apokouv kuaoiu
otiq e uaooiao, tqutu tou kevou c u0poiou X, ikpotcpo tou
0ctiko upi0o c V
2
- S, oquoq X < V
2
- S, oaotc S < V
2
- X.
H oiuopu oe V
2
- X aupiotuvci tqv aupuiou H
2
aou uaocvci
kui civui ccpucvq otov kevo V
2
, oquoq H
2
= V
2
- X.
Av 0cepqoouc tqv uvtiotoiq aupuiou H
1
, tqv ccpucvq
otov kevo V
1
, totc oi uoci tev aupuioev H
1
, H
2
civui uvuoc apo
tu tctpuevu tev oiuctpev tev kkev K
1
, K
2
(apotuoq 1) , upu kui

uvuoc tev kkev K
1
, K
2
(apotuoq 2), oquoq
S
V
K
K
H
H
1
2
1
2
1
= = .
Apu 1
H
V
H
S
1
1
2
> = , uo V
1
> H
1
. Eaocve 0u ioci S > H
2
=
= V
2

X, cve couc S < V
2
X. Auto oe civui utoao. 1toi ocv
aopci vu ioci S < V
2
.
) 1ote tepu oti ioci S > V
2
. Totc
1 1
2
V
S
K
K
= . 1ote
S
V
V
S
2
1
<
= ,
oaotc 1
S
V
V
S
2
1
< =
<
, uo V
2
< S, upu S V
1
(cac qu ctu tqv
apotuoq 2). Eaocve
S
V
K
K
2
1
2
<
= c S V
1
.
Eupoovtu tepu otov kevo V
1
tq oiuoikuoiu aou ukoou0qouc
otqv acpiateoq (u) otov kevo V
2
, c aupooiou ouoioo ku-
tuqouc oc utoao, oaotc ocv aopoc vu couc S > V
2
.
Av oiaov ioci
S
V
K
K
1
2
1
= totc, uao tu (u) kui () apokatci oti
S = V
2
, oquoq
2
1
2
1
V
V
K
K
= .
Av 0cepqoouc tou uvtiotoiou kuivopou V
1
, V
2
, totc (uao
tqv apotuoq 10) kui aui 0u couc
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
K
K
V
V
V 3
V 3
V
V
= = =
<
<
.
].B.o.

Hq 12 (X. 12)
o uoioi uovoi q uzivpoi vi vzo,oi ov uov ov
iupov ov ov oo

ntq
Ocepoc oo ooiou kevou V, V c kopuc tu oqciu L, L
kui tu ccpucvu oti uoci tou tctpuevu ABIA, ABIA c ti
uvtiotoic acupc tou aupuqc, AB // AB, . Ocouc vu
ociouc oti:
( )
( )
3
3
A B
BA
V
V
< <
=
<
.

l,pn
1ote
( )
( )
S
V
A B
BA
3
3
=
< <
c S G V.

) 1ote S < V. Totc V- S c > 0.
Aaokoatovtu uao tov kko (O), aou civui uoq tou kevou V
tu ccpucvu kuvoviku aoevu E
v
, v 4, 8, 16, . . . , uuipoc
(oevu c tov Icviko Aqu) uao tov kko uuto ku0c opu ao-
ootqtu cutcpq uao to ioo tou apoqocvou uaooiaou.
Aaokoatovtu ukoo0e uao tov kevo V ti aupuioc c u-
oci tu aoevu E
v
, v 4, 8, 16, . . . kui o ioio c tou kevou, uui-
poc uao tov kevo uuto ku0c opu aoootqtu cutcpq uao to ioo
tou apoqocvou uaooiaou.
Levu kui aui c to Icviko Aqu, 0u apokouv kuaoiu
otiq e uaooiao tqutu tou kevou c u0poiou X, ikpotcpo tou
0ctiko upi0o c V- S, oquoq
X < V S,
oaotc S < V X. (1)
H oiuopu oe V X aupiotuvci tqv aupuiou H aou uaocvci
kui q oaoiu civui ccpucvq otov kevo V, oquoq H

= V X.
1ote H q uvtiotoiq aupuiou q ccpucvq otov kevo V.
Yao0ctouc (epi uq tq cvikotqtu), oti q ocoq (1)
apokatci a.. iu v 8, oquoq otuv aupouc tu cou K, A, M, N tev

toev &$ $" "' '&
] ] ] ]
kui tu uvtiotoiu cou K, A, M, N tev
toev < < < < < < < <
] ] ] ]
& $ $ " " ' ' & .
Ou ociouc oti tu tpievu aou acpikciouv kui ku0opiouv uutc
ti aupuioc civui uvtiotoie ooiu cvu apo cvu. Iiu aupuociu, 0u
ociouc oti tu tpievu LKB, LKB civui ooiu.
4cpouc ti OK, OK. Eacioq oi kevoi civui ooioi, uv p kui p
civui oi uktivc tev uocev tou, 0u couc:
K O
OK
B O
OB
p
p
p 2
p 2
A B
BA
L O
OL
< <
=
< <
=
<
=
<
=
< <
=
< <
.
Ao
B O
OB
L O
OL
< <
=
< <
kui
! !
9< /< $< = $/9 ( 1 op0q), oevu c
tqv apotuoq VI. 16, 0u couc oti tu tpievu $/9 , BOL civui
ooiu, oaotc:
p
p
B O
OB
B L
LB
<
=
< <
=
< <
(2)
Eaioq uo
K O
OK
L O
OL
< <
=
< <
kui
! !
9< /< ,< = ,/9 ( 1 op0q), tu tpi-
evu KOL, KOL civui ooiu, oaotc:
p
p
K O
OK
K L
LK
<
=
< <
=
< <
(3)
Tco, uo
>
>
?
@
A
A
B
C
<
=
< <
=
< <
p
p
K O
OK
B O
OB
kui
! !
< /< < = / K B K B ( 4
8
1
= = op0c), tu tpievu BOK, BOK civui
ooiu, oaotc
p
p
B O
OB
B K
KB
<
=
< <
=
< <
(4)
Aao ti ococi (2), (3), (4) apokatci:
B K
KB
K L
LK
B L
LB
< <
=
< <
=
< <
,
oaotc tu tpievu LKB, LKB 0u civui kui iooeviu (apotuoq VI.5),
oquoq ooiu (apotuoq VI, opioo 1).
Eaocve, oevu c tov opioo XI.9, oi aupuioc L.OBK kui
L.OBK civui ooic, uo acpicovtui uao ooiu kui ioou aq0ou
aoevu. Apu
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
3
3
3
3
A B
BA
B O
OB
K B O L
OBK L
< <
=
< <
=
< < < = <
=
.

To ioio ouuivci oc oc ti aupuioc c kopuc L, L kui u-
oci tu ioookcq tpievu aou couv kopuc tu kcvtpu tev kkev O,
O kui uoci ti acupc tev oktuevev tev ccpucvev otou
kkou.
Eacioq oe oc iou kuoutu o oo cvo tev qoucvev apo
cvuv uao tou caocvou iootui c to oo oev tev qoucvev apo
oou tou caocvou (apotuoq V.12), apokatci:
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
3
3
A B
BA
K B O L
OBK L
N A M I A B K A L
AKBAIMAN L
< <
=
< < < = <
=
=
< < < < < < < < = <
=

Au
( )
( )
3
3
A B
BA
S
V
< <
= , oaotc
H
H
S
V
<
= . Apu 1
H
V
H
S
> =
<
, uo q
aupuiou H civui ccpucvq otov kevo V kui ioci V > H.

Apu S > H V X. Oe, oe tq ocoq (1), couc S < V X,
to oaoio civui utoao. Eaocve ocv aopci vu ioci S < V.

) 1ote tepu oti civui S > V. Eaocve couc
( )
( )
3
3
BA
A B
V
S
< <
= kui
uv
S
V
V
S
<
<
= , totc (oevu c to aopiou tq apotuoq V. 7), 0u civui
1
V
S
S
V
>
<
=
<
, uo S > V. Apu V > S (qu ctu tqv apotuoq XII. 2).
Eaocve
( )
( )
S
V
BA
A B
3
3
<
<
=
< <
c S V kui to oaoio c ouoioo aupo-
oiou c uuto tq acpiateoq (u) ooqci oc utoao.
Aaokcictui oiaov vu ioci
( )
( )
3
3
A B
BA
S
V
< <
= c S G V.
Eaocve ioci
( )
( )
3
3
A B
BA
V
V
< <
=
<
.

Av V
1
, V
1
civui oi uvtiotoioi kivopoi, totc 0u couc: V
1
= 3 V,
V
1
3 V, (apotuoq XII.10), oaotc:
( )
( )
3
3
1
1
A B
BA
V
V
V 3
3V
V
V
< <
=
<
=
<
=
<
.
].B.o.

Hpqpqq
Ltu loi,i kutuqouc otq oiuaioteoq oti tu tpievu LKB,
LKB civui ooiu c iu aouaokotcpq oiuoikuoiu, cupoovtu tqv
iiop i ioo (apotuoq V. 22), pqoioaoievtu cuiu tu ioiu
cq ooiev tpievev.
Lukckpicvu, uao ti ooiotqtc tev tpievev BOL, BOL kui
BOK, BOK apokatouv oi ococi:
B O
B L
OB
LB
< <
< <
= (5) kui

K B
B O
BK
OB
< <
< <
= (6)
uao ti oaoic c cupoq tq iiop i ioo auipvouc
K B
BK
B O
OB
,
B O
OB
B L
LB
< <
=
< < < <
=
< <
. Apu
K B
BK
B L
LB
< <
=
< <
, oaotc

K B
B L
BK
LB
< <
< <
= q
B L
K B
LB
BK
< <
< <
= (7)
H ocoq (7) 0u aopooc vu apokci ucou c aouauoiuoo
tev (5), (6) kutu cq. Tctoiu ioiotqtu oe ocv uvucpctui otu
loi,i tou Eukcioq.
Aao ti ooiotqtc tev tpievev LOK, LOK kui BOK,
BOK apokatouv oi ococi:
K O
K L
OK
LK
< <
< <
= kui
B K
K O
KB
OK
< <
< <
= uao ti
oaoic c tov ioio oae apiv tpoao kutuqouc otq ocoq

B K
K L
KB
LK
< <
< <
= (8)
Aao ti ococi (7), (8) ooie piokouc
B L
K L
LB
LK
< <
< <
= (9)
Oae uivctui uao ti ococi (8) kui (9) tu tpievu LKB, LKB
couv ti acupc tou uvuoc, upu civui kui iooeviu, oquoq ooiu.

Hq 13 (X. 13)
v uzivpo uq0 u nno npzzqzo i i oo
iipi o uozvpoo noo vi vzo,oi ov vov oo

ntq
Ocepoc tov kivopo c uovu AB kui uao oqcio I tou AB
caiacoo aupuqo oti uoci, to oaoio oiuipci tov upiko kivopo oc
oo kuivopou V
1
, V
2
c uovc IA u , IB . Ocouc vu ociouc
oti
u
V
V
2
1
= .

l,pn
Ocepoc caioq tov kivopo V
1
c uovu IA k.u kui tov
kivopo V
2
c uovu IE = oaou k, uoikoi upi0oi. Totc V
1

k=V
1
kui V
2
=V
2

Av ku > , totc V
1
> V
2
, oquoq kV
1
> V
2

Av ku , totc V
1
V
2
, oquoq kV
1
V
2

Av ku , totc V
1
V
2
, oquoq k V
1
V
2

Apu, oevu c tq 0cepiu acpi iootqtu oev tou Eooou,
0u apcaci vu ioci
u
V
V
2
1
= .
].B.o.

Hpqpqq
Mc iu uq oiutaeoq q uaoociq 0u aopooc vu ivci e cq:
Ocouc vu ociouc oti
u
V
V
2
1
= . Levu c tq 0cepiu acpi
iootqtu oev tou Euooou, upkci vu ociouc oti ocv uaupci pqto
oto qiuvoikto oiuotqu c ukpu
u
,
V
V
2
1
.
Av
2
1
V
V
u
< M , totc u M k kui kV
2
V
1
.
Oe u M k + IA M IE + V
1
M V
2
+ V
1
M k V
2
(utoao)
Av
2
1
V
V
u
> 5 , totc u 5 k kui kV
2
> V
1
.
Oe u 5 k + IA 5 IE + V
1
5 V
2
+ V
1
5 k V
2
, (utoao).
Avuou cpuouotc uv
2
1
V
V
u
M < q
2
1
V
V
u
5
[
R
> .

Hq 14 (X. 14)
o uzivpoi q uovoi u i vi vzo,oi ov oyov oo

ntq
Ocepoc tou kuivopou V
1
, V
2
c ioc uoci oiuctpev AB,
IA kui q HO u , KA . Ocouc vu ociouc oti:
u
V
V
2
1
= .

l,pn
Hpocktcivouc tqv KA kutu AN u kui 0cepoc tov kivopo
V
1
c uoq IA o AN.
Oi kivopoi V
1
, V
1
couv iou q, oaotc civui uvuooi tev
uocev tou (apotuoq 11). Au oi uoci tev kuivopev uutev civui
ioc, oaotc V
1
= V
1
.
Eacioq o kivopo c uoq IA aou civui ioq c tqv IA kui
o KN u , cci tq0ci c caiacoo aupuqo oti uoci tou, 0u
couc:
u
AK
AN
V
V
2
1
= =
<
(apotuoq 13). Oe couc V
1
= V
1
, oaotc
ioci
u
V
V
2
1
= .
Iiu tou uvtiotoiou kevou Q
1
, Q
2
c ioc uoci oiuctpev
AB, IA kui q HO u, KA ociuc (apotuoq 10) oti Q
1
=
3
1
V
1
,
Q
2
=
3
1
V
2
.
Eaocve 0u couc
u
V
V
V
3
1
V
3
1
Q
Q
2
1
2
1
2
1
= = = .
].B.o.

Hq 15 (X. 15)
v o uzivpoi q uovoi vi oi iovuoi oi i
oo vi vip!o vzo, ov oyov oo
v oi i o uozvpov q uovov vi vip!o v-
zo, ov oyov oo vi oi iovuoi

ntq
(i) Ocepoc apetu oo ioou (iooovuou) kuivopou V
1
, V
2

c uoci
1
,
2
kui q K
1
A
1
, K
2
A
2
. Ocouc vu ociouc oti:
2
1
=
1 1
2 2
4 ,
4 ,
.


l,pn 15
Av K
1
A
1
K
2
A
2
, totc uo V
1
= V
2
kui
2
1
2
1
V
V
= (apotuoq
11), 0u couc
1

2
, oaotc
2
1
1 1
2 2
A K
A K
= = 1.
Av K
1
A
1
K
2
A
2
, totc cai tou K
2
A
2
auipvouc tqu K
2
A
1

K
1
A
1
kui uao to oqcio A
1
cpouc caiacoo aupuqo apo ti u-
oci tou V
2
. Ovououc V
1
tov kivopo c uoq
2
kui o K
2
A
1
.
Ao V
1
= V
2
totc oevu c tqv apotuoq V.7, 0u ioci q
ocoq
1
2
1
1
V
V
V
V
<
=
<
(1)
Au, oevu c tqv apotuoq 11, uo oi kivopoi couv iou
q 0u ioci q ocoq
2
1
1
1
V
V
=
<
(2)
Euou, oevu c tqv apotuoq 13,

1 1
2 2
1 2
2 2
1
2
A K
A K
A K
A K
V
V
=
<
=
<

(3)
Aao ti ococi (1), (2) , (3) apokatci oti
1 1
2 2
2
1
A K
A K
= .

ii) 1ote tepu oti iu tou kuivopou V
1
kui V
2
c uvtiotoic
uoci
1
kui
2
couc
1 1
2 2
2
1
A K
A K
= . Ocouc vu ociouc oti V

1
= V
2

Av K
1
A
1
K
2
A
2
, totc
1

2
, oaotc V
1
= V
2

Av K
1
A
1
K
2
A
2
, totc 0cepevtu tov kivopo V
1
(oae uu-
to kutuokcuuotqkc apoqoucve oto (i) ), 0u couc:
1 2
2 2
2
1
A K
A K
<
=
(4)
Au, oevu c tqv apotuoq 11, uo oi kivopoi couv iou
q 0u ioci
1
1
2
1
V
V
<
= (5)
Euou, oevu c tqv apotuoq 13,
1
2
1 2
2 2
V
V
A K
A K
<
=
<
(6)
1
2
1
1
V
V
V
V
<
=
<
, oaotc V
1
= V
2
.

l,pn 15.1
Ltou kevou cupoovtui oi ioioi c tou apoqocvou ou-
oioo, oae uivctui kui oto oqu 15.1, oaotc uaoocikvctui kui
to uvtiotoio uaotccou.
].B.o.

Lyktq !tev

Hq X
Av o0ov o ouuevzpoi uuzoi vo e,,poe ozov ue,ozzepo
uuzo noz,ovo ionzeopo ue pzio nzq0o nzeopov uq eo-
nzuevo zoo uiupzepoo uuzoo qzoq zzoio ooze oi nzeop
zoo vo evoi euz zoo uiupzepoo uuzoo

ntq
Aao to kcvtpo O, 0ce-
poc cu0ciu aou tcvci to c-
utcpo kko otu oqciu A
kui B kui to ikpotcpo otu I
kui A. H ku0ctq otqv AB oto A,
tcvci to cutcpo kko otu
oqciu E kui Z kui apouve
cuatctui tou ikpotcpou k-
kou.
Aiotooc apetu to to-
o
]
&$, kui to too aou apo-
katci to ouoiouc c
]
&$
2
1
.
Akoo0e oiotooc to too
]
AB
2
1
, oaotc apokatci to too
]
AB
4
1
kui
ouvciouc tqv ioiu oiuoikuoiu. Aao tq oiuoikuoiu uutq kuaotc 0u apokci
cvu too
]
$, ikpotcpo tou
]
$# (apotuoq X. I).
H ku0cto uao to oqcio K otqv AB tcvci tqv AB oto oqcio H
kui to cuo kko oto A. Totc couc
] ]
=BA BK kui (apotuoci III. 3
kui I. 4),
] ]
< EBZ KBA , oaotc OH > OA, oquoq to oqcio H civui ckto
tou ikpotcpou kkou.
Ao oi opoc KA, EZ civui aupuqc kui to H civui ckto
tou ikpotcpou kkou, q KA oc 0u cci koivu oqciu c to ikpotcpo
kko, oquoq 0u civui ckto uuto. Kutu ciovu oo kui oi opoc
KB, BA 0u piokovtui ckto tou ikpotcpou kkou.
Hpouve, uaupouv uptiou aq0ou oiuooikc opoc tou cu-

l,pn 16

tcpou kkou ioc c tqv BK, oi oaoic piokovtui ckto tou ikpo-
tcpou kkou kui uaotcov acupc iooacupou aouevou, uptio-
acupou, ccpucvou oto cutcpo kko.
].B.a.

Hq X
Av o0ov o ouuevzpe oope vo e,,poe ozq ue,ozzepq
oopo nozepo zoo onooo oi pe vo uqv oov uoiv oqueo
ue zq uiupzepq oopo uq eonzuevo zq uiupzepq oo
po

ntq
A tq0ov oi ouipc uao caiacoo H, aou oicpctui uao to kcv-
tpo O uutev.
Oi toc 0u civui ciotoi kkoi, uo ku0c ouipu apocpctui
uao otpoq qikukiou pe uao otu0cpq oiuctpo tou.

l,pn 17
1toi, oc oaoiuoqaotc 0coq kui uv 0cepqoouc to qikkio, to
caiacoo aou opici 0u oqutioci auve otqv caiuvciu tq ouipu k-
ko kui uiotu cioto, uo q oiuctpo tq ouipu aou civui kui

oiuctpo tou qikukiou, civui q cutcpq uao ti opoc tou k-
kou q tq ouipu. Ocepoc oo ku0ctc oiuctpou AI, BA tou c-
iotou kkou tq cutcpq ouipu aou tcvouv tov uvtiotoio c-
ioto kko tq ikpotcpq ouipu kutu ti oiuctpou AI , BA
uvtiotoiu.
A cpuci oto cutcpo kko aoevo iooacupo kui uptio-
acupo, tou oaoiou oi acupc vu civui ckto tou ikpotcpou kkou.
Yao0ctouc a.. oti oi acupc tou aou piokovtui oto tctuptq-
opio
]
&$ civui oi BK, KA, AM, MA.
Ocepoc tq oiuctpo KN kui tqv ku0ctq oto caiacoo tou k-
kou ABIA oto O, aou tcvci tq ouipu otu E , E. Tu caiacou (BA,
OE) kui (KN,OE) oqutiouv auve otqv caiuvciu tq ouipu ci-
otou kkou.
Ocepoc tu qikkiu tou
]
BEA kui
]
KEN.
Ao q OE civui ku0ctq oto caiacoo ABIA, ku0c caiacoo oiu tq
OE 0u civui ku0cto oto caiacoo ABIA (apotuoq XI.18). Apu tu caiac-
ou BEA kui KEN 0u civui ku0ctu oto caiacoo ABIA.
Ao tu qikkiu
] ] ]
KEE , BEA , BAA couv ioc oiuctpou (III, o-
pioo 1) 0u civui iou, oaotc kui tu tctuptqopiu
] ] ]
KE , BE , BA 0u civui iou.
Ooc acupc tou aouevou uaupouv oto tctuptqopio
]
BA, to-
oc 0u uaupouv kui otu tctuptqopiu
]
BE kui
]
KE ioc apo ti BK, KA,
AM, MA. 1ote oi BO, OH, HP, PE kui KL, LT, TY, YE uvtiotoiu.
4cpvouc tq OL kui uao tu O, L ti ku0ctc oto caiacoo ABIA. Tu
ivq tou O, L 0u acoouv oti toc BA, KN tev caiacoev BEA, KEN
c to ABIA, uo kui tu oo uutu caiacou civui ku0ctu oto ABIA.
Ao otu iou qikkiu aqpuc ioc opoc BO, KL kui oi OO, LL
civui ku0ctc oto caiacoo ABIA, 0u civui OO LL kui BO KL (apotu-
oci III. 27 kui I. 26). (Auto apokatci uao to oti
] ]
= OKL OBO , uo tu
ioookcq tpievu OBO, OKL couv ioc ti evic tev kopuev tou).
Oe OB OK , oaotc OB BO OK KL, oquoq OO OL.
Apu
O L
L K
O O
O B
<
<
=
<
<
, oaotc oi OL kui BK civui aupuqc (apotuoq
VI. 2).
Eacioq oi OO, LL civui ku0ctc oto caiacoo ABIA, 0u civui au-

puqc (apotuoq XI. 6) kui uo, oae ociuc, OO LL, 0u couc
oti oi OL, OL 0u civui ioc kui aupuqc (apotuoq I. 33) . Au oi
OL , BK civui aupuqc, oaotc kui oi OA, BK 0u civui aupuqc
(apotuoq I. 30). Oi cu0cic oiaov BO, KL aou ouvocouv oqciu tev
oo uutev aupuqev, 0u civui ouvcaiacoc.
Eaocve, to tctpuacupo KBOL civui caiacoo (tpuacio) (apo-
tuoq XI. 7). Iiu tov ioio oo tu tctpuacupu LOHT, THPY civui cai-
acou, oae kui to tpievo YPE civui caiacoo oqu.
Av cveoouc tu oqciu O, L, H, T, P, Y, E c to O 0u oquti-
otci ctu tev toev
]
BE,
]
KE otcpco oqu, aocopo, uaotcoc-
vo uao aupuioc c uoci tu tctpuacupu KBOL, LOHT, THPY kui
to tpievo YPE, kopuq oc to oqcio O.
Av kuvouc oc ku0c iu uao ti acupc KA, AM, MA ti ioic
kutuokcuc aou kuvuc cai tq BK, ku0e kui oti acupc aou pioko-
vtui otu uu tpiu tctuptqopiu
] ] ]
"$ '" ' , , A (kui oto uo qiouipio),
0u oqutiotci oqu aocopo ccpucvo otq cutcpq ouipu,
aou uaotccitui uao aupuioc c uoci tu tctpuacupu kui to tpievo
aou apouvucpuc, ku0e kui tu ootuq apo uutu (ooie oiutctu-
cvu), kui kopuq to oqcio O.
Ioupiouotc oti oi copc uuto tou aoucopou piokovtui ckto
tq ikpotcpq ouipu auve otqv caiuvciu tq oaoiu piokctui o
kko ABIA.
A u0ci uao to O q ku0ctq oto caiacoo tou tctpuacpou KBOL
kui u ouvuvtqoci to caiacoo uuto oto 1.
4cpouc ti 1B, 1K. Ao q O1 civui ku0ctq oto caiacoo
KBOL, 0u civui ku0ctq oc oc ti cu0cic tou aou oicpovtui uao tov
aoou tq (XI, opioo 3). Apu q O1 civui ku0ctq oti B1, 1K, oaotc
OB
2
1O
2
1B
2
, OK
2
1O
2
1K
2
, uo O1 O1K
! !
= 1op0q
(apotuoq I. 47). Au OB OK, oaotc 1O
2
1B
2
1O
2
1K
2
. Apu
1B 1K . (H iootqtu uutq apokatci ucou kui uao tqv iootqtu tev
tpievev O1B, O1K, tu oaoiu couv OB OK, 1A koivq kui civui
op0oeviu oto 1).
Ooie apokatci oti tciku couc 1L 1O 1B 1K. Eao-
cve to tctpuacupo KBOL civui cpuio oc kko c kcvtpo 1 kui
uktivu 1B. (To oti civui cpuio apokatci kui ucou, uo apokci-
tui iu ioookcc tpuacio).

Ao KB > OL kui OL OL, 0u civui KB > OL. Au KB
KL BO > OL, oaotc
KB
2
> 21B
2
(1)
(Hpuuti 3
] ]
+ OL KB 4 op0c, oaotc 4 >
]
KB 4 op0c , oquoq
]
KB >1 op0q. Apu
!
K1B > 1 op0q, oaotc KB
2
> 1B
2
1K
2
21B
2
,
uo q KB civui acupu tpievou uacvuvti oc uciu eviu).
Aao to K cpouc tqv ku0ctq otq BA, aou tqv tcvci oto oqcio H.
Totc AH > AO, oaotc 2AH > 2AO AB. Au
2
2
KH
KB
BH AH
BH AB
AH
AB
=
=
=
= ,
uo
!
BKA 1op0q (apotuoq III. 31 kui apotuoq VI. 8, aopiou). Eaoc-
ve 0u couc
KB
2
2 KH
2
(2)
Aao ti ococi (1) kui (2) apokatci oti KH
2
> 1B
2
.

Oe OB
2
O1
2
1B
2
, OK
2
KH
2
OH
2
kui OB OK, oao-
tc O1
2
1B
2
KH
2
OH
2
kui uo KH
2
> 1B
2
0u civui OH
2
O1
2
,
oquoq OH O1. Kutu ciovu oo oiaov, 0u civui OB O1. (Aq-
uoq ocv uatctui q cvikotqtu uv uao0coouc oti OB OH. Aie
0u oiauoiuouc ouvce to aq0o tev acupev tou ccpucvou
aouevou BKAMA . . ., cpi otou actouc vu ioci OB OH).
Eivui oe q O1 uaootuoq tou kcvtpou O tq ouipu uao tqv
copu KBOL tou aoucopou, cve q OB uktivu tq ikpotcpq ouipu.
H copu uutq oiaov piokctui ckto tq ikpotcpq ouipu.
To ioio uaoocikvctui kui iu ti uaooiac copc LOHT, THPY,
YPE, ku0e kui iu ti ootuci tou (ooie oiutctucvc apo uu-
tc), oae uivctui uao tqv auputqpqoq aou ukoou0ci ctu to aopi-
ou.
Kutuokcuuotqkc oiaov ctoi aocopo ccpucvo otq cu-
tcpq ouipu, tou oaoiou oi copc piokovtui ckto tq ikpotcpq
ouipu.
].B.a.

Ht
Av uoi oe zzq oopo e,,poe nozepo uoio npo zo noze-
po noo e,,pyoue ozq oopo ABIA zo o nozepo 0o evoi
ovzo,o zov iouzpov zov o ooipov

ntq
Tu aocopu H
1
, H
2
epiovtui oc ooic aupuioc c oooc
acupc ti uktivc p
1
, p
2
tev oo ouipev. Apu
( )
( )
3
2
3
1
3
2
3
1
2
1
2p
2p
p
p
H
H
= = .
Hopozqpqoq
Kutu tqv uaoociq iou-
piotqkuc oti, oiauoiuovtu
ouvce to aq0o tev acu-
pev tou ccpucvou ao-
uevou BKAMA . . . , ao-
poc vu actouc vu ioci
OB OH . Apkci i` uuto vu
ociouc oti to BH aopci vu
ivci (c ouvcq oiauoiuoo
tev acupev tou aouevou)
ikpotcpo uao oaoiooqaotc cu-
0puo tqu, upu kui uao
to OB - OB. Totc q ocoq BH
OB - OB, oquivci apuuti OB OB - BH OH.
Iiu vu aopci oiaov to BH vu ivci ikpotcpo uao oaoiooqaotc
cu0puo tqu, upkci (oevu c to Icviko Aqu) vu ociouc
oti, uv 0cepqoouc aoevo c acupc ioc c BK KK, oquoq c
oiauoio aq0o acupev, totc to BH civui ikpotcpo uao to
2
BH
, q
oti HH >
2
BH
.
Hpuuti, uo KB KK, 0u couc OK* BK, IB IK, oaotc
kui IH IB
.
Ao OI OK, 0u civui kui OI OH, oaotc HI HH, oquoq
2
BH
HH.

l,pn 17.1

Mc oqcpivo opou cuiu uv 0coouc
Q
!
^ = =
v
360
BOK
O
,
totc 0u couc
2
e
90 BOI 90 KBO
v o o
6 = 6 =
! !
. Apu BH BK.
ouv (90
o
-
e
v
) BK q >
?
@
A
B
C
= = >
?
@
A
B
C
= = = >
?
@
A
B
C
2
e
q R 2
2
e
q BI 2
2
e
v 2 v v
,
oaou R OB.
Ao e
v
_ 0 kui q
e

v
C
B
A
@
?
>
_ , 0u couc kui lim (BH) 0.
Apu, iu v upkovte cuo 0u ivci to BH ikpotcpo tou
OB - OB R - R.
Ioupiotqkuc caioq kutu tqv uaoociq oti kui oi uaootuoci
tou O uao ti copc LOHT, THPY, YPE civui cutcpc uao tqv ukti-
vu R OB tq ikpotcpq ouipu, oquoq piokovtui ckto tq i-
kpotcpq ouipu.
Eacioq O1
2
OB
2
- B1
2
=
= R
2
- B1
2
, upkci vu ociouc
oti oi uktivc tev acpicpu-
cvev kkev otu aoevu
KBOL, LOHT, THPY, YPE ui-
vouv cuttocvc q touuiotov
q uuuvocvc.
Ocepoc tou acpic-
pucvou kkou otu tc-
tpuacupu KBOL, LOHT c
uktivc p
1
, p
2
uvtiotoiu (cac oqu 17. 2).
1ouc KB BO KL u > OL kui OH LT u > OL > HT.
Yao0ctouc oti p
2

> p
1
. 1ote
!
K BO
1
=
!
O BO
1
= x L KO
1
=
!
, y OO
1
= 9
!
kui
!
H OO
2
=
!
T LO
2
0, e L OO
2
=
!
, TO H !
!
= . Totc y < x kui e, uo
u > > HT.
1ouc oe q
1 1
2p
u
p
2
u
2
x
= = , q
0
= kui, uo p
2
> p
1
, 0u

l,pn 17.2

civui q
0
q
2
x
, oaotc
0
<
(< 90
o
) kui 0 x. Ooie e y < x,
oaotc kui e y.
Apu 20 e 2x + x + y = 3x + y = 360
o
, cve 20 e 360
o
,
apuu utoao. Eaocve p
2
M p
1
.

Hq X
Oi oope evoi ovzo,e zov uov zov iouzpov zoo

ntq
Ocepoc ti ouipc V
1
,
V
2
c uktivc p
1
, p
2
kui kcvtpu
O
1
, O
2
. Ocouc vu ociouc oti:

( )
( )
3
2
3
1
2
1
2p
2p
V
V
= , q
3
2
1
2
1
p
p
V
V
>
>
?
@
A
A
B
C
= .
1ote oiaov oti ioci
3
2
1
2
1
p
p
V
V
>
>
?
@
A
A
B
C
G . Ou ociouc oti
uuto ooqci oc utoao.
Hpuuti, totc 0u couc
V
V
p
p
1
3
2
1
=
>
>
?
@
A
A
B
C
, c V G V
2
. Yao0ctou-
c oti q V civui iu ouipu ookcvtpq tq V
2
c uktivu p.

1ote oti civui V < V
2
. Totc 0cepoc to aocopo H
2
to c-
cpucvo otqv V
2
c ti copc tou ckto tq ouipu V (apotuoq 17)
kui to ooio apo uuto aocopo H
1
to ccpucvo otq ouipu V
1
.
Eaocve, oevu c to aopiou tq apotuoq 17, 0u couc:
( )
( )
3
2
1
3
2
3
1
2
1
p
p
2p
2p
H
H
>
>
?
@
A
A
B
C
= = .
Apu 0u ioci
2
1
2
1
V
V
H
H
= , oaotc couc
1
1
2
H
V
H
V
= uo civui
V
1
> H
1
. Eaocve, oevu c tqv apotuoq V. 12, couc V > H
2
.

l,pn 18

Oe V H
2
, uo q ouipu V civui oto coetcpiko tou H
2
. Ku-
tuquc oiaov oc utoao. Eaocve ocv aopci vu civui V<V
2
.
1ote tepu oti civui V > V
2
. 1ouc
3
1
2
1
p
p
V
V
>
>
?
@
A
A
B
C
= (apotuoq
V. 7, aopiou).
Av
V
V
V
V
2
1
<
= , totc 1
V
V
V
V
2
1
> =
<
,
uo V > V
2
. Apu V
1
> V (apotuoq 2,
Aqu).
Eaocve
p
p
'
'
C
B
A
@
?
>
=
<
c V V
1
.
Avuctui oiaov otqv apoqocvq acpi-
ateoq kui c aupooiou oae apiv ou-
oioo ooqouotc oc utoao. Eaoc-
ve, ocv aopci vu ioci V > V
2
, upu civui
V = V
2
, oaotc
3
2
1
2
1
p
p
V
V
>
>
?
@
A
A
B
C
= .
].B.o.

Hopozqpqoq
Aio apoooq civui to covo oti aou0cvu otu loi,i tou Eu-
kcioq ocv cuvictui uivocvo ctpqoq cvo caiacoou q otcpco
oquto oae tqv cvvooc oqcpu,

oquoq ocv uaooictui cuoov
q oko c uoq kuaoiu oukckpicvq ovuou ctpqoq.
To 0cu uuto uvticteaioc oicooiku o Apiqoq 0uvovtu c-
pi tq ctpqoq kkou, kuivopou, kevou kui ouipu coe tev cc-
pucvev aouevev, apioutev, aupuioev uvtiotoiu kui pioko-
vtu ti ococi aou cci o oko cvo kuivopou c tou okou tev
ccpucvev o` uutov kevou kui ouipu.
Lto cpo tou "Kkoo M/pi" kutucpc vu pci iu oquvtikq
apoocioq tou upi0o a, tqv 3,1416, coe tev oev
2R
H
v
, v 6, 12,
24, 48, 96, oaou H
v
q acpictpo kuvoviko v-evou ccpucvou oc
kko uktivu R.

l,pn 18.1

.
Kcoto 3
BIBAIO XIII

To kovovtk oxcpc

1. Etooyeyq

Eaiotcuou tou oou cpou tev loi,icv civui q kutuokcuq
tev acvtc kuvovikev otcpcev oquoq tou tctpucopou, tou kou, tou o-
ktucopou, tou cikooucopou kui tou oeockucopou. Autu uvticteaio-
vtui oti apotuoci 13 cpi kui 17, oto Biio XIII.
Ku0cvu uao tu kuvoviku otcpcu kutuokcuuctui kui cpuctui
oc ooocvq ouipu. Eaiacov, cctuctui q ocoq ctu tq acupu
tou otcpco kui tq oiuctpou tq acpicpucvq ouipu. Tco, e
ouacpuou, uvucpctui oti ocv uaupouv uu kuvoviku otcpcu, ckto
uao uutu tu oaoiu couv qoq kutuokcuuo0ci.
Aao ti uaooiac 18 ouvoiku apotuoci tou kcuuiou 13, oi
ci apetc uvucpovtui otq oiuipcoq cu0puou tquto oc ukpo
kui coo oo, oi caocvc acvtc oto kuvoviko acvtuevo kui q oeoc-
kutq oto iooacupo tpievo. Oi aupuauve apotuoci civui kupie apo-
aupuokcuuotikc iu ti uaooiac acvtc apotuoci, oquoq iu ti apo-
tuoci 13, 14, 15, 16 kui 17. Ootooo, opiocvc uao uutc aupouoiuouv
ioiuitcpo cvoiucpov. Ltqv apotuoq 6 uaoocikvctui oti uv cvu cu0-
puo tqu oiuipc0ci oc ukpo kui coo oo, totc ku0cvu uao tu tq-
utu tq oiuipcoq civui, oc ocoq c to cu0puo tqu, uppqto

(uoo) kui civui q cocvq aooup. Ltqv apotuoq 11 uaoocikvctui
oti uv oc kko c pqtq oiuctpo cpuci kuvoviko acvtuevo, totc q
acupu tou acvtuevou civui uppqto (uoo) kui civui q cocvq
ocv. Ltqv apotuoq 18 tco, ckti0cvtui oto ioio oqu oi acupc
tev acvtc kuvovikev otcpcev kui oukpivovtui ctu tou.

2. Atopcoq oc kpo kot coo yo. Eopoyc

Lti apotuoci 1 cpi 6 oiutuaevovtui kui uaoocikvovtui oc-
oci ctu tev tqutev (q kuaoiev kutuokcuev) aou apokatouv
uao tq oiuipcoq cvo cu0puou tquto oc ukpo kui coo oo. Oi
uvtiotoic ctpikc ococi uaoocikvovtui c cuou kui q c0ooo
0u aopooc vu cvtu0ci otq pqoq tou veovu, oae uutq cc-
tq0qkc kui ooiuotqkc oto Biio II.

Hpxooq 1 (XIII.1)
Ev eo0,pouuo zuquo ioipe0e oe upo uoi uoo z,o zo ze
zp,ovo zoo eo0,pouuoo zuquozo noo npounzei o 0poi-
ouo zoo ue,ozzepoo zuquozo zq iopeoq uoi zoo uioo zoo
opiuo zuquozo evoi nevzonzoio on zo zezp,ovo zoo ui
oo zoo opiuo zuquozo

Anctq
Tcvouc to tqu AB oc ukpo
kui coo oo oto oqcio I c cu-
tcpo tqu to AI kui otqv apoc-
ktuoq tq IA uuvouc tqu AA
ioo c to ioo tou AB.
Ou uaooci0ci oti AI
2
5AA
2
.
Avupuouc tu tctpuevu
ABEK kui IAAZ kui apocktcivouc tq
ZI, q oaoiu tcvci tqv KE oto H. Eaci-
oq to AB cci oiuipc0ci oto I oc ukpo
kui coo oo couc:
ABBI AI
2
l,pu

TA KANONIKA LTEPEA 147
Kui to ABAI iootui c to cuoov tou op0oeviou IBEH, cve
to AI
2
c to cuoov tou tctpuevou EOMZ.
Apu c (IBEH) c (EOMZ). Eacioq BA 2AA, BA KA
kui AA AO, cactui oti KA 2AO.
Eaocve ,
) (
) (
&3
&,
=
&"73 `1
&"-, `1
upu c (AIHK) 2c (AOMI).
1toi, to cuoov tou veovu AOOAIZ iootui c to cuoov tou tc-
tpuevou ABEK, oquoq c 4AA
2
, oioti AB 2AA. Apu o veovu
AOOAIZ civui ioo c 4AA
2
, caocve AI
2
5AA
2
.
].B.o.

Hpxooq 2 (XIII. 2)
Ev zo zezp,ovo eo0o,puuoo zuquozo evoi nevzonzoio
on zo zezp,ovo ev zuquozo oozo uoi zo inzoio zoo
zuquozo ioipe0e oe upo uoi uoo z,o zze zo ue,ozzepo
zuquo zq iopeoq evoi zo onzoino zoo opiuo zuquozo

Anctq
1ote oti to tctpuevo tou
tquto AB civui acvtuauoio
tou tctpuevou tou tquto AI
kui cote IA 2AI. Ou uaooci0ci
oti uv to tqu IA oiuipc0ci oc
ukpo kui coo oo, totc to c-
utcpo uao tu tqutu tq oiui-
pcoq civui to tqu IB.
Avupuouc tu tctpuevu
ABZA kui IAHK.
Eacioq AB
2
5AI
2
couc
c (ABZA) 5c (AIOO)
Apu to cuoov tou ve-
ovu AOOIBZ civui tctpuauoio
tou cuoo tou tctpuevou
AIOO. Oe to cuoov tou
veovu iootui c to cuoov
tou tctpuevou IAHK.
l,pu 2

Eaiacov AI 2IA, AI IK kui AI IO (upu IK 2IO).
Eaocve c (IBEK) 2c (IBMO) kui c (EZMO) c (BAHE).
Eaioq, to cuoov tou tctpuevou EZMO iootui c BI
2
kui to
cuoov tou op0oeviou BAHE iootui c BAIA.
Apu BI
2
IABA, oquoq to B oiuipci to IA oc ukpo kui coo
oo c cutcpo tqu to BI.
].B.o.

Aqo
AI BI

Anctq
1ote oti couc 2AI BI. Totc BI
2
4AI
2
, upu BI
2
IA
2
=
5AI
2
.
1ouc oe oti BA
2
5IA
2
, upu BA
2
BI
2
IA
2
, to oaoio ci-
vui uovuto.
Ooie uaoocikvctui oti otc q ocoq 2AI BI civui ouvutov
vu ioci, oioti kutu ciovu oo 0u civui utoao. Eaocve 2AI > BI.
].B.o.

Hpxooq 3 (XIII. 3)
Ev eo0,pouuo zuquo ioipe0e oe upo uoi uoo z,o zze zo
zezp,ovo zoo eo0,pouuoo zuquozo noo npounzei o 0poi-
ouo zoo uiupzepoo zuquozo zq iopeoq uoi zoo uioo zoo
ue,ozzepoo evoi nevzonzoio on zo zezp,ovo zoo uioo zoo
ue,ozzepoo zuquozo

Anctq
1ote AB cu0puo
tqu, to oaoio cci oiuipc0ci
oto oqcio I oc ukpo kui coo
oo c cutcpo tqu to
AI kui cote A to coo tou AI.
Ou uaooci0ci oti AB
2
5AI
2
.
Avupuouc to tctpu-
evo ABEI. Eacioq AI 2AI
couc AI
2
4AI
2
, oquoq to
cuoov tou tctpuevou POLI

l,pu 3

civui tctpuauoio tou cuoo tou tctpuevou HKZO .
Eacioq ABBI AI
2
, to cuoov tou op0oeviou IBEL iootui
c to cuoov tou tctpuevou POLI. Oe, ioci oti:
c (POLI) 4 c (HOZK), caocve c (IBEL) 4 c (HOZK).
Eacioq AA AI civui OK KZ, upu HK KA, oquoq MN NE.
1toi couc:
c (OMNZ) c (ZNEL) kui c (ZNEL) c (AIOH).
Eaocve to cuoov tou veovu AHOZNB iootui c to c-
uoov tou op0oeviou IBEL, oquoq c to tctpuauoio tou cuoo tou
tctpuevou HOZK. Apu to cuoov tou tctpuevou ABNK civui acvtu-
auoio tou cuoo tou tctpuevou HOZK, oquoq: AB
2
5 AI
2
.
].B.o.

Hpxooq 4 (XIII. 4)
Ev eo0,pouuo zuquo ioipe0e oe upo uoi uoo z,o zze zo
0poiouo zov zezpo,ovov zoo zoo zuquozo uoi zoo uiup-
zepoo zuquozo zq iopeoq evoi zpinzoio on zo zezp,ovo
zoo ue,ozzepoo zuquozo

Anctq
1ote oti to cu0puo
tqu AB cci oiuipc0ci oto oq-
cio I oc ukpo kui coo oo c
cutcpo tqu to AI. Ou
uaooci0ci oti:
AB
2
BI
2
3 IA
2
.
Avupuouc to tctpue-
vo ABEA. Eacioq to tqu AB
cci oiuipc0ci oto oqcio I oc
ukpo kui coo oo, couc:
ABBI AI
2

Kui to cv ABBI iootui c to cuoov tou op0oeviou ABKO
to oc AI
2
c to cuoov tou tctpuevou OZHA.
Apu c (ABKO) c (OZHA).

l,pu 4

Eaioq c (ABKO) c (IBEH). Apu to cuoov tou veovu
AOZHEB ouv to cuoov tou tctpuevou IBKZ iootui c to oiauoio
tou cuoo tou tctpuevou OZHA. Eaocve:
c (ABEA) c (IBKZ) 3c (OZHA),
oquoq AB
2
IB
2
3 AI
2
.
].B.o.

Hpxooq 5 (XIII. 5)
Ev eo0,pouuo zuquo ioipe0e oe upo uoi uoo z,o uoi
npoeuzo0e uoz zuquo oo npo zo ue,ozzepo zuquo zq io-
peoq zze zo zo eo0,pouuo zuquo ei ioipe0e oe upo uoi
uoo z,o uoi zo ue,ozzepo zuquo zq vo iopeoq evoi zo
opiu eo0,pouuo zuquo

Anctq
1ote oti to tqu AB
cci oiuipc0ci oto oqcio I
oc ukpo kui coo oo c c-
utcpo tqu to AI. Hpo-
cktcivouc to BA kutu tq-
u AA AI.
Ou uaooci0ci oti to
tqu AB cci tq0ci oc ukpo
kui coo oo oto oqcio A
c cutcpo tqu to AB,
oquoq BAAA AB
2
.
Avupuouc to tctpuevo ABEZ. Eacioq to AB cci oiuipc0ci
oto I oc ukpo kui coo oo c cutcpo tqu to AI, couc
AB BI AI
2
. Apu,
c (IBEI) c (AIHO). Au c (IBEI) c (OKEZ).
Eaioq c (AIHO) c (AAOA).
Eaocve c (ABEZ) c (BKAA), oquoq BAAA AB
2
.
].B.o.

l,pu 5

Eyk: : no:
Oi acvtc apetc apotuoci aou uaooci0qkuv aupuauve kui oi
oaoic uopov otq oiuipcoq cu0puou tquto oc ukpo kui coo
oo, civui oq0qtikc iu oou ukoou0ov kui kupie otqv kutuokcuq
tou kuvoviko oeockucopou kui tou cikooucopou. Eaioq, uutc ao-
pov oqcpu vu uaooci0ov kui ucpiku, oae 0u ivci uvcpo au-
pukute.
1ote u, x cu0puu tqutu, c x ikpotcpo tou u. Av to
tqu u oiuipc0ci oc ukpo kui coo oo, totc to x civui to cutcpo
tqu tq oiuipcoq, uv kui ovov uv ioci q ocoq: x
2
u(u x), i-
ooovuu x
2
ux u
2
.
Av oouc ucpiku tqv aupuauve cioeoq (uaoppiatovtu tqv
upvqtikq piu), piokouc x
( )
2
1 5 u 6
. Ioouv caioq oi ococi:
u x =
( )
2
5 3 u 6
kui
2
5 1
x u
x
x
u +
=
6
=

u) H apotuoq 1 kui q uvtiotpoq tq apotuoq 2 apokatouv uc-
ou uao tqv iooouvuiu
2
2
u
x
>
?
@
A
B
C
+ = 5 a
>
?
@
A
B
C
2
2
u
x
2
ux u
2

) H apotuoq 3 apokatci uao tqv iooouvuiu
2 2
2
x
5
2
x
u
>
?
@
A
B
C
=
>
?
@
A
B
C
6 a u
2
ux x
2

) H apotuoq 4 apokatci uao tqv iooouvuiu:

u
2
(u x)
2
= 3x
2
a u
2
ux x
2

o) H apotuoq 5 apokatci e cq:

Av ioci
x u
x
x
u
6
= , totc uao tqv ioiotqtu tev uvuoiev apo-
katci ucou oti
u
u x
x
u +
= .

Hpxooq 6 (XIII. 6)
Ev pqzq
1
eo0eo zuq0e oe upo uoi uoo z,o uo0vo on zo
zuquozo zq iopeoq evoi eo0eo ppqzo q ze,uevq onozo
uq

Anctq
1ote AB pqto cu0puo tqu, to oaoio oiuipoc oto oqcio
I oc ukpo kui coo oo c cutcpo tqu to AI. Ou uaooci0ci oti
ku0c cvu uao tu tqutu AI, IB civui uppqto, q cocvq aooup.

l,pu
Hpocktcivouc to tqu BA kutu tqu AA
2
AB
. Eacioq to
tqu AB cci oiuipc0ci oc coo kui ukpo oo oto I c cutcpo
tqu to AI kui to tqu AA civui to ioo tou AB, couc:
AI
2
5AA
2
(apotuoq 1).
Apu to AI
2
apo to AA
2
cci oo upi0o apo upi0o, upu to
AI
2
civui octpo apo to AA
2
(apotuoq X. 6)
To AA
2
civui pqto, oioti to tqu AA civui pqto, e to ioo tou
pqto tquto AB. Apu (oevu c tov opioo 9 tou iiou X), to
IA
2
civui pqto, upu pqto civui kui to IA. Kui cacioq to IA
2
apo to
AA
2
ocv cci oo tov oaoio cci tctpuevo upi0o apo tctpuevo
upi0o, to qko IA civui uoctpo apo to qko AA (apotuoq X.9)
Apu to AI civui aooup (apotuoq X.73)
Eacioq to I oiuipci to AB oc ukpo kui coo oo c cutcpo
tqu to AI, couc
AI
2
AB = IB

1
Iiu tqv opooiu aou pqoioaoicitui, cac Loio aou ukoou0ci.

Kui cacioq to tqu AI civui aooup kui to AB pqto, to tqu
BI civui apetq aooup (apotuoq X. 97).
].B.o.
Eyk:o
Ltq oiutaeoq tq apotuoq 6, oae kui oti apotuoci 11 kui 17
aou ukoou0ov, pqoioaoicitui opooiu aou uvuat0qkc kui oo-
iuotqkc cktcve oto Biio X . Luvoiouc ovtou tu uaote
uaupuitqtu iu tqv uvuveoq uutev tev oiutuaeocev.
Levu c tou opioo tou Biiou X, ouuezpo ue,0q c-
ovtui ckcivu iu tu oaoiu uaupci koivo ctpo kui oouuezpo ckcivu
iu tu oaoiu ocv uaupci koivo ctpo.
Eu0cic (: "cu0puu tqutu") ovuei ouuezpoi covtui oi
cu0cic tev oaoiev tu tctpuevu civui octpu kui ovuei oouuezpoi
uutc tev oaoiev tu tctpuevu civui uoctpu. Aaoocikvctui oti, uv
oo0ci ck tev apotcpev iu cu0ciu, uaupouv e apo uutqv uacipc cu0ci-
c octpoi kui uoctpoi citc e apo to qko citc kui ouvuci.
H cu0ciu aou 0cepcitui ck tev apotcpev kucitui pqzq, oi oc-
tpc apo uutq citc qkci citc ovo ouvuci kuovtui pqz kui oi (ou-
vuci) uoctpc ppqze (q zo,oi). To tctpuevo tq 0cepocvq
cu0ciu kucitui pqz kui tu octpu apo uuto epiu pqz, cve tu
uoctpu apo uuto zo,o.
Ltqv apotuoq X.73 tou 10ou kcuuiou uaoocikvctui oti uv uao
pqtq cu0ciu uuipc0ci pqtq cu0ciu octpq c tqv upikq ouvuci ovov,
totc q uaooiaq civui uoo kui kucitui onozouq. Aquoq, uv x, y pqtu
tqutu c x > y, x, y uoctpu kui x
2
, y
2
octpu, totc to tqu x y
civui uoo, q cocvq onozouq. (Iiu aupuociu to tqu 2 p p , o-
aou p pqto tqu civui uaotoq). To tqu y ovouctui npooopuoooo.
Av to tctpuevo tq oq uacpcci tou tctpuevou tq apo-
oupoouou kutu to tctpuevo acupu ouctpou apo tqv oq, totc
q uaotoq kucitui npozq onozouq. Aquoq, uv x
2
= y
2
+ z
2
kui z, x
octpu, totc q uaotoq x y ovouctui npozq onozouq.
Av to tctpuevo tq oq uacpcci tou tctpuevou tq apooup-
oouou kutu tctpuevo acupu ouvuci ovov ouctpou apo tqv
oq, totc q uaotoq kucitui zezpzq onozouq. Aquoq, uv x
2
= y
2
+ z
2

kui z, x uoctpu, totc to x - y ovouctui zezpzq onozouq.

Ltqv apotuoq X.21 uaoocikvctui oti to op0oevio aou acpicctui
ctu pqtev ouvuci ovov octpev cu0ciev civui uoo, kucitui uoo
kui q acupu tou iooovuou tctpuevou civui uoo kui ovouctui uoq.
Ltqv apotuoq X.76 uaoocikvctui oti uv uao cu0ciu uuipc0ci cu-
0ciu, q oaoiu civui apo tqv oq ouvuci uoctpo kui oqutici c
uutqv to cv u0poiou tev tctpuevev tou pqto to oc op0oevio coo,
totc q uaooiaq civui uoo kui ovouctui ezooov.
Hopozqpqoq
Av to pqto cu0puo tqu u oiuipc0ci oc ukpo kui coo oo,
totc to cutcpo tqu x tq oiuipcoq iootui c
x = u
2
1 5 6
, oquoq x = u
2
1
u
2
5
,
to oaoio oevu c to ooio aou apoqq0qkc civui aooup.

3. Ioncvpo xpyevo kot kovovtk ncvxyevo.
Knotc copoyc

Lti apotuoci 7 cpi 12 ckti0cvtui oi acupc tou iooacupou
tpievou kui tev kuvovikev acvtuevou, cuevou kui ockuevou c-
cpucvev otov ioio kko kui ku0opiovtui oc ocoq c tqv uktivu
tou kkou.

Hpxooq 7 (XIII. 7)
Ev zpei ,ove ionzeopoo nevzo,ovoo eze ooz evoi ioo-
iu eze evoi uq iooiu evoi oe zo nevz,ovo evoi ioo,ovio
Aaoociq
1ote oti tpci oiuooikc evic
!
A,
!
$,
!
", tou iooacupou acvtuevou
ABIAE civui ioc. Ou uaoociouc oti to
acvtuevo civui iooevio.
4cpouc ti AI, BE kui tq ZA,
oaou Z to oqcio toq tev AI, BE.
Eacioq oi acupc BI, BA civui i-
oc uvtiotoiu apo ti BA, AE kui q
eviu
!
"$& civui ioq apo tq eviu
l,pu 7

E A B
!
, tu tpievu ABI, ABE civui iou, upu oi acupc AI, BE civui
ioc, q eviu B A
!
" civui ioq apo tq eviu $ # &
!
kui q eviu E B A
!

civui ioq apo tq eviu " & $
!
. Eaocve to tqu AZ civui ioo apo to
BZ kui cacioq uaoocitqkc oti to AI civui ioo apo to BE, couc ZI
ZE.
Tu tpievu ZEA, ZIA civui iou,
oioti couv koivq tqv acupu ZA kui
ti acupc ZE, EA ioc apo ti ZI,
IA uvtiotoiu. Apu q eviu ' # %
!
ci-
vui ioq apo tq eviu ' " %
!
Aaooci-
0qkc oti q eviu $ # &
!
civui ioq apo
tq eviu $ " &
!
, upu q eviu ' # &
!
ci-
vui ioq apo tq eviu ' " $
!
. Ooie
uaoocikvctui oti q eviu # ' "
!
civui
ioq apo ti evic
!
,
!
$,
!
", upu
to acvtuevo civui iooevio.
1ote tepu oti oi tpci q oiuooikc evic
!
A,
!
$,
!
' civui i-
oc (L. 7u).
4cpouc ti BA, BE. Eacioq oi acupc BA, AE civui ioc apo
ti BI, IA kui acpicouv ioc evic, tu tpievu BAE, BIA civui iou,
upu q acupu BE civui ioq apo tqv acupu BA kui q eviu $ # &
!
civui
ioq apo tq eviu " '
!
B .
Totc kui q eviu $ # '
!
civui ioq apo tq eviu # ' $
!
. Apu q e-
viu ' # &
!
civui ioq apo tq eviu " ' #
!
. Ooie uaoocikvouc oti kui
q eviu " $ &
!
civui ioq apo ti evic
!
,
!
$,
!
' .
Apu to acvtuevo civui iooevio.
].B.o.
2queooq
Ltu caocvu cvu iooacupo kui iooevio aoevo 0u uvuc-
pctui kui e uovoviu noz,ovo.
l,pu

Hpxooq 8 (XIII. 8)
2e u0e uovoviu nevz,ovo o iooiu io,ovioi zuvovzoi
oe upo uoi uoo z,o uoi zo ue,ozzepo zuquozo zq iopeoq
evoi zo uo0vo oo ue zqv nzeop zoo nevzo,ovoo

Anctq
1ote ABIAE kuvoviko acvtuevo kui O to oqcio toq tev
oiueviev AI kui BE. Ou uaooci0ci oti ku0ciu uao uutc tcvctui
oto O oc ukpo kui coo oo kui to cutcpo tqu tq oiuipcoq
iootui c tqv acupu tou kuvovi-
ko acvtuevou.
Hcpipuouc kko oto kuvo-
viko acvtuevo, oevu c tqv apo-
tuoq IV.14. Eacioq tu tqutu EA,
AB civui iou apo tu AB, BI kui ac-
picouv ioc evic, tu tpievu ABE
kui ABI civui iou, upu BE AI kui oi
uaooiac evic civui ioc. Apu q
eviu "
!
A B iootui c tq eviu
# $ &
!
, upu
! !
$&3 = 2 AOE (apotu-
oq I. 32). Eacioq to too " ' #
]
civui
oiauoio tou toou
]
$" kui q eviu " & #
!
civui oiauoiu tq eviu
" & $
!
, upu q eviu # & 3
!
civui ioq apo tq eviu # 3 &
!
. Apu to tq-
u OE civui ioo apo to tqu EA, oquoq to AB. Kui cacioq to tqu BA
civui ioo apo to EA, kui q eviu # $ &
!
0u iootui c tq eviu & # $
!
.
Au kui q eviu # $ &
!
oci0qkc ioq apo tqv O A B
!
, upu 0u
civui kui q & # $
!
ioq apo tq O A B
!
. H eviu # $ &
!
civui koivq tev
tpievev ABE kui ABO.
Apu tu tpievu ABE kui AOB civui iooeviu, caocve
BO
BA
BA
EB
= kui cacioq BA EO, couc
OB
EO
EO
BE
= .
Ao to tqu BE civui cutcpo uao to EO, 0u civui kui to
tqu OE cutcpo tou OB. Apu to tqu BE cci tq0ci oc ukpo
kui coo oo oto oqcio O kui to cutcpo tqu, to OE, civui ioo

l,pu 8

apo tqv acupu tou acvtuevou. Mc ooio tpoao uaoocikvouc oti
kui to AI cci tq0ci oto O oc ukpo kui coo oo kui oti to cu-
tcpo tqu, to IO, civui ioo apo tqv acupu tou acvtuevou.
].B.o.

Hpxooq 9 (XIII. 9)
Ev oi nzeop zoo uovoviuo eo,ovoo uoi euo,ovoo noo e,
,povzoi ozov io uuzo oovze0ov oe uio eo0eo zze zo zo
zuquo ioipezoi oe upo uoi uoo z,o uoi zo ue,ozzepo zuq
uo zq iopeoq evoi q nzeop zoo eo,ovoo

Anctq
1ote o kko ABI oiuctpou
AB, q acupu BI tou kuvoviko oc-
kuevou kui q acupu IA tou kuvovi-
ko cuevou aou cpuovtui otov
aupuauve kko. 1ote caioq oti tu
tqutu BI, IA kcivtui ca` cu0ciu.
Ou uaoociouc oti to cu0puo
tqu BA cci tq0ci uao to I oqcio
oc ukpo kui coo oo, c cutcpo
tqu to IA.
1ote E to kcvtpo tou kkou.
4cpouc tu tqutu BE, IE, EA kui
apocktcivouc tq BE cpi to A. Eacioq q acupu BI civui acupu ku-
voviko ockuevou, to too
]
"$ civui acvtuauoio tou toou
]
$" ,
upu to too
]
&" civui tctpuauoio tou toou
]
$" . Apu q eviu " # &
!

civui tctpuauoiu tq $ # "
)
. Kui cacioq q eviu " $ #
!
civui ioq apo
tqv $ " #
!
, couc
! !
#"$ = 2 AEI . Eaioq EI IA, oioti IA civui
acupu kuvoviko cuevou ccpucvou otov kko ABI.
Eaocve
! !
"'# = IEA , kui ctoi
! !
#'" = #"$ 2 . Au uaooci-
0qkc oti
! !
#"$ = &#" 2 , upu
! !
'" = &#" E 4 . Apu
! !
$#" = #'" .

l,pu 9

H eviu ' $ #
!
civui koivq tev oo tpievev, tou BEI kui tou
BEA. Apu kui q eviu ' # $
!
civui ioq apo tqv $ " #
!
. Apu tu tpi-
evu EBA, EBI civui iooeviu. Eaocve
$"
$#
=
BE
BA
kui cacioq BE
IA cactui oti
"$
'"
=
'"
$'
. Eaioq civui BA > AI upu kui AI > IB.
1toi q cu0ciu BA cci tq0ci oc ukpo kui coo oo kui to cutcpo
tqu uutq tq oiuipcoq civui to AI.
].B.o.

Hopozqpqoq
Av x civui q acupu tou kuvoviko ockuevou kui r q uktivu tou
acpicpucvou kkou, totc q acupu tou ockuevou aopci vu uao-
oiotci ucpiku uao tq ocoq :
(r + x) x = r
2
, oaotc 0u couc: x = ( ) 1 5
2
r
6

Hpxooq 10 (XIII. 10)
Ev e,,poe oe uuzo uovoviu
nevz,ovo zze zo zezp,ovo
zq nzeop zoo nevzo,ovoo e-
voi ioovouo npo zo 0poi-
ouo zov zezpo,ovov noo oov
o nzeop zqv nzeop zoo uo-
voviuo eo,ovoo uoi zqv nzeo-
p zoo uovoviuo euo,ovoo
noo e,,povzoi ozov io u
uzo

Anctq
1ote ABIAE kuvoviko acvtuevo ccpucvo oc kko.
1ote Z to kcvtpo tou kkou kui AH oiuctpo. Aao to Z uou-
c ku0ctq ZO apo tqv AB, q oaoiu apocktcivocvq tcvci tov kko
oto oqcio K. 4cpouc ti cu0cic BK, KA kui uao to Z cpouc ku0c-
tq ZA apo tqv KA, q oaoiu tcvci tov kko oto M kui tqv AB oto N.

l,pu 10

Eacioq to too
]
"- civui ioo apo to too
]
&#'- kui to to-
o
]
&$" civui ioo apo to too
]
&#', cactui oti to too
]
"- civui ioo
apo to too
]
-' . Apu to IH civui acupu kuvoviko ockuevou. Eai-
oq ZA ZB kui ZO ku0ctq otqv AB, upu
! !
,%$ = AZK (apotuoci I. 5
kui I. 26). Apu to too
]
&, civui ioo apo to too
]
,$, kutu ouvcaciu
to too
]
&$ civui oiauoio tou toou
]
$, kui to tqu AK civui
acupu kuvoviko ockuevou. Iiu tou ioiou oou kui to too
]
&,
civui oiauoio tou toou
]
,7 . Kui cacioq to too
]
&$ civui oiauoio
tou toou
]
$, kui to too
]
"' ioo apo to too
]
&$, civui kui to
too
]
"' oiauoio tou toou
]
$, . Eaioq to too tou
]
"' 0u civui
oiauoio tou toou
]
"- . Apu to too
]
"- civui ioo apo to too
]
$, . Au to too
]
$, civui oiauoio tou
]
,7 , cacioq civui oiauoio
kui tou
]
,& , upu kui to
]
"- civui oiauoio tou
]
,7 . Au kui to too
]
"$ civui oiauoio tou toou
]
$, , oioti to too
]
"$ civui ioo apo to
]
$&. Apu to too
]
-$ civui oiauoio tou
]
$7, upu kui q eviu
!
-%$
civui oiauoiu tq
!
$%7.
Kui q eviu
!
-%$ civui oiauoiu tq
!
%&$, oioti q eviu
!
%&$
civui ioq apo tq eviu
!
&$% . Apu kui q eviu
!
$%8 civui ioq apo
tqv
!
%&$. H eviu
!
&$% civui koivq tev oo tpievev ABZ kui
BZN. Apu tu tpievu ABZ kui BZN civui iooeviu.
Ioci caocve:
$8
%$
=
BZ
AB
, upu BZ
2
AB BN
Eacioq AA AK, AN koivq ku0ctq, upu KN AN, caocve
! !
4&8 = AKN .

Au
! !
,$8 = AAN , upu
! !
,$8 = 4,8 .
Kui q eviu oto A civui koivq tev oo tpievev AKB kui AKN.
Apu kui q eviu
!
,$ A civui ioq apo tqv
!
,8& .
Eaocve, ioci q uvuoiu
&8
,&
=
&,
$&
, upu BAAN KA
2
,
kui ouvcae AB BN BA AN BZ
2
KA
2
.
Aaooci0qkc oquoq oti BA
2
BZ
2
AK
2
, oaou q BA civui acupu
tou kuvoviko acvtuevou, q BZ acupu tou kuvoviko cuevou kui q AK
civui acupu tou kuvoviko ockuevou ccpucvq otov ioio kko.
].B.o.

Ev oe uuzo ue pqzq iuezpo e,,poe uovoviu nevz,ovo q
nzeop zoo nevzo,ovoo evoi zo,o q onoo ovouezoi uoi
ezooov

Anctq
Epuouc kuvoviko acvtuevo ABIAE oc kko c pqtq oiu-
ctpo. Ou uaooci0ci oti q acupu tou acvtuevou civui uppqto, q c-
ocvq ocv.
Huipvouc Z to kcvtpo tou kkou, cpouc ti oiuctpou BO,
AH, tq oiuevio AI kui oto tqu ZO auipvouc tqu ZK ioo c to
cvu tctupto tq uktivu.
Eacioq to too
]
"H A civui ioo apo to
]
&'- kui to too
]
&$"
apo to too
]
&#', cactui oti tu tou
]
"- ,
]
-' civui iou.
Euv cpouc tqv AA, oi evic oto A civui op0c kui IA
2IA. Iiu tou ioiou oou oi evic oto M civui op0c kui AI
2IM. Tu tpievu AMZ, AAI civui iooeviu, oioti oi evic
!
&7% ,
!
&4" civui ioc kui q eviu
!
4&" civui koivq. Apu kui oi evic
!
&%7,
!
&"4 civui ioc.

Apu
ZA
MZ
IA
AI
= kui
ZA
2M
IA
2A %
=
"
. Eacioq
2
ZA
MZ
ZA
MZ 2
= , couc
2
ZA
MZ
IA
AI 2
= , upu
4
ZA
MZ
2
IA
AI 2
= , oquoq
ZK
MZ
IM
AI
= . Kui oiu ouv0c-
oce
KZ
MK
IM
IM AI
=
+
, upu
( )
2
2
2
2
KZ
MK
IM
IM AI
=
+
.

Kui cacioq, otuv tq0ci to
tqu AI oc ukpo kui coo oo
to cutcpo tqu civui q acu-
pu tou acvtuevou, oquoq to AI,
(apotuoq 8) kui to tctpuevo tou
cutcpou tquto uuqcvou
kutu to ioo tou oou civui acvtu-
auoio tou tctpuevou tou ioo
tou oou (apotuoq 1), ioci
(AI IM)
2
5IM
2

Apu MK
2
5KZ
2
.
To KZ
2
civui pqto, oioti q oiuctpo civui pqtq, caocve to MK
2

civui pqto kui to MK civui pqto.
Eaioq civui BZ 4ZK, caocve BK 5ZK kui BK
2
25 ZK
2
,
upu 0u couc BK
2
5 MK
2
. Eacioq to BK
2
apo to MK
2
ocv cci oo
tov oaoio cci tctpuevo upi0o apo tctpuevo upi0o, to BK civui
uoctpo e apo to qko apo to MK. Apu (oevu c tqv apo-
tuoq X.73) to tqu MB civui uaotoq kui to MK civui apooupoou-
ou. Ou ociouc oti civui tctuptq uaotoq.
1ote BK
2
- KM
2
N
2
, oquoq to tctpuevo tou BK uacpcci
uao to tctpuevo tou KM kutu N
2
. Eacioq to KZ civui octpo apo
to BZ, kui to KB KZ ZB civui octpo apo to BZ. Au to BK
civui octpo apo to BO, upu to BK civui octpo apo to BO.
Eacioq
1
5
KM
BK
2
2
= , oi` uvtiotpoq couc
4
5
N
BK
2
2
= , to oaoio
ocv civui oo tctpuevou upi0o apo tctpuevo upi0o, upu to BK
civui uoctpo kutu qko apo to N. Apu to BK
2
uacpcci tou KM
2

l,pn 11

kutu tctpuevo acupu uoctpq (kutu qko) apo to BK kui to
BK civui octpo apo to pqto tqu BO, upu to MB civui tctuptq
uaotoq.
Oe to op0oevio aou acpicctui uao pqto tqu kui tctuptq
uaotoq civui uoo. Eaioq, q acupu tou iooovuou c uuto tctpu-
evou civui uoo, kui ovouctui ocv (apotuoq X. 94)
Eaioq ioci OB = BM AB
2
, oioti to tpievo ABM civui ioo-
evio apo to tpievo ABO kui ioci
$7
$&
=
$&
3$
.
Apu uaooci0qkc oti q acupu tou acvtuevou ocv civui pqtq,
oquoq civui uoo (uppqto), aou ovouctui ocv (Bcac ooio
ctu tqv apotuoq 6).
].B.o.

Hopozqpqoq
Av y civui q acupu tou kuvoviko acvtuevou kui x q acupu
tou kuvoviko ockuevou cpucvou oc kko uktivu r, totc, o-
evu c oou uaooci0qkuv otqv apotuoq 11, 0u ioci q ocoq:
y
2
= x
2
+ r
2
. Oe uao tqv auputqpqoq ctu tqv apotuoq 9, couc
x = ) 1 5 (
2
r
6 . Eaocve:
y
2
= ( )
2
2
r 5 2 6
4
r
+ 6 a y
2
= ( ) 5 2 10
4
r
2
6 ,
Apu iu tqv acupu y tou kuvoviko acvtuevou ccpucvou oc
kko uktivu r 0u couc y = 5 2 10
2
r
6 . Aaoocikvctui oti to y
e oiuopu cu0puev tqutev puctui
y = 5 2 5
2
r
5 2 5
2
r
6 6 + , to oaoio e cu0ciu civui cuooev.

Hxooq 12 (XIII. 12)
Ev oe uuzo e,,poe ionzeopo zp,ovo, zo zezp,ovo zq
nzeop zoo zpi,ovoo evoi zpinzoio zoo zezpo,ovoo zq ouz-
vo zoo uuzoo.

Anctq
Epuouc iooacupo tpievo
ABI oc kko c kcvtpo A. Hpocktci-
vouc tqv AA, q oaoiu tcvci tov kko
oto E. Ou uaooci0ci oti AB
2
3AE
2
.
Eacioq to tpievo ABI civui ioo-
acupo, to too
]
" BE civui to cvu tpi-
to tq acpicpciu tou kkou, upu to
too
]
$# civui to cvu ckto tq acpic-
pciu tou kkou kui to tqu BE civui
ioo c tqv uktivu tou kkou (apotuoq
IV.15, aopiou). Eacioq AE 2AE, c-
ouc AE
2
4 AE
2
, oquoq AE
2
4 BE
2
. Ioci AB
2
AE
2
BE
2
, upu
AB
2
3 BE
2
, oquoq AB
2
3 AE
2
.
].B.o.

4. Kovovtk xcxco - Koxookcvq

Hxooq 13 (XIII.13)
No uozooueooo0e nopouo (: uovoviu zezpepo), vo e,,po-
e oe oouvq oopo uoi vo onoei0e zi zo zezp,ovo zq
iouzpoo zq oopo evoi zo zpo ezepo zoo zezpo,ovoo
zq nzeop zq nopouo.

Anctq
1ote AB q oiuctpo tq
ouipu. Tcvouc to tqu AB
oto oqcio I, eotc to tqu AI vu
civui oiauoio tou IB kui puou-
c qikkio oiuctpou AB. Lto
oqcio I cpouc ku0ctq oto tq-
u AB, q oaoiu tcvci to qikkio
oto oqcio A kui cpouc to tqu
AA.

l,pn 12

l,pn 13

Kozooueoq zoo zezpopoo.
Ocepoc tov kko c kcvtpo O
kui uktivu AI kui cpuouc iooacupo
tpievo ZEH. Lto oqcio O uevouc
ku0ctq oto caiacoo tou kkou kui auip-
vouc tqu OK ioo c AI (L. 13u).
H cu0ciu OK e ku0ctq oto cai-
acoo tou kkou, civui ku0ctq oti cu0ci-
c OE, OZ, OH.
Eacioq to tqu AI civui ioo c
to OK, kui to IA ioo apo to OE kui c-
acioq acpicouv op0c evic, to AA civui ioo c to KE (apotuoq I.4).
Iiu tov ioio oo ku0cvu uao tu tqutu KZ, KH iootui c to AA.
Apu KE KZ KH.
Eacioq to tqu AI civui oiauoio tou IB, to AB civui tpiauoio
tou BI.
Eaioq, oae uaoocikvctui oto qu aou ukoou0ci, ioci q
ocoq:
2
2
AI
AA
BI
AB
= .
Apu AA
2
3 AI
2
. Eaioq ioci ZE
2
3 EO
2
(apotuoq 12),
kui cacioq AI EO, cactui oti: AA EZ.
Au to AA oci0qkc ioo c ku0cvu uao tu KE, KZ, KH kui ku-
0cvu uao tu EZ, ZH, HE civui ioo c ku0cvu uao tu KE, KZ, KH. Apu
tu tpievu EZH, KHZ, KZH, KEH civui iooacupu.
Eaocve kutuokcuuo0qkc aupuiou, aou uaotccitui uao tco-
ocpu iooacupu tpievu, q uoq tq oaoiu civui to iooacupo tpievo
EZH kui kopuq tq to oqcio K.

E,,poq oe oopo.
Hpocktcivouc to tqu KO kutu tqu OA IB. Eacioq
IB
IA
IA
AI
= (apotuoq VI, 8) AI KO, IA OE kui IB OA couc
OA
EO
OE
KO
= upu KO = OA EO
2
.
Eaioq, oi evic
!
3# K ,
!
#34 civui op0c. Eaocve to qik-
kio c oiuctpo KA 0u oic0ci uao to E, (oioti, uv cpouc to EA, q e-
viu
!
4#, ivctui op0q, cooov to tpievo EAK civui iooevio apo ku-

l,pn 13

0cvu uao tu tpievu EAO, EOK). Euv oiaov acpiotpcouc to qi-
kkio oiutqpevtu otu0cpq tqv KA, totc uuto 0u oic0ci kui uao tu oq-
ciu Z, H. Eaocve q aupuiou cpuctui otq ouipu oiuctpou KA.

H oopo evoi q oouvq.
H oiuctpo KA tq ouipu civui ioq apo tq oiuctpo AB tq
ooocvq ouipu, cacioq to tqu AI civui ioo apo to KO kui to IB
civui ioo apo to OA.

1o zezp,ovo zq iouzpoo zq oopo evoi zo zpo ezepo
zoo zezpo,ovoo zq nzeop zq nopouo.
Eacioq AI 2 IB couc AB 3IB, upu BA
AI. Eaioq
oae apokatci uao tqv uaoociq tou quto aou ukoou0ci, AA
2
=
BA =AI, oaotc
= . Eaocve 0u couc: BA
2
=
AA
2
,
oaou AB civui q oiuctpo tq ooocvq ouipu kui to tqu AA i-
ootui c tqv acupu tq aupuiou.
].B.o.

Aqo
2
2
AI
AA
BI
AB
=

Anctq
Ocepoc (L. 13) to apo-
qocvo qikkio kui kutuokcu-
uouc to tctpuevo AIZE kui to
op0oevio BIZH. Eacioq to tpi-
evo AAB civui iooevio apo to
tpievo AAI ioci:
AI
AA
AA
BA
= ,
upu BA = AI AA
2
.
Oe ioouv oi ococi:
( )
( )
= , (ABHE) AB = AI AA
2
kui (BIZH) BI=AI AI
2
,
uao oaou apokatci q apo uaoociq ocoq.

l,pn 13

Hopozqpqoq
Av r civui q uktivu tq acpicpucvq ouipu kui x q ukq tq
aupuiou aou kutuokcuuo0qkc (oquoq q acupu tou kuvoviko tc-
tpucopou), totc oae uaooci0qkc, ioci q ocoq:
4r
2
=
2
3
x
2
, upu x = r 6
3
2
r
3
2
2 = .

5. Kovovtk okxco - koxookcvq

Hxooq 14 (XIII. 14)
No uozooueooo0e uovoviu ouzepo uoi vo e,,poe oe oo-
po, no ,ive npoq,oouvo ue zqv nopouo, uoi vo onoei-
0e zi zo zezp,ovo zq iouzpoo zq oopo evoi inzoio
on zo zezp,ovo zq nzeop zoo ouzopoo.

Anctq
1ote AB q oiuctpo tq
ooocvq ouipu kui I to coo
tq. Ocepoc to qikkio oiuc-
tpou AB kui tqv ku0ctq apo tqv
AB oto oqcio I, q oaoiu tcvci to
qikkio oto oqcio A kui cpou-
c to tqu AB.

Kozooueoq zoo ouzopoo.
Kutuokcuuouc tctpuevo EZHO c acupu ioq c AB kui cote
K to oqcio toq tev OZ, EH. Lto oqcio K uevouc ku0ctq oto
caiacoo tou tctpuevou kui ckutcpe0cv tou caiacoou auipvouc tqu-
tu KA, KM iou c tu tqutu KE, KZ, KH, KO. 4cpouc tu tqutu
AE, AZ, AH, AO, ME, MZ, MH, MO (L. 14u).
Eacioq KE KO kui q eviu
!
3 EK civui op0q, couc OE
2
2 EK
2
.
.

Eacioq ioci: AK KE kui q eviu
!
4,# civui op0q, couc EA
2
=
2 EK
2
. Apu AE
2
EO
2
, oaotc AE EO. Iiu tov ioio oo AO OE.
Apu to tpievo AEO civui iooacupo. Mc tov ioio tpoao uaoocikvouc
oti ku0cvu uao tu uaooiau tpievu, tev oaoiev oi uoci civui oi

l,pn 14

acupc tou tctpuevou EZHO kui
kopuc tu oqciu A, M civui ioo-
acupu. Eaocve kutuokcuuotqkc
oktucopo, to oaoio acpicctui oc o-
kte iooacupu tpievu.

E,,poq oe oopo.
Eacioq AK KM KE, to E
uvqkci oto qikkio oiuctpou AM.
Iiu tov ioio oo, uv acpiotpuci to
qikkio kui cauvc0ci otqv upikq
tou 0coq, oiutqpevtu otu0cpq tq
AM, 0u oic0ci kui uao tu oqciu Z,
H, O. Apu to oktucopo cpuctui oc ouipu oiuctpou AM.

Eacioq AE EM kui q eviu
!
4EM civui op0q, couc AM
2
=
2 AE
2
. Eaioq, cacioq AI IB, ioci AB 2 BI.
Eaiacov ioci
2
2
BA
AB
BI
AB
= (apotuoq VI. 8 kui iio V opioo 9).
Eaocve AB
2
2 BA
2
.

Aaooci0qkc oe oti AM
2
2 AE
2
kui ukou ioci oti AB
2
=
AE
2
, oioti EO AB. Apu 0u civui AB
2
AM
2
, oquoq AB AM.
Eaocve q oiuctpo AM tq ouipu iootui c tq oiuctpo
tq ooocvq ouipu AB kui tuutopovu uaooci0qkc oti to tctpuevo
tq oiuctpou tq ouipu civui oiauoio uao to tctpuevo tq acupu
tou oktucopou.
].B.o.

Hopozqpqoq
Av r civui q uktivu tq acpicpucvq ouipu kui x q ukq tou
oktucopou aou kutuokcuuo0qkc, oquoq tou kuvoviko oktucopou, u-
aooci0qkc oti ioci q ocoq: 4r
2
= 2x
2
. Eaocve 0u couc
x = r 2 =

l,pn 14

6. Kovovtk cco (: ko) - koxookcvq

Hxooq 15 (XIII. 15)
No uozooueooo0e uo uoi vo e,,poe oe oopo, no ,ive
npoq,oouvo uoi ue zqv nopouo, uoi vo ei0e zi zo ze-
zp,ovo zq iouzpoo zq oopo evoi zpinzoio on zo
zezp,ovo zq nzeop zoo uoo.

Anctq
1ote AB q oiuctpo tq oo-
ocvq ouipu, tqv oaoiu tcvouc
oto oqcio I, eotc AI 2 IB. Lto
oqcio I cpouc ku0ctq otqv cu0ciu
AB, q oaoiu tcvci to qikkio oiu-
ctpou AB oto oqcio A.

Kozooueoq zoo uoo.
Ocepoc (L. 15u) tctpu-
evo EZHO c acupu ioq apo to
tqu AB. Ltu oqciu E, Z, H, O
cpouc ku0ctc oto caiacoo tou
tctpuevou kui auipvouc tqutu
EK, ZA, HM, ON iou apo tqv
acupu tou tctpuevou kui apo to
ioio cpo e apo to caiacoo tou
tctpuevou. Eaocve kutuokcuu-
o0qkc ko o oaoio acpicctui oc
ci iou tctpuevu.

E,,poq oe oopo.
4cpouc tu tqutu KH, EH. Eacioq q cu0ciu KE civui ku0ctq
oto caiacoo EZHO, q eviu H E
K civui op0q, upu to qikkio oiuc-

tpou KH 0u oic0ci uao to oqcio E. Eaioq, cacioq q cu0ciu HZ civui
ku0ctq oti cu0cic EZ, ZA 0u civui ku0ctq kui otqv cu0ciu KZ, upu to
qikkio oiuctpou KH 0u oic0ci kui uao to Z. Iiu tov ioio oo, uv
to qikkio acpiotpuci oiutqpevtu otu0cpq tqv KH, 0u oic0ci kui
uao ti uaooiac kopuc tou kou, uo cauvc0ci otqv upikq tou
0coq.
l,pn 15

l,pn 15

Eacioq HZ EZ kui q eviu
!
EZH civui op0q couc EH
2
2 EZ
2
.
Eaioq EK EZ kui q eviu
!
KEH civui op0q, upu KH
2
KE
2
EH
2
.
Eaocve couc KH
2
3 EZ
2
.
Eaioq civui AB 3BI kui
2
2
AB
AB
BI
AB
= , upu ioci AB
2
3 BA
2
.
Aaooci0qkc caioq oti HK
2
3EZ
2
kui couc EZ AB, caoc-
ve KH AB, oquoq q oiuctpo KH iootui apo tq ooocvq oiuc-
tpo AB.
Aaooci0qkc oiaov oti to tctpuevo tq oiuctpou tq acpic-
pucvq ouipu tou kou civui tpiauoio uao to tctpuevo tq
acupu (ukq) tou kou.
].B.o.

Hopozqpqoq
Av r civui q uktivu tq acpicpucvq ouipu kui x q ukq tou
kou, totc, oae uaooci0qkc, ioci q ocoq:
4r
2
= 3x
2
, oaotc 0u civui x = r 3
3
2
.

7. Kovovtk ctkooco koxookcvq

Hxooq 16 (XIII. 16)
No uozooueooo0e (uovoviu) eiuooepo uoi vo e,,poe oe
oopo, no ,ive uoi ue zo npoq,ouevo oquozo, uoi vo o-
noei0e zi q nzeop zoo eiuooepoo evoi ppqzo, q ze,-
uevq ezooov.
Anctq
Bqo 1
o

E,,poq uovoviuo nevzo-
,ovoo oe uuzo, zoo onooo zo
zezp,ovo zq ouzvo ioozoi ue
zo 1/5 zoo zezpo,ovoo zq iou-
zpoo zq oopo.

l,pn 16

1ote AB q oiuctpo tq ooocvq ouipu kui cote I oqcio
tq oiuctpou AB tctoio eotc AI 4IB. Mc oiuctpo to tqu AB
puouc qikkio kui oto oqcio I cpouc ku0ctq otqv AB, q o-
aoiu tcvci to qikkio oto oqcio A, kui cvevouc tu oqciu B, A.
Ocepoc kko kcvtpou 4 c uktivu ioq apo BA kui kuvoviko
acvtuevo EZHOK ccpucvo otov aupuauve kko. Aiotooc
tu tou EZ, ZH, HO, OK, KE otu oqciu A, M, N, E, O kui cpouc tu
tqutu AM, MN, NE, EO, OA, EO. To acvtuevo AMNEO civui cai-
oq kuvoviko kui to cu0puo tqu EO civui acupu kuvoviko oc-
kuevou ccpucvou otov aupuauve kko.
Ltu oqciu E, Z, H, O, K uevouc ku0ctc oto caiacoo tou k-
kou, auipvouc tqutu EH, ZP, HL, OT, KY iou c tqv uktivu tou
kkou kui cpouc tu tqutu HP, PL, LT, TY, YH, HA, AP, PM,
ML, LN, NT, TE, EY, YO, OH.

l,pn 16 l,pn 16
1o nevz,ovo HP21Y evoi uovoviu.
Hpuuti, uo oi cu0cic EH, KY civui ku0ctc oto ioio caiacoo,
civui ctu tou aupuqc. Eaioq tu tqutu EH, KY civui iou.
Eaocve tu tqutu HY, EK civui iou. Apu to tqu HY civui ioo c
tqv acupu tou kuvoviko acvtuevou EZHOK. Iiu tov ioio oo tu
tqutu HP, PL, LT, TY civui iou c tqv acupu tou kuvoviko acvtu-
evou EZHOK . Apu to acvtuevo HPLTY civui kuvoviko.

Bqo 2
o

1o zp,ovo HOY uoi HAO evoi ionzeopo.
Eacioq HE civui acupu kuvoviko cuevou, EO kuvoviko oc-
kuevou kui q eviu
!
SEO civui op0q, to tqu HO iootui c tqv

acupu tou kuvovikou acvtuevou
.
oioti to tctpuevo tq acupu tou
acvtuevou civui ioo c to tctpuevo tq acupu tou cuevou ouv to
tctpuevo tq acupu tou ockuevou.
Iiu tov ioio oo to OY iooutui c tqv acupu tou kuvovikou ac-
vtuevou.
To tqu HY cci qoq uaooci0ci ioo c tqv acupu tou kuvovi-
kou acvtuevou. Apu to tpievo HOY civui iooacupo.
Iiu tov ioio oo kui tu tpievu HAP, PML, LNT, TEY civui i-
ooacupu.
2quoq Mc uuto tov tpoao kutuokcuuo0qkuv qoq oi ocku
(10) uao ti cikooi (20) copc tou qtoucvou cikooucopou.
Eaioq, uou ku0c tqu HA, HO uaooci0qkc ioo c tqv acu-
pu tou kuvovikou acvtuevou kui to tqu AO civui acupu tou kuvo-
vikou acvtuevou, cactui oti to tpievo HAO civui iooacupo.
Iiu tov ioio oo ku0cvu uao tu tpievu APM, MLN, NTE, EYO
civui iooacupu.

Kuoq ,q
Lto kcvtpo 4 tou kukou aou
0cepqouc oto Bqu 1
o
uevouc
ku0ctq oto caiacoo tou kukou kui
auipvouc apo to uuto cpo oiu-
ooiku tqutu 4X , XO iou c
tqv acupu tou kuvovikou cuevou
kui tou ockuevou uvtiotoiu, kui
apo to uo cpo tqu 41 ioo
c tqv acupu tou kuvovikou ocku-
evou.
Eacioq 4X, HE civui iou tq-
utu kui ku0ctu oto caiacoo tou ku-
kou, cactui oti civui iou kui aupuqu
.
Apu to HX iooutui c tqv
acupu tou kuvovikou cuevou.
1o p,ovo HDY vi inzopo
Hpuuti, cacioq HX civui acupu kuvovikou cuevou, XO
acupu kuvovikou ockuevou kui q eviu
! X civui op0q, cactui oti

to tqu HO iooutui c tqv acupu tou kuvovikou acvtuevou (apotu-

oq 10). Iiu tov ioio oo to tqu
YO iooutui c tqv acupu tou ku-
vovikou acvtuevou. Apu to tpi-
evo HOY civui iooacupo. Iiu
tov ioio oo ku0cvu uao tu uao-
oiau tpievu c uoci HP, PL,
LT, TY kui kopuq to O civui cai-
oq iooacupo.
Ooie, tu tpievu 1AM,
1MN, 1NE, 1EO, 1OA civui kui
uutu iooacupu.
Kutuokcuuo0qkuv ctoi oi uaooiac ocku (10) copc tou
qtoucvou cikooucopou. Apu kutuokcuuotqkc cikooucopo aou acpikcic-
tui uao cikooi iooacupu tpievu.

q
o
To tkoo yy!t q o0 !
! !
Eacioq 4X civui acupu kuvovikou cuevou kui XO acupu ku-
vovikou ockuevou, to tqu 4O cci oiuipc0ci oc coo kui ukpo oo
oto X (apotuoq 9) kui 4X civui to cuutcpo tqu tq oiuipcoq. Ii`
uuto to oo iouci:
XO
4X
4X
O4
. Eaioq 4X 4E kui XO 4Y,
upu
4Y
4E
4E
O4
.
Oi evic
civui op0c, upu q eviu
civui
op0q, oe tq ooiotqtu tev tpievev O4E, E41 (apotuoq VI. 8).
Iiu tov ioio oo, uou
XO
4X
4X
O4
, O4 1X kui 4X XH, cactui oti
XO
HX
XH
1X
,
oaotc q eviu
! civui op0q (apotuoq VI. 8). Apu to qikukio

oiuctpou 1O oicpctui uao to oqcio H.

Kui uv to qikukio acpiotpuci upe uao to O1 kui cauvc0ci
otqv ioiu 0coq uao tqv oaoiu ckivqoc, 0u oic0ci uao to H kui tu uao-
oiau oqciu tou cikooucopou.

1ote A to coo tou tquto 4X. Ao
to 4O cci oiuipc0ci oc coo kui ukpo oo oto
X kui XO civui to ikpotcpo tqu, couc:
(OA)
2
5 (AX)
2
(apotuoq 3). Eaioq O1
2 OA kui 4X 2 AX, upu (O1)
2
5 (4X)
2

kui uo AI 4 IB, cactui oti AB 5 BI.
Ioci caioq q ocoq
2
2
BA
AB
BI
AB
= (apo-
tuoci VI. 8 kui V. 9). Apu (AB)
2
= 5 (BA)
2
.
Eaioq, BA kui 4X civui iou c tqv ukti-
vu tou kkou EZHOK, oaotc AB 1O. Apu
1O civui oiuctpo tq ooocvq ouipu.

Bqo 5
o
H nzeop zoo eiuooepoo evoi ppqzq.
Eacioq q oiuctpo tq ouipu civui pqtq kui to tctpuevo tq
civui iooovuo apo to acvtuauoio tctpuevo tq uktivu tou kkou
civui pqtq kui q uktivu tou kkou. ki p iono oo kkoo i-
vi pp.
Euv oc oc kko c pqtq oiuctpo cpuci kuvoviko acvtuevo
q acupu tou acvtuevou civui uoo (uppqtq), kui cctui ocv.
H acupu tou acvtuevou EZHOK civui q acupu tou cikoouc-
opou.
].B.o.

Hopozqpqoq
Av r civui q uktivu tq acpicpucvq ouipu, totc q uktivu
tou kkou uao tov oaoio ivctui q kutuokcuq tou cikooucopou civui
r
5
2
p = .
H uktivu tou ccpucvou acvtuevou civui:
( ) 5 5 10
5
r
5 2 10
5
r
5 2 10
2
p
6 = 6 = 6

l,pn 16

8. Kovovtk eckco - koxookcvq

Hxooq 17 (XIII. 17)
No uozooueooo0e uovoviu oeuepo uoi vo e,,poe oe
oopo, no ,ive uoi ue zo npoq,ouevo oquozo, uoi vo ono-
ei0e zi q nzeop zoo oeuopoo evoi ppqzq, q ze,uevq
onozouq.

Bqo 1
o

Kozooueoq

l,pn 17 l,pn 17
Ocepoc tov ko aou kutuokcuuo0qkc otqv apotuoq 15. Huip-
vouc oo caiacou ku0ctu ctu tou, tu ABIA, IBEZ kui tcvouc
ti acupc AB, BI, IA, AA, EZ, EB, ZI otu cou H, O, K, A, M, N, E.
1ote O to oqcio toq tev NE, MO kui H to oqcio toq tev OA,
HK. Aiuipoc ku0cvu uao tu tqutu NO, OE, OH oc ukpo kui coo
oo otu oqciu P, L, T, c cutcpu tqutu tev oiuipcocev tu PO,
OL, TH.
Ltu oqciu P, L, T uevouc ku0ctc otu caiacou tou kou kui
cetcpiku tou kou auipvouc tqutu PY, L4, TX iou c PO, OL,
TH kui cpouc tu tqutu YB, BX, XI, I4, 4Y.

Bqo 2
o

To ncvxncvo YBXId cvot toncvo, cnnco kot tooyovto.
1o nevz,ovo evoi ionzeopo.

Aouc tu tqutu PB, LB, 4B.
Eacioq to tqu NO oiuipcitui oto oqcio P oc ukpo kui coo
oo kui to cutcpo tqu civui to PO ioci:
ON
2
NP
2
3 OP
2
(apotuoq 4)
Eaioq, ON NB kui OP PY.
Apu BN
2
NP
2
3 PY
2
.
Eaiacov BN
2
NP
2
BP
2
( apotuoq I. 47)
Apu BP
2
3PY
2
, kutu ouvcaciu BP
2
PY
2
4 PY
2
kui cacioq
BP
2
PY
2
BY
2
, cactui oti BY
2
4 PY
2
.
Apu BY 2 PY.
Eaioq 4Y 2PY, oioti LP 2OP, oquoq LP 2 PY.
Luvcae BY Y4.
Ooie uaoocikvctui oti ku0c tqu uao tu BX, XI, I4 civui
ioo apo tu BY, Y4.

1o nevz,ovo evoi enneo.
Lto oqcio O uevouc ku0ctq oto caiacoo tou kou kui ce-
tcpiku tou kou auipvouc tqu O1 ioo c PY.
4cpouc tu tqutu 1O, OX kui 0u ociouc oti q 1OX civui cu0ciu.
Eacioq to tqu OH oiuipcitui oto T oc ukpo kui coo oo kui
to cutcpo tqu civui to HT, couc
TO
HT
HT
OH
= . Eaioq OH OO
kui HT TX O1. Apu
TO
XT
O1
OO
=
H cu0ciu OO civui aupuqq otqv TX, cacioq kui oi oo civui
ku0ctc oto ioio caiacoo (apotuoq XI. 6).
H cu0ciu TO civui aupuqq apo tqv cu0ciu O1, cacioq kui oi
oo civui ku0ctc oto ioio caiacoo. Kui uv oo tpievu, oae tu 1OO,
OTX tu oaoiu couv oo acupc uvuoc, toao0ctq0ov ui oc iu
eviu (couv koivq kopuq to O) kui oi oooc acupc civui aupu-
qc, totc oi uc oo acupc 0u piokovtui otqv ioiu cu0ciu (apo-
tuoq VI. 32).
Apu tu tqutu 1O, OX piokovtui otqv ioiu cu0ciu. Ku0c cu-
0ciu piokctui oc cvu caiacoo (apotuoq XI. 1).
Apu oc cvu caiacoo 0u piokctui kui to acvtuevo YBXI4.

1o nevz,ovo evoi ioo,ovio.
Eacioq to tqu NO oiuipcitui oto oqcio P oc coo kui ukpo
oo c cutcpo tqu to PO, to tqu NL oiuipcitui oto O oc u-
kpo kui coo oo c cutcpo tqu to NO (apotuoq 5).
Apu NL
2
LO
2
3 NO
2
(apotuoq 4).
Eaioq NO NB kui OL L4. Apu NL
2
L4
2
3 NB
2
, caoc-
ve 4L
2
LN
2
NB
2
4 NB
2
.
Eacioq LN
2
NB
2
LB
2
(apotuoq I. 47), cactui oti BL
2
L4
2
=
4 NB
2
, oquoq B4
2
4 NB
2
.
Apu B4 2 BN. Eaioq, BI 2 BN, upu B4 BI.
Eacioq BY BX, Y4 IX kui B4 BI tu tpievu BY4, BXI
civui iou, upu q eviu BY4 civui ioq c tq eviu BXI.
Ooie uaoocikvouc oti q eviu Y4I civui ioq c tq eviu
BXI. Apu oi tpci evic BXI, BY4, Y4I civui ctu tou ioc. Euv
oc iooacupo acvtuevo oi tpci evic civui ioc ctu tou, to acvtu-
evo civui iooevio (apotuoq 7). Apu to acvtuevo BY4IX civui ioo-
evio. Eaocve to acvtuevo BY4IX civui kuvoviko (kui "auve" uao
tqv acupu BI tou kou).
Euv c ku0c iu uao ti oeocku acupc tou kou kutuokcuu-
oouc c tov ioio tpoao acvtuevu, 0u kutuokcuuo0ci otcpco oqu, to
oaoio acpicctui oc oeocku kuvoviku acvtuevu, kui to oaoio kucitui
ckoo.

Bqo 3
o

E,,poq oe oopo
Hpocktcivouc tqv cu0ciu 1O kui cote O to oqcio toq c tq
oiuevio tou kou.
To oqcio O civui to kcvtpo tq ouipu aou acpiuuvci tov
ko kui to tqu OO civui to ioo tq acupu tou kou. Eacioq to
tqu NL oiuipcitui oto O oc ukpo kui coo oo kui cutcpo tq-
u civui to NO, couc: NL
2
LO
2
3 NO
2
(apotuoq 4)
Eaiacov NL 1O, NO OO, 1O OL kui OL 1Y.
Apu O1
2
1Y
2
3 NO
2
.
Eacioq O1
2
1Y
2
OY
2
(apotuoq I. 47) cactui YO
2
3 NO
2
.
Eaioq, to tctpuevo tq uktivu tq ouipu aou acpiuuvci
tov ko, civui tpiauoio uao to tctpuevo tou ioo tq acupu tou
kou (apotuoq 15).
Kui cacioq to tqu NO civui to ioo tq acupu tou kou, to

tqu YO civui ioo c tqv uktivu tq ouipu aou acpiuuvci tov
ko. Apu to oqcio Y uvqkci otqv caiuvciu tq ouipu.

Bqo 4
o

H nzeop zoo oeuopoo evoi ppqzq, oozq noo ovouezoi uoi
onozouq.
Eacioq to tqu NO cci oiuipc0ci oto oqcio P oc ukpo kui coo
oo c cutcpo tqu to PO kui cacioq to tqu OE cci oiuipc0ci
oc ukpo kui coo oo oto oqcio L c cutcpo tqu to OL, uv to
tqu NE oiuipc0ci oc ukpo kui coo oo, totc to tqu PL 0u civui to
cutcpo.
Ioci
NP
OP
OP
NO
= , upu
2NN
2PP
2PP
2NN
= , oaotc
LE PN
PL
PL
NE
+
=
(oiuipcoq tq acupu tou kou oc ukpo kui coo oo apotuoq V.15).
Eaocve NE > PL, upu PL > PN LE.
Apu to tqu NE oiuipcitui oc ukpo kui coo oo c cutc-
po tqu to PL. Eaioq PL Y4. Eaocve, uv to tqu NE oiuipc-
0ci oc ukpo kui coo oo, totc to cutcpo tqu tq oiuipcoq ci-
vui to Y4. Kui cacioq q oiuctpo tq ouipu civui pqtq kui to tctpu-
evo tq civui tpiauoio uao to tctpuevo tq acupu tou kou, cac-
tui oti kui q acupu tou kou civui pqtq.
Euv oe cvu pqto tqu oiuipc0ci oc ukpo kui coo oo, totc
ku0cvu uao tu tqutu tq oiuipcoq civui uppqto kui cctui aooup.
Apu q acupu Y4 tou oeockucopou civui uppqto uaotoq.
].B.o.

Hptoo
Ozov q nzeop zoo uoo ioipe0e oe upo uoi uoo z,o, zo
ue,ozzepo zuquo zq iopeoq evoi q nzeop zoo oeuo-
poo.

Hopozqpqoq
Av q ukq tou kou kui r q uktivu tq ouipu, totc q acu-
pu u tou oeockucopou aou kutuokcuuo0qkc civui:
u
2
1 5 6
upu u ( ) ( ) 3 15
3
r
5
3
r
6 = 6

9. Lykptoq xev ncvpev xev kovovtkev oxcpcev.
Lvncpooo

No euze0ov oi nzeop zov
nvze ozepeov oquzov noo
uozooueoo0quov uoi vo oo-
,upi0ov uezo zoo.

Anctq
1ote AB q oiuctpo tq oo-
ocvq ouipu kui I, A oqciu tq
tctoiu, eotc AI IB kui AA 2AB.
Mc oiuctpo AB puouc q-
ikkio kui otu oqciu I, A cpou-
c ku0ctc otqv AB oi oaoic tc-
vouv to qikkio otu oqciu E, Z uvtiotoiu.
Eacioq AA 2AB, couc AB 3AB. Apu oi` uvtiotpoq, BA
=
2
3
AA. Eaioq
2
2
AA
BA
&%
$&
= , oioti to tpievo AZB civui iooevio apo
to tpievo AZA (apotuoq VI. 8).
Apu AB
2
=
2
3
AZ
2
. Oe, to tctpuevo tq oiuctpou tq oui-
pu civui tu tpiu octcpu tou tctpuevou tq acupu tq aupuiou
(apotuoq 13), upu to tqu AZ iootui c tqv acupu tq aupuiou.
Eaioq, uao tqv ooiotqtu tev tpievev ABZ, BZA couc:
2
2
BZ
AB
BA
AB
= , upu AB
2
3BZ
2
.
Oe, to tctpuevo tq oiuctpou tq ouipu civui tpiauoio
uao to tctpuevo tq acupu tou kou (apotuoq 15). Apu to tqu
BZ civui q acupu tou kou.
Eaioq, cacioq AI IB, couc AB
2
2BE
2
. Kui to tctpuevo tq
oiuctpou tq ouipu civui oiauoio uao to tctpuevo tq acupu tou
oktucopou (apotuoq 14). Apu to tqu BE civui q acupu tou oktucopou.
Lto oqcio A cpouc ku0ctq otqv AB kui auipvouc tqu AH ioo
c AB. 4cpouc tqv HI, q oaoiu tcvci to qikkio oto oqcio O kui uao
to O cpouc cu0ciu ku0ctq otqv AB, q oaoiu tcvci tqv AB oto K.
l,pu 18

Eacioq AH 2AI kui
KI
OK
AI
AH
= couc KO 2KI.
Apu KO
2
4KI
2
kui cacioq IO
2
KO
2
KI
2
, couc IO
2
=
5KI
2
, upu BI
2
5IK
2
.
Eacioq AB 2IB kui AA 2AB couc AB 2IA, upu BI 3IA,
kui BI
2
9IA
2
. Kutu ouvcaciu IK
2
> IA
2
, caocve couc IK > IA.
Huipvouc tqu IA ioo apo to IK kui oto oqcio A cpouc
ku0ctq otqv AB, q oaoiu tcvci to qikkio oto oqcio M.
Eacioq BI
2
= 5KI
2
, AB 2BI kui KA 2KI couc AB
2
=
5KA
2
. Oe, to tctpuevo tq oiuctpou tq ouipu civui acvtu-
auoio tou tctpuevou tq uktivu tou kkou uao tov oaoio kutu-
okcuuo0qkc to cikooucopo (apotuoq 16), upu to KA civui q uktivu tou
kkou uao tov oaoio kutuokcuuo0qkc to cikooucopo. 1toi, to KA i-
ootui c tqv acupu tou kuvoviko cuevou, to oaoio cpuctui
otov kko aou apouvucpuc (apotuoq IV.15). Kui cacioq q oiuctpo
tq ouipu uaotccitui uao iu acupu kuvoviko cuevou kui oo
acupc kuvoviko ockuevou oi oaoic cpuovtui otov kko aou
apouvucpuc (apotuoq 16) kui cacioq to AB civui q oiuctpo tq
ouipu, KA q acupu tou kuvoviko cuevou kui AK AB, ouac-
puivouc oti tu tqutu AK, AB civui iou c tqv acupu tou kuvoviko
ockuevou. Ioci caioq MA OK, oioti uacouv to ioio uao to kc-
vtpo, upu MA KA. Aao to op0oevio tpievo MAB couc MB
2
=
MA
2
AB
2
, caocve to MB iootui c tqv acupu tou kuvoviko
acvtuevou (apotuoq 10). H acupu oe tou acvtuevou civui acupu
tou cikooucopou (apotuoq 16), upu to tqu MB civui q acupu tou
cikooucopou.
Tcvouc to tqu BZ, to oaoio civui q acupu tou kou, oc
ukpo kui coo oo oto oqcio N c cutcpo tqu to NB. Apu to
tqu NB civui q acupu tou oeockucopou (apotuoq 17, aopiou ).
1ci oe uaooci0ci oti to tctpuevo tq oiuctpou tq ouipu
civui tu tpiu octcpu tou tctpuevou tq acupu AZ tq aupuiou, oi-
auoio tou tctpuevou tq acupu BE tou oktucopou kui tpiauoio
tou tctpuevou tq acupu ZB tou kou. Av to tctpuevo tq oiu-
ctpou tq ouipu civui ioo c ci tctpuevu, totc to tctpuevo tq
acupu tq aupuiou civui ioo c tcoocpu tctoiu tctpuevu, to tc-
tpuevo tq acupu tou oktucopou civui ioo c tpiu tctoiu tctpuevu
kui to tctpuevo tq acupu tou kou civui ioo c oo tctoiu tc-
tpuevu.

Eaocve to tctpuevo tq acupu tq aupuiou civui tu tco-
ocpu tpitu tou tctpuevou tq acupu tou oktucopou kui caioq oi-
auoio uao to tctpuevo tq acupu tou kou. To tctpuevo tq
acupu tou oktucopou civui tu tpiu octcpu tou tctpuevou tq acu-
pu tou kou.
Oi acupc tev tpiev oqutev ti oaoic apouvucpuc, oquoq
tq aupuiou, tou oktucopou kui tou kou piokovtui q iu apo tqv
uq oc pqto oo, civui oquoq ctu tou pqtc.
Oi uaooiac oo, oquoq oi acupc tou cikooucopou kui tou oe-
ockucopou, ocv civui otc ctu tou pqtc otc pqtc apo ti apoq-
ocvc acupc, uo civui uppqtc, q iu e ocv (apotuoq 16)
kui q uq e aooup (apotuoq 17).
H acupu MB tou cikooucopou civui cutcpq uao tqv acupu
NB tou oeockucopou. Hpuuti, cacioq to tpievo ZAB civui iooevio
apo to tpievo ZAB, ioci q uvuoiu
AB
BZ
BZ
AB
= , uao tqv oaoiu
apokatci oti
2
2
BZ
AB
AB
AB
= . Eaocve 0u ioci
2
2
AB
BZ
BA
AB
= .
Ioci caioq q ocoq AB 3AB, upu BZ
2
3BA
2
.
Eaioq couc AA
2
4BA
2
.
Apu AA
2
> BZ
2
kui AA > BZ. Eacioq to oqcio K oiuipci to AA
oc ukpo kui coo oo c cutcpo tqu to KA ( apotuoq 9) kui
caioq to N oiuipci to BZ oc ukpo kui coo oo c cutcpo tqu
to NB, couc KA > NB. Eaioq KA AM, upu AM > NB kui kutu
ciovu oo MB > NB.
].B.o.

Hopozqpqoq
1ote r q uktivu tq ouipu. Totc oi acupc tev acvtc otcpcev aou
kutuokcuuotqkuv oivovtui, e ouvuptqoq tq uktivu r, uao tou taou:
acupu tctpucopou u
4
= r 6
3
2
=
acupu oktucopou u
8
= r 2 =
acupu kou u
6
= r 3
3
2
=

acupu cikooucopou u
20
= ( ) 5 5 10
5
r
6
acupu oeockucopou u
12
= ( ) 3 15
3
r
6
Eaioq uaooci0qkc oti ioouv oi ococi:
4r
2
=
2
6
2
8
2
4
3u 2u u
2
3
= = .
Tu tqutu 2r, u
4
, u
6
, u
8
civui pqtu c tqv cvvoiu tou Eukcioq
(cac ooio ctu tqv apotuoq 6), cve tu tqutu u
20
, u
12
civui uppqtu.
Euou, oae uaooci0qkc kui ckou oiuaiotevctui kui uao tov
aio auve kutuoo, ioci q ocoq: u
6
u
8

< u
4
.
H ocoq u
20
> u
12
aopci vu uaooci0ci ucpiku e cq:
u
20
> u
12
a ( ) ( )
2
2 2
3 15
9
r
5 5 10
25
r
6 > 6
a ( ) ( ) 5 3 2 3 15
9
1
5 5
5
2
= 6 + > 6
a 5
3
2
2
5
5 2
2 6 > 6 a
3
5 2
5
5 2
< , to oaoio ioci.
Ooie aopci vu uaooci0ci oti u
6
> u
20
:
u
20
u
6
a
2
6
2
20
u 2 < a ( )
2
2
r 3
9
4
5 5 10
25
r
= = < 6 =
a ( ) ( ) a < 6 a < 6
3
2
5 5
5
1
3
4
5 5
5
2
3
2
5
5
1 < 6
a a < a < 6
5
1
3
1
5
5
3
2
1
5
1
9
1
< , to oaoio ioci.
Eaocve couc:
u
12
u
20
u
6
u
8
u
4
.

Lto iio XIII, otqv ckoooq tou Heiberg, ctu tqv apotuoq 18
opctui iu puq kui apooti0ctui cvu kcicvo, to oaoio upici e
cq:

Aeym q ri opo ro eipqaevo evre oqaoro ou ouoro-
0qoeroi repov oqao epieoaevov o iooepmv re oi ioo-
ymvmv omv qoi
Aao aoo ooiuotc to kcicvo uuto ckuuvovtui e ou-
acpuou tou iiou XIII. Lc opovq uaooooq to kcicvo uuto kui
oou to ukoou0ov couv e cq:
A,o enoq zi uovvo zzo oquo euz zov nvze npoovo-
ep0vzov ev uozooueoezoi, zo onoo vo nepiezoi on ioonze-
pov uoi ioo,ovov oquzov oov uezo zoo.
Anctq
Aioti iu otcpcu eviu ocv aopci vu kutuokcuuotci uao oo tpi-
evu q caiacou cv cvci.
Mc tpiu tpievu kutuokcuuctui q otcpcu eviu tq aupuiou,
c tcoocpu tou oktucopou kui c acvtc tou cikooucopou.
Mc ci tpievu iooacupu kui iooeviu aou ouvcpovtui oto ioio
oqcio ocv uaupci otcpcu eviu. Aioti, cacioq q eviu tou iooacupou
tpievou civui oo tpitu tq op0q, 0u civui kui oi ci ioc c (:0u couv
u0poiou) tcoocpi op0c, to oaoio civui uovuto, oioti ku0c otcpcu
eviu acpicctui oc evic c u0poiou ikpotcpo tev tcooupev op0ev
(apotuoq XI.21).
Iiu tov ioio oo, otc uao acpioootcpu tev ci caiacoev civui
ouvutov vu kutuokcuuo0ci otcpcu eviu.
Aao tpiu tctpuevu oqutictui q eviu tou kou, cve uao
tcoocpu civui uovuto vu oqutiotci otcpcu eviu.
Aao tpiu acvtuevu kuvoviku (iooeviu kui iooacupu), oquti-
ctui q eviu tou oeockucopou, uu uao tcoocpu civui uovuto. Aioti,
cacioq q eviu tou iooacupou acvtuevou (kuvoviko) civui iu kui
cvu acato tq op0q, 0u civui oi tcoocpi evic cutcpc tev tco-
oupev op0ev, to oaoio civui uovuto.
Oe, iu tov ioio oo, otc uao uu aoevu oqutu civui
ouvutov vu oqutiotci otcpcu eviu.
Acv kutuokcuuctui caocve uo otcpco oqu acpicocvo
uao iooacupu kui iooeviu oqutu, ckto uao tu acvtc aou uvucpu-
c aio auve.

Aqo
H ,ovo zoo ionzeopoo uoi ioo,ovioo nevzo,ovoo evoi uo op-
0q uoi vo nunzo zq op0q ,ovo.

Anctq
1ote ABIAE iooacupo kui
iooevio acvtuevo kui u acpi-
puci oc uuto kko c kcvtpo Z.
Totc oi cu0cic AZ, BZ, IZ, AZ kui
EZ oiotoov ti evic tou.
Eacioq oi evic c kopuq to
Z civui ioc kui couv u0poiou tco-
ocpi op0c, q ku0ciu uao uutc, u-
pu kui q eviu
!
AZB, civui ioq c
iu op0q ciov cvu acato tq op0q.
Apu oto tpievo AZB oi evic
!
ZAB kui
!
ABZ couv u0poiou iu
op0q kui cvu acato tq op0q. Eaocve
!
" AB , aou civui q eviu tou
acvtuevou, civui iu op0q kui cvu acato tq op0q.

Hopozqpqoq
H aupuauve apotuoq iu tq ovuoikotqtu, c tov tpoao aou cci
oiutuae0ci, oti oquoq ckto tev acvtc apouvucp0cvtev otcpcev
oqutev (aoucopev) ocv uaupouv kui uu aou vu acpikciovtui
ctu iooacupev kui iooeviev oqutev, cci apokucoci aou
ooiu kui ouqtqoci ooov uopu otqv op0otqtu tq oiutaeoq. Iiu
aupuociu, cvu cucopo aou uaotccitui uao oo kuvovikc (tpievi-
kc) aupuioc ABIA, ANIE c koivq uoq ABI kui kopuc aou kci-
vtui ckutcpe0cv tq uoq oivci cvu oqu aou ikuvoaoici oc ti uaui-
tqoci tq oiutaeoq tou ouacpuouto kui oe oiucpci cuve
uao tu acvtc otcpcu tu oaoiu ck0couc.
Ou auputqpqoouc oti otqv upq tou iiou XI opiovtui tu ac-
vtc oukckpicvu kuvoviku otcpcu, oquoq to tctpucopo, to cucopo, o
ko, to oktucopo kui to cikooucopo, uu ocv oivctui aou0cvu cviko
opioo cvo "kuvoviko aoucopou". Aao tq oiutaeoq tq apotuoq
ouvuctui oti q "kuvovikotqtu" ouvocctui c ti cq oo ouv0qkc:
u) Oi copc civui kuvoviku aoevu.
) Oi copc civui ctu tou ioc.
To cpetqu aou uvukatci civui to cq: Hoiu caiacov ouv0qkq
apcaci vu apootc0ci, eotc tu acvtc apouvucp0cvtu oqutu vu civui tu
ovuoiku aou ikuvoaoiov ti ouv0qkc uutc;

l,pu 19

Lti apotuoci aou apoqq0qkuv tou Luacpuouto, uaooci-
0qkc oti ku0cvu uao tu aupuauve acvtc oqutu cpuctui oc oui-
pu. Ltov Hutevu caioq uvucpctui oti to tctpucopo civui to uao-
otcpo otcpco, to oaoio epici tqv caiuvciu tq ouipu oc iou kui
ooiu oqutu.
H ouv0qkq uutq tq cpuq oc ouipu civui apuuti q qto-
cvq, oquoq tu aocopu c copc, ctu tou iou, kuvoviku ao-
evu tu oaoiu cpuovtui oc ouipu civui ukpie tu acvtc apou-
vucp0cvtu.
H ouv0qkq uutq aopci vu uvtikutuotu0ci c upkctc iooovuc
oiutuaeoci, cpikc uao ti oaoic acpipuovtui oto caocvo.

Ocepqo (Cromwell (1977), oc. 77).
1ozo P uopz nozepo, oi pe zoo onooo evoi oo uezo
zoo uovoviu noz,ovo. 1ze oi ouzoo0e oov0que evoi ioovoue:
1. 1o P evoi e,,pyiuo oe oopo.
2. Oze oi epe ,ove zoo P evoi uezo zoo oe.
3. Oze oi ozepe ,ove zoo P evoi uezo zoo oe
(:oounzooiue).
4. Oze oi uopo nepizzovzoi on zov io opi0u epov.

10. Icvtk Lto

10.1 Koxookcvc c pqoq Avvoq kot Lv0coq

Huputqpoc oti, uv kui oc oc ti acpiateoci tq kutuokcuq
tev kuvovikev otcpcev q kutuokcuq aou ivctui iooouvuci c cpuq
tou otcpco oc iu ooocvq ouipu, o Eukcioq ocv kutuokcuuci u-
acu0ciu to otcpco cou otq ouipu, uu kutuokcuuci cvu otcpco oto
oaoio acpipuctui iu ouipu ioq c tq ooocvq.
O Huaao oiuapuutcuocvo tu ioiu apoqutu kutuokcuuci
tu uvtiotoiu otcpcu c tq u0oo zq ovzooq kui tq ov0eoq, c-
0ooou ti oaoic cic cctqoci kui uvuatci ioiuitcpu. Oi oci tou
aupouoiuouv cvoiucpov, uv kui uauitov kuaoic ioiotqtc tq oui-
pu, oi oaoic oc piokovtui otu loi,i. Iiu oou aqpotqtu, otq
ouvcciu aupouoiuovtui oo uao ti kutuokcuc uutc.

10.1.1 Koxookcvq xov kov kox xov Hnno

Avzooq. 1ote oti to
apoqu cci u0ci kui oti oi
kopuc tou kou civui tu
oqciu A, B, I, A, E, Z, H, O
(L. 20). Tu caiacou ABIA,
EZHO tcvouv tq ouipu kutu
oo aupuqou kkou, oi
oaoioi civui iooi, oioti tu c-
cpucvu tctpuevu ABIA
kui EZOH civui iou. 4cpouc
to tqu EI, to oaoio civui
oiuctpo tq ouipu.
1ouc EO
2
2EH
2
=
2OI
2
kui cacioq , 90 EOI
b
!
=
couc EI
2
EO
2
OI
2
upu
EI
2
=
2
3
EO
2
. Au to EI
2
civui ooocvo, upu kui to EO
2
civui ooocvo,
caocve kui oi kkoi EZOH, ABIA, ku0e kui tu ccpucvu tc-
tpuevu civui ooocvu.
2v0eoq. 4cpouc oo aupuqc kukikc toc c ioc oiuc-
tpou o
1
ctoi eotc:
o
2
=
2
3
o
2
1

, oaou o q oiuctpo tq ooocvq ouipu.

Lc cvuv uao tou oo kkou cpuouc cvu tctpuevo, u
aoc to ABIA.
Ltov uo kko puouc opoq ZO ioq kui aupuqq apo tq
BI kui otq ouvcciu cpuouc to tctpuevo EZOH. Oi okte kopuc
tou qtocvou kkou couv opio0ci.

10.1.2 Koxookcvq xov ctkooocpov kox xov Hnno

H oq tou Huaaou oiucpci oquvtiku uao uutqv tou Eukcioq.
Eve o Eukcioq pqoioaoici oo kukikc toc tq ouipu, o Hua-

l,pu 20

ao piokci tcoocpi aupuqc kukikc toc, ku0ciu uao ti oaoic
oicpctui uao tpci kopuc tou cikooucopou. Ao uao tou kkou
civui ikpoi kkoi, acpicpucvoi oc oo uvti0ctc tpievikc copc
kui oi uoi oo kkoi piokovtui ctu uutev, civui aupuqoi
apo uuto kui iooi ctu tou.

l,pu 21

Avzooq. Yao0ctouc oti to apoqu cci u0ci kui A, B, I, A,
E, 4, Z, H K, A, M, N kopuc tou cikooucopou (L. 21). Eacioq tu
tqutu BA, BI, B4, BZ, BE civui ccpucvu otq ouipu kui iou
ctu tou, tu oqciu A, I, 4, Z, E civui ouvcaiacou.
Eaioq AI I4 4Z ZE EA, upu to acvtuevo AI4ZE ci-
vui kuvoviko. Ooie tu acvtuevu KEBIA, AHMZB civui kuvoviku.
4cpouc E4, KH. Totc AI // E4 (uao to acvtuevo AIEZE) kui
AI // KM (uao to acvtuevo AKNHZ), upu E4 // KH.
Eaiacov, KH // AM (uao to acvtuevo AKAHM).
Ooie BI, EA, ZH, AN civui aupuqu ctu tou kui tu BA,
4A, ZK, MN civui aupuqu ctu tou.
Ao BI // AN kui BA // MN oi kkoi ABI, AMN civui iooi
kui aupuqoi. Ooie oi kkoi AE4, KZH civui iooi kui aupuqoi.
Ltou ioou kui aupuqou kkou AE4, KZH oi opoc E4,
KH civui ioc kui aupuqc. Apu 4K civui oiuctpo tq ouipu kui
q eviu 4EK civui op0q.
Lto acvtuevo ZEAI4, uv q E4 oiuipc0ci oc ukpo kui coo oo,

to cutcpo tqu civui ioo c AZ. Apu
10
6
AI
E4
[
[
= . Eaioq E4
2
+
AI
2
E4
2
EK
2
o
2
, oaou o q oiuctpo tq ouipu.
1toi 4K, E4, EI civui oae oi acupc kuvoviko acvtuevou,
cuevou kui ockuevou aou cpuovtui otov ioio kko.
Au q oiuctpo 4K tq ouipu civui ooocvq, upu E4, EI ci-
vui ooocvu. 1toi oi uktivc tev kkev E4A, AIB civui ooocvc (uv
p, p civui uktivc tou, totc
2 2
E4
3
1
p = ,
2 2
AZ
3
1
) p ( = < ).
Eaocve oi kkoi civui ooocvoi kui to ioio ioci kui iu tou
kkou KHZ, AMN, oi oaoioi civui aupuqoi apo uuto.

2v0eoq. Av o q oiuctpo tq ouipu, cpouc tu tqutu x, y
tctoiu eotc o, x, y vu civui uvuou apo ti acupc kuvoviko acvtu-
evou, cuevou kui ockuevou uvtiotoiu aou cpuovtui otov ioio
kko.
4cpouc
(I) oo ioc kui aupuqc kukikc toc otq ouipu c ukti-
vc p, eotc p
2
=
2
x
3
1
, ti AE4, KZH kui
(II) oo ioc kui aupuqc kukikc toc, ti ABI, AMN, c
uktivc p eotc ( )
2 2
y
3
1
p = < .
Ltou kkou (I) cpouc E4, KH e acupc ccpucvev
iooacupev tpievev aupuqev ctu tou kui otou kkou (II).
4cpouc AI, AM e acupc ccpucvev iooacupev tpie-
vev aupuqc apo ti E4, KH. Luaqpevouc to oqu. H op0otq-
tu tq kutuokcuq uaoocikvctui oae otqv uvuuoq. Eaioq cactui
(cci o Huaao) oti
(oiuctpo tq ouipu)
2
3(acupu acvtuevou otov kko AE4)
2
.
Aioti uao kutuokcuq,
6
5
4E
K4
= . Eaioq ioci
1
3
K4
6
= ,
upu
1
3
K4
5
= . Eaocve K4
2
= 3
2
5
.

10.2 Hocpo, kovovtk oxcpc kot ovcxpo

10.2.1 Tt cvot nocpo.

Ltu loi,i, otqv upq tou iiou XI, uvucpovtui ovouotiku
ovo acvtc otcpcu oqutu (aqv tq ouipu, tou kuivopou kui tou ke-
vou). Iiu tqv ukpiciu oc oivctui otc opioo tou aoucopou. Iiu ti u-
vukc tou kcicvou aou ukoou0ci 0u oo0ci cvu acpipuiko opioo
tou aoucopou oc opovq oiutaeoq (Cromwell, (1997), oc. 209).

Hozepo civui q cveoq acacpuocvou aq0ou aouevev tc-
toiev eotc:
1. Ku0c co aouevev ouvuvtictui ovo kutu iu acupu q
kopuq .
2. Ku0c acupu cvo aouevou (uaotcci iu ukq tou aouc-
opou) kui uvqkci ovov oc cvu ukou aoevo.
3. Eivui ouvutov vu ctuoc uao to coetcpiko cvo aouevou
oto coetcpiko cvo uou aouevou, aupucvovtu oto ao-
copo.
4. 1ote V iu kopuq kui F
1
, F
2
. . . F
n
tu n oto aq0o ao-
evu aou ouvuvtevtui otq kopuq V. Totc, civui ouvutov vu
ctuoc uao cvu aoevo F
i
oc cvu uo F
j
epi vu
acpuoouc uao to V.

10.2.2 Tno xov EULER.

Miu cvuuktikq uaoociq tq ovuoikotqtu tev acvtc kuvovi-
kev otcpcev aopci vu oo0ci c tq oq0ciu tou taou tou Euler iu tu
aocopu.
Ocepqo (tou Euler).
2e u0e uopz nozepo, zo nzq0o u zov uopoov oov zo nzq-
0o e zov epov ioozoi ue zo nzq0o o zov ouuov ooquvo uoz
o, qzoq ioei o zno: u + e o + 2.
Anocct yto xo kovovtk oxcpc c pqoq xov 0cepqoxo
Euler:
1ote oti oi copc cvo kuvoviko aocopou civui kuvoviku v-
evu kui oc ku0c kopuq ouvtpcouv ukc.

Totc couc:
vc 2u (1)
oioti ku0c ukq uvqkci oc oo copc kui
k 2u (2)
oioti ku0c ukq uvqkci oc oo otcpcc evic.
O tao k c u 2 (tou Euler) oe tev (1), (2) ivctui:
2
2
vc
c
c v
+ = + , uao oaou apokatci oti
c
Q 6 + Q
2 2
4

Eaiacov, ioci 5 3 kui 2v 2 - v > 0, upu
2 - v
v 2

Av v 3, totc 6, oquoq 3 q 4 q 5 kui uvti-
otoiu c 4 q c 8 q c 20
Aquoq, c copc iooacupu tpievu aopci vu oqutio0ci ku-
voviko tctpucopo q oktucopo q cikooucopo
Av v 4 , totc 4, oquoq 3 kui c 6. Apu c copc tc-
tpuevu aopci vu oqutio0ci cucopo (ko).
Av v 5, totc
3
10
, oquoq 3 kui c 12. Apu c copc
kuvoviku acvtuevu aopci vu oqutio0ci ovo oeockucopo.
Av v 5 6, totc
2 - v
v 2
- 3 = 0
2 - v
v 6
M
6
upu 3. Luvcae ocv u-
aupci kuvoviko aocopo c copc kuvoviko v-evo c v 5 6.
1toi oiaov otu kuvoviku otcpcu couc tqv ukoou0q kutuvoq
iu ti kopuc, ti ukc kui ti copc.

Kopvc Akc Tpc
Tctpucopo 4 6 4
Ko 8 12 6
Oktucopo 6 12 8
Aeockucopo 20 30 12
Eikooucopo 12 30 20

Huputqpoc apouve ku-
aoiu ouooaoiqoq, ukou kui oc uu-
tov tov acpiopiocvo kutuoo. 1toi
couc: tctpucopo, ko oktu-
copo, cikooucopo oeockucopo.
Auto aou uaokpatctui civui
cvu ouoo, aou cectpiku aopci
vu cqq0ci e cq: Ku0c cvu uao
tu otcpcu cvo cou apokatci
uao to uo otcpco tou cou, uv
otqv acpicpucvq ouipu kui otu
oqciu tev kopuev cpouc tu c-
uatocvu caiacou kui 0cepqoouc
to otcpco aou apokatci uao ti to-
c uutev tev caiacoev. (Bcac o.
22, oaou aupouoiuctui o ko kui to kuvoviko oktucopo). Mc uutq
tqv cvvoiu to kuvoviko tctpucopo civui uutoouko.

10.2.3 Htkovovtk Lxcpc.

Lto acato iio tq M0puikp lovycyp o Huaao uaooi-
oci tqv uvukuuq ockutpiev aoucopev otov Apiqoq. Ltq ouvcciu
acpipuci tu ockutpiu oqutu, tu tuivoci uvuou c tov upi0o
tev copev kui uvucpci to cioo tev copev ku0c otcpco. Tu otcpcu
uutu oqcpu ovouovtui Apiqociu q qikuvoviku otcpcu. Oi copc
ku0c qikuvoviko otcpco civui kuvoviku aoevu, uu oi tou ioiou
taou, uvti0ctu uao o,ti ouuivci otu kuvoviku otcpcu. Ou auputqpq-
oouc caioq oti kui tu qikuvoviku otcpcu cpuovtui oc ouipu,
oae ukpie ouuivci c tu kuvoviku otcpcu. Kuaoiu otoiciu ui-
vovtui otov aupukute aivuku, oaou acpipuctui o tao kui to aq0o
tev copev tou ku0c otcpco. H cpuoiu tou Apiqoq aou oiuapuu-
tcctui tu qikuvoviku otcpcu uivctui vu cci, ouotue, u0ci.

l,pu 22

Hq0o
xev
Epev
Tptyevev
Tcxpo-
yevev
Hcvxo-
yevev
Eoye-
vev
Okxo-
yevev

Ackoye-
vev
8 4 4
14 8 6
14 6 8
14 8 6
26 8 18
26 12 8 6
32 20 12
32 12 20
32 20 12
38 32 6
62 20 30 12
62 30 20 12
92 80 12

kooo tctpucopo ko-oktucopo kooo cucopo
1i ao puikvoviko o u i puiv/ ovoui oo.
l,pu 23

10.2.4 H Lvcxpo oxq Icecxpo.

Lti opovc aupouoiuoci tq Icectpiu tu kuvoviku ao-
evu kui aocopu auiouv cvu kcvtpiko poo kui pqoioaoiovtui e
uaoociutu iu tqv cioueq tev ctuoqutioev kui tq ouctpiu.

O ctuoqutiooi voovtui u!iuovopuv ki ai uacikovi-
oci aou uqvouv cvu oqu uvuoieto kui apokatouv uao acpiopi-
oo (oto oqu) uutoopioev tq ooq tou acpiuovto epou.
H ouctpiu tou oquto octictui c to ovoo uutev tev ctuoq-
utioev, aou couv ooq ouou. Eioiku iu tqv Icectpiu tou caiac-
oou kui tou epou, uaoocikvctui oti q uoikq ooq aou apcaci vu u-
auitqoouc vu oiutqpcitui civui q uaootuoq oo oqciev, oaotc uvuo-
uotc oc iooctpic.
Buoiko iu tq Icectpiu tou caiacoou civui o ctuoqutioo
aou apokatci e uvukuoq e apo uovu (oquoq q cpcoq "ouc-
tpiko" cvo oqciou e apo iu cu0ciu), uo aopci vu uaooci0ci oti
ku0c iooctpiu oto caiacoo civui ov0coq tpiev to ao uvukuocev
(cv cvci e apo oiuopctiko uovc). Hupooiu oiuapuutcuoq oto
epo ivctui iu ti uvukuoci e apo caiacoo. Oe, uoiko poo
coe auiouv oi otpoc e apo uovu oto epo. Eaicovtu iu upq
oto epo kui ciouovtu cvu op0okuvoviko ootqu ouvtctucvev, q
Icectpiu tou caiacoou cvtuooctui otu auioiu tq Avuutikq Icec-
tpiu tou epou. 1toi, uoiko poo otq cctq tev ouctpiev auici q
ouou SO(3), q oaoiu uaotccitui uao puikc uacikovioci aou oiu-
tqpov ti uaootuoci kui tov apoouvutoioo.
L` uutu tu auioiu 0u ivci iu ovtoq aupouoiuoq tev ouoev
ouctpiev tev kuvovikev aouevev kui aoucopev.

Oo ovcxptev kovovtko novyevov.

1ote m 5 3 kui I
m
to kuvoviko m-evo c kcvtpo O kui kopu-
c v
1
, v
2
. . . v
m
}. Mc L ouoiouc to cu0puo tqu aou cki-
vu uao tqv kopuq v
1
, oicpctui uao to kcvtpo O kui uvuouvuvtu to
I
m
.
To I
m
cci opiocvc apouvci ouctpic. 1ote A q otpoq
pe uao to O kutu eviu 2a/m kui B o kutoatpioo (uvukuoq) e
apo L. Totc, uv c 1 ouoioouc tov tuutotiko ctuoqutioo, c-
ouc A
m
B
2
1 kui BAB
-1
A
-1
.
1ote s kuaoiu ouctpiu tou I
m
. Totc, uv s(v
1
) = v
i
kui s(v
2
) = v
j

aopci vu uaooci0ci oti 0u apcaci vu ioci kui j c (i 1) modulo m.
Tu i, j, oiaov opiouv to s. 1toi, s = A
i
c j c (i 1)modulo m q
s = A
i
B c j c (i 1) modulo m.

Mc uu oiu, q ouou ouctpiev tou I
m
oivctui c ococi
cvvqtopev e cq:
D
m
: A
m
= B
2
= 1, BAB
-1
= A
-1

Tqv D
m
ovououc oicopikq ouou u0o m kui civui tuce 2m.

l,pu 24 l,pu 24
Maopoc vu 0cepqoouc to aoevo I
m
e uaoovoo tou R
3

aou acpicctui oto caiacoo xOy c tqv upq tev uovev O oto oqcio
(0, 0, 0) .
Totc to A civui otpoq pe uao tov uovu zz kui to B civui
cioikq otpoq pe uao to L. 1toi q ouou D
m
uaotccitui uao vqoic
(opiouou 1) otpoc kui D
m
d SO(3). Lqcievouc caioq oti couc
kui tqv kukikq ouou Z
m
= {A}, tuq m, uaoouou tq SO(3).
Maopci vu uaooci0ci oti ku0c acacpuocvq ouou iooctpiev
oto caiacoo civui citc kukikq citc oicopikq, oquoq ouou ouctpiev
cvo kuvoviko aouevou.

Oc ovcxptev xev kovovtkev oxcpcev

Mc A
4
ouoiouc to kuvoviko tctpucopo, kuvoviko aocopo
c 4 kopuc, 6 ukc kui 4 copc, oi oaoic civui iooacupu tpievu.
1ote v
i
} oi kopuc, e
ij
q ukq aou ouvocci ti kopuc v
i
kui v
j
c
i < j. Mc P ouoiouc tq otpoq kutu eviu a pe uao tqv cu0ciu
aou cvevci tu cou tev e
12
kui e
34
. H P cvuuooci tu v
1
v
2
kui tu v
3
,

v
4
. Mc Q ouoiouc tq otpoq kutu eviu a pe uao tqv cu0ciu
aou ouvocci tu cou tev e
13
kui e
24
. H Q cvuuooci tu v
1
, v
3
kui tu v
2
,
v
4
. Eaiacov PQ QP kui civui q otpoq kutu eviu a pe uao tqv
cu0ciu aou cvevci tu cou tev e
14
kui e
23
.
1ote A q otpoq kutu eviu
2a/3 pe uao tqv cu0ciu aou cvevci
tqv kopuq v
1
kui to kcvtpo tq uac-
vuvti copu. H A oiutqpci tqv v
1
kui
uacikovici tu v
2
, v
3
, v
4
otu v
3
, v
4
,
v
2
uvtiotoiu. Ku0c ouctpiu tou
A
4
apocpctui uao ouv0coci tev A,
P, Q. 1toi q ouou ouctpiev tou
A
4
oivctui c ococi cvvqtopev e
cq:

T: A
3
= P
2
= Q
2
= 1,
PQ = Q P,
APA
-1
= Q,
AQA
-1
= PQ

H T ovouctui ikp
ouo, cci tuq 12 kui civui uao-
ouou tq SO(3).

Mc A
8
ouoiouc to kuvo-
viko oktucopo, to oaoio cci 6 kopu-
c, 12 ukc kui 8 copc, aou civui
iooacupu tpievu.
1ote X q otpoq kutu eviu
a/2 pe uao tqv cu0ciu aou cvevci
ti v
1
, v
6
kui P X
2
. 1ote Q q
otpoq kutu eviu a pe uao tqv
cu0ciu aou cvevci tu v
2
kui v
4
. Totc
PQ QP kui civui q otpoq kutu eviu a pe uao tqv cu0ciu aou cve-
vci tu v
3
kui v
5
. 1ote A q otpoq kutu eviu 2a/3 pe uao tq cu0ciu
aou cvevci tu kcvtpu tev copev v
1
v
2
v
3
kui v
4
v
5
v
6
. Totc A
3
= 1,
APA
-1
Q kui AQA
-1
PQ. H ouou ouctpikev tou A
8
aupuctui
uao to ovoo P, Q, A, X} kui q X aopci vu uvtikutuotu0ci uao cvuv
uo cvvqtopu R, eotc q ouou ouctpiu vu oivctui uao:

l,pu 25

l,pu 26

e
f
e
g
h
= = = =
= = = = =
1 - 1 - 1 - 1 - 1 -
-1 -1 2 2 3
Q RQR , QP RPR , PQ AQA , Q APA
A RAR , QP PQ , 1 Q P A
O
H O kucitui okikp ouo, cci
tuq 24, acpicci tqv T A, P, Q} e ku-
vovikq uaoouou c ociktq 2 kui civui uao-
ouou tq SO(3).
Mc A
20
ouoiouc to kuvoviko ci-
kooucopo, to oaoio cci 12 kopuc, 30
ukc kui 20 copc aou civui iooacupu
tpievu.
H ouou ouctpiu tou A
20
oivctui
uao
I : A
3
B
2
= C
5
= ABC = 1
H I ovouctui ikoikp ouo,
cci tuq 60, acpicci tqv T kui civui uaoouou tq SO(3).
Aaocvouv oo kuvoviku aocopu to cucopo (ko) U
6
kui to
oeockucopo Oe o ko U
6
kui to oktuocpo A
8
civui ouku (uv to
cvu cpuci oc ouipu, totc to uo oqutictui uao tu cuatocvu cai-
acou tq ouipu oti kopuc tou), kutu ouvcaciu couv ti ioic ouoc
ouctpiu. Ooie kui A
20
civui ouku kui to A
4
civui uutoouko.

l,pu 28 l,pu 29
Oae aopci vu uaooci0ci, ku0c acacpuocvq uaoouou tou
SO(3) civui iu kukikq, oicopikq, tctpucopikq q cikooucopikq ouou.
Av oo acacpuocvc uaoouoc tou SO(3) civui iooopc, totc uutc
civui ouuci otqv SO(3).

l,pu 27

Lvvonxtk ttoypotk oqy
yto xq Lxcpcocxpo

Ekto uao tq Icvikq Biiopuiu, aou ouaqpevci to cpo, ou-
oiuotikq otqv uvuveoq tq Ltcpcoctpiu civui q Biiopuiu aou
ukoou0ci. Ltq ouvcciu, tu iiu aou pqoioaoiq0qkuv, aupouoiuo-
vtui ovtou kutu 0cutikc cvotqtc kui cioikotcpo cvoiucpov.
Kuoikq aupucvci q ckoooq tev loi,icv uao tov Heiberg, aou
otu Eqviku cci uaooo0ci uao tov E. Ltuutq (1952). H uikq ckoooq
tev loi,icv uao tov Sir Thomas L. Heath acpicci aooiu ooiu ioto-
piko kui u0qutiko cvoiucpovto kui, aupu tu oaoiu kcvu, aupucvci
cpi oqcpu ucacpuotq. Ltoiciu uao tqv iotopiu tev upuiev u0qu-
tikev acpicovtui otq ovopuiu tou B. L. van der Waerden (1954), qoq
ctupuocvq otu Eqviku uao tov I. Xpiotiuvioq (2000).
Mc tq oikq uitiooqoq oc upuiu u0qutiku kcicvu uoo-
citui to iio tou Netz (1999), cve q oikq uqouiu tev apotu-
ocev otu loi,i aupouoiuctui oicooiku oto Mueller (1981). Kuaoic
aupouoiuoci 0cutev c opovc apocktuoci caicipovtui otu
Artmann (1999) kui Anglin and Lambek (1995).
Miu apetotuaq ck0coq 0cutev Ltcpcoctpiu, c iotopikc uvu-
opoc, cvoiucpouoc 0cepqtikc oiuapuutcoci caikcvtpecvc otu
aocopu kui c cuoq otu kuvoviku otcpcu civui to Cromwell (1997).
H ctpqoq otq Icectpiu kui q ctpqoq tev otcpcev cioikotcpu,
uaotcci auvtu cvu caikuipo 0cu. Oi cpuoic tou Apiqoq oi octi-
kc c tq ctpqoq tev oqutev couv aupouoiuo0ci oc ctupuoq kui
ooiuoo tou Sir Thomas L. Heath. H ouv0ctikq 0cepiu, oto avcu
tev loi,icv, iu to cuoov kui tov oko tc0qkc uao tov Hilbert
(1902) kui cktotc uaotcci uvuaooauoto tqu tev opovev aupou-
oiuocev tq Eukciociu Icectpiu, oae civui iu aupuociu tu Eves
(1972), EIIimov (1968), Forder (1927), kui Moise (1963).
H u/0oo p ovpp c ti iotopikc tq pic kui tq ocoq
tq c tq ctpqoq kui ti 0cepic ookqpeoq, aupouoiuctui otq
ovopuiu tou Boyer (1949) ku0e kui oto Edwards Jr. (1979). Apkctu
catocpc otq aupouoiuoq tq cciq tev cectpikev c0ooev ci-
vui kui to Coolidge (1940).
H u0qutikq oiuapuutcuoq tq cectpikq ouctpiu kui q
cvtuq tev kuvovikev otcpcev oto auioio uuto aopci vu uvuqtq0ci
kui otu Yale (1968), Rees (1983), WolI (1963) kui uu.

!

1. Anglin W. S. and Lambek J., "The Heritage of Thales", Springer, 1995
2. Artmann B., "Euclid The Greation of Mathematics", Springer, 1999.
3. Boyer C., "The History of the Calualus and its Conceptual
Developments", Dover, 1949.
4. Coolidge J. L., "A History of Geometrical Methods", Oxford Univ.
Press, 1940 (Dover reprint 1998).
5. Cromwell P.R., "Polyhedra", Cambridge Univ. Press, 1997.
6. Edwards C. H. Jr., "The Historical Development of the Calculus",
Springer- Verlag, 1979.
7. Effimov N. V., "Higher Geometry", Mir Publishers, 1968.
8. Eves H., "A Survey of Geometry" (Revised Edition), Allyn and
Bacon, 1972.
9. Forder H. G., "The Foundations of Euclidean Geometry", Cambridge
Univ. Press, 1927 (Dover reprint).
10. Heath, T.L., "The Thirteen Books of Euclids Elements" (Second
Edition), Dover reprint, 1956.
11. Heath T.L., "The works of Archimedes", Dover reprint (no date)
12. Heiberg T. L. (Editor) Euclidis, "Elementa", Lipsia, 1885.
13. Hilbert D., "Foundations of Geometry", 10
th
ed., La Salle-Open
Court, 1971.
14. Moise E. E., "Elementary Geometry from an Advanced Stand-point",
Addisson-Wesley, 1963.
15. Mueller I., "Philosophy of Mathematics and deductive structure in
Euclids Elements", M.I.T., 1981.
16. Netz R., "The Shaping of Deduction in Greek Mathematics",
Cambridge Univ. Press, 1999.
17. Rees E. G., "Notes on Geometry", Springer 1983.
18. van der Waerden, B. L., H Aaviop :p Eaio:pup (Aaooooq otu
Eqviku Eaiotqovikq caicciu: Iiuvvq Xpiotiuvioq)
Huvcaiotqiukc ckoooci Kpqtq, Hpukcio 2000.
19. Wolf J., "Spaces of Constant Curvature", Mc Graw Hill, 1963.
20. Yale P. B., "Geometry and Symmetry", Holden Day, 1968 (Dover
reprint, 1988).
21. Ltuutq E., Eoksiooo l:ssous:io, OEAB 1952.

okoov0io, 89, 116
okpo koi coo oo, 148, 149,
150, 152, 156, 157, 177, 179, 186
ooo, 154, 160, 162, 173
Avovtikq Icectpio tov epov,
192
oieo Evooov - Apiqoq, 65,
115
oovo tq ooipo, 16
oovo tov kvivopov, 16
oovo tov kevov, 16
Aaoevio, 86
Aacipootiko Aoioo, 10
oaotoq, 146, 152, 153, 154, 161,
177, 180
Apiototcq, 17
oppqtq cv0cio, 153
oppqto oaotoq, 177
opq tov Kooicpi, 66, 118, 120,
121
Apiqocio q qikovoviko otcpco,
190
Apiqoq, 10, 87, 91, 119, 143,
190, 196
Apto, 86
ooctpo cc0q, 153, 161
oovoo okoov0io, 91
ooq tov kevov, 16
Icviko Aqo, 95, 96, 106, 123,
124, 126, 140
Ioko, 87
veovo, 146, 147, 149
poq, 17
evio oo caiacoev, 17
evio cv0cio koi caiacoov, 17
ocoq cv0ciev, 25
ocoq ko0ctev caiacoev, 39
Aqio Hpoqo, 87
Aqokpito, 10
oioipcoq cv0poov tqoto oc
okpo koi coo oo, 145, 146,
151
oioctpo tq ooipo, 16
oiootooq, 17
oicopikq oooo, 195
oicopo evio, 18, 57, 60
Aiokq, 86
oiaooiooo tov kov, 86, 87
ovko aocopo, 195
ovkq apotooq, 57
ovko oqo, 57
ovvoci ooctpoi cv0cic, 153,
154
ovvoci octpoi cv0cic, 153
oeockocopo, 17, 145, 176, 177,
181, 190, 195
ccpocvo apiooto, 90
cikooocopikq oooo, 195
cikooocopo, 17, 145, 179, 181, 182,
183, 185, 186, 189, 190
coooev, 146, 154, 160, 162, 173,
180
cciq, 62
cooov - iootqto - ooiotqto, 63
cocopo, 51, 183, 195
caoeiko ovoioo, 24
caiacoq evio, 41, 42, 43, 46, 50,
57, 59, 77, 79
caiacoo oqo, 10, 18, 39, 63, 118,
119, 143
caiacoo, 22
Eaiacooctpio, 21
caiovcio, 14, 17, 22
Epotoo0cvq, 86, 87
Eooo, 53, 86, 87, 90, 91, 130
cv0ciocvq, 24
Evkcioq, 52, 97, 99, 100, 143,
181, 184, 185
Evtokio, 87
Zcpo L.H., 17

co tcvocvev caiacoev, 39
Zqvevo, 119
Hikovoviko Ltcpco, 190
qikkio, 16
1pevo, 17, 86
Ocevo o Lvpvoio, 17
0cepqo tov Euler, 188
0cepqo tev tpiev ko0ctev, 32,
79
0cepio tev ovooiev, 14
ioiotqto 'oi` ioov, 56, 129
Iaaokpotq, 86, 87, 88
ioo otcpco, 90
ioc tpicopc evic, 60
ioooioepioio aocopo, 66, 85
ioooioepioio epio, 64, 84
iooovoo aocopo, 85
iooovoo oqoto, 84
iooctpio, 192, 193
iooacvpo aopoqcaiacoo, 80
iooovaqpeoio aoevo, 85
iooovaqpeoio aocopo, 85
iooovaqpeoio epio, 64
Kooicpi, 119
ko0ctotqto oo caiacoev, 30
kovoviko aoevo 89
kovovikq avpoioo, 183
kovoviko oeockocopo, 174
kovoviko cikooocopo, 169
kovoviko coevo, 52
kovoviko cocopo, 168
kovoviko oktocopo, 166, 190, 194
kovoviko aocopo, 183, 189, 193
kovoviko otcpco, 145, 178, 184,
189, 190, 193, 196
kovoviko tctpocopo, 85, 163, 189,
193
koto kopvqv ioookcci tpicopc,
62
koto kopvqv tpicopc evic, 58,
60, 61, 62
kcvtpikq ocoq cv0ciev, 24
kcvtpo tq ooipo, 16
kioq, 17, 18
kioq caiacoov apo caiacoo, 15
kioq cv0cio, 15
kooo cocopo, 191
kooo tctpocopo, 191
ko-oktocopo, 191
ko, 17, 66, 82, 86, 117, 145,
168, 175, 176, 177, 178, 180, 182,
185, 190, 195
kvkikq oooo, 195
Kkov Mctpqoi, 143
kivopo, 16, 17, 18, 90, 122, 123,
125, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 143,
188
kvpto aoveviko epio, 65
kvpto aoevo, 42
kvpto aocopo, 18, 84
kevikq toq, 87
kevo, 16, 17, 18, 61, 62, 90, 122,
123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 131,
132, 134, 143, 188
Mo0qotikq Lvvoeq, 190
cioto kko, 136, 137
c0cq, 22
c0ooo covtqoq, 10, 66, 91,
196
c0ooo ovovoq koi ov0coq,
184
, 10
Mcvoio, 86, 87
coq acvpo, 154
coo op0oevio, 154
ctooqotioo, 191, 192
Miveo, 87
Nikoqoq, 86
oko, 63, 67, 86
okev iootqto, 67
oktocopikq oooo, 195
oktocopo, 17, 145, 167, 178, 179,
180, 182, 183, 189, 190, 195
oooo ovctpio, 195
oooo, 192
oocaiacoc cv0cic, 26, 30
ooio aoevo, 92
ooio otcpco oqoto, 15

EYPETHPIO 201
ooioi kivopoi, 17
ooioi kevoi, 17
ooiotqto, 18
oooc okc, 72
op0o apioo, 76, 77
Hoaao, 86, 184, 185, 187, 190
aopooq, 87, 88
aopooiko epio, 119
aopoqo caiacoo, 15
aopoqcaiacoo, 39, 52, 55, 56,
63, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72,
74, 75, 77, 80, 81, 84, 86, 89, 90,
113, 117
aopoqio cv0ciev oto epo, 30
aopoaqpeotikq evio, 58
acacpoocvq oooo, 195
acpo, 17
aoio apioo, 77
Hotevo, 9, 17, 86, 87, 184
Hoteviko otcpco, 18
Hotopo, 10
Hoitcio, 9
aovevikq avpoioo, 112
aocopo, 85, 90, 136, 138, 139,
140, 142, 183, 184, 188, 192, 196
apioo, 16, 18, 52, 66, 67, 77, 84,
102, 104, 105, 107, 110, 114, 115,
116, 117, 123, 143
apooopoovoo, 153
apetq oaotoq, 153
Htocoio o III, 87
Hv0oopcio 0cepqo, 79
Hv0oopcioi, 86
avpoioo 15, 18, 89, 90, 104, 105,
107, 108, 109, 110, 113, 114, 115,
117, 123, 124, 126, 127, 128, 138,
140, 143, 163, 164, 165, 166, 168,
178, 179, 180, 182
pqtq oioctpo, 160
pqtq cv0cio, 152, 153
pqto tqo, 177
pqto oo, 180
Ltootq, 196
otcpco evio, 15, 18, 40, 41, 42,
46, 48, 53, 103, 104, 182, 184,
189
otcpco ck acpiotpoq, 18
otcpco oqo, 10, 18, 39, 63, 77,
143, 176, 183
otcpco oeo, 14, 17, 84, 184
Ltcpcoctpio, 9, 10, 21, 32, 196
otoicieoc tq 0cepio tov co-
oo otqv caiacoq Icectpio, 63
octpo cc0q, 153
octpc cv0cic, 154
ovctpio tov oqoto, 192
ovctpikc tpicopc evic, 60
ovateoio oqoto, 52
ovateoic tpicopc, 60, 61
ovvoptqoq cooo, 65
ovv0ctikq 0cepio tov okov, 13
ooipo, 14, 16, 18, 90, 99, 100,
135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141,
142, 143, 145, 163, 164, 165, 166,
167, 168, 172, 173, 176, 177, 178,
179, 180, 184, 185, 187, 188
tovtotiko ctooqotioo, 192
tctoptq oaotoq, 153, 161, 162
tctpocopikq oooo, 194, 195
tctpocopo, 65, 84, 85, 145, 164,
183, 190
Tioio, 18
toq oo caiacoev, 22
tpievikq oviootqto, 45
tpievikq avpoioo, 102, 106, 112
tpieviko apioo, 63, 83, 89, 109
tpicopc koto kopvqv, 58
tpicopq otcpco evio, 13, 18, 39,
40, 42, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61
tpicopq evio kotookcvq, 50
tao tov Euler, 188
vacpoq, 88
0ivovoo okoov0io, 91
Xpiotiovioq I., 196

Anglin and Lambek, 196

Artmann, 196
Boyer, 196
Cauchy, 18, 84
Coolidge, 196
Cromwell, 196
Dehn M., 66
Descartes, 86
Edwards Jr., 196
Effimov, 196
Euler, 62
Eves, 196
Forder, 196
Heath, 97, 98, 196
Heiberg, 181, 196
Hilbert, 196
Legendre, 18, 77, 99, 100
Leibniz, 119
Longchamps, 86
Moise, 196
Mueller, 196
Netz, 196
Rees, 196
van der Waerden B. L., 196
Wolf, 196
Yale, 196

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