CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
The history of interlocking bricks began in the early 1900s with the construction of
toys for childrens McKusick (1997), Love and Gamble (1985). Amongst the first
inventors of the toy systems that contributed to the mortarless technology
(arrangement of parts that construct ideal structures) were: 1) The Englishman Frank
Hornby (1863 1936) of Liverpool, with Meccano sets, 2) A.C Gilbert (1884 1962)
of Salem, Oregon with Erector sets, 3) Charles Pajeau who invented Tinker Toy
construction sets in 1913. He was a stonemason from Evanston, Illinois, USA, 4) John
Lloyd Wright who invented Lincoln Logs in 1920, and 5) Ole Kirk Christiansen (1891
1958), who invented Lego.
2.2 Characteristics of lateritic soil bricks fired at low temperatures
Mbumbia et al. (2000) have conducted a research work on the advance of physical and
mechanical properties of some Cameroonian lateritic soil bricks which were stabilized
through heat at very low temperatures, with a sight to finding their appropriateness for
the construction of walls of simple houses. The main advantages are economy and the
encounter of cultural choice and practice of people of the region of study. In this
study no admixture (which was made by lime, cement, bentonite, etc.) is used. By
crushing raw materials, the effect of the homogenization will be achieved. The
cohesion of clay present in raw materials and the cementitious binder, which is caused
by the transformation of some mineral phases at low temperatures, have been
exploited. In order to solve this case a detailed experimental programme was carried
out to find density, volume change, water absorption, modulus of rupture (flexure
test), compressive strength and erosion by the test specimens consisted of 1053025
5

mm
3
units which were made by lateritic soil was collected from Etoug-Ebe, an area of
Yaounde town with a particle size percentage of 2% gravel, 28% sand, 31% silt, and
39% clay. They have conducted that water absorption decreased with temperature
until 550 where it began to increase and achieved a local maximum (approx. 28.2%)
at approximately 750. From this temperature, the water absorption decreased with
temperature. Also compressive strength increased with temperature which is varied
from 2.9 MPa at room temperature (27 ) to 3.09 MPa so the average compressive
strength at room temperature is 2.90 MPa, and modulus of rupture is changed from
0.96 MPa to 1.06 MPa so the average flexural strength is 1.00.
2.3 Enhancing Bond Strength and Soil-Cement Block Masonry
Reddy et al. (2007) have conducted a research on the soil-cement blocks which were
utilized for the load bearing masonry of 23-story buildings. Flexural and shear
strength of walls made by these blocks depend upon the bond strength between the
block and the mortar. Mostly 610% cement is used for soil-cement blocks making
which is based on the strength requirement. Consequently, the reconstituted soil
mixed with 8% Portland cement (by weight) was used for the manufacture of soil-
cement blocks by 305143100 mm size using a fixed stroke length manually
operated machine. Soil-cement blocks were shown in Figure 2.1.

FIGURE 2.1 Soil-cement blocks (left to right:
plain surface, rough textured bed face, and
frogs on the bed face)
Methods of ameliorating the shear-bond strength of soil-cement block masonry
without changing the mortar characteristics and the influence of shear-bond strength
6

on masonry compressive strength were discussed in this paper. Modifying the texture
of bed faces of the block, size and area of the frog, and certain surface coatings have
been tried to improve the shear-bond strength. Parameters which were discussed in
this research are: 1) procedure for obtaining different surface texture and frogs on the
Soil-Cement Block Surface, and 2) experimental program and experimental methods
such as compressive strength and flexural strength of blocks, stress-strain
measurements for soil-cement blocks and mortars, masonry triplet tests, and
compressive strength of masonry and stress-strain relationships. The results of
compressive strength, flexural tensile strength, water absorption, and initial rate of
absorption for soil-cement blocks are given in Table 2.1 which gives mean values,
ranges of values, and the number of specimens tested.
TABLE 2.1 Strength and Absorption Characteristics of Soil-Cement Blocks
Properties of the block Mean values Number of specimens
Wet compressive strength (MPa)
8.34
(7.868.87)
10
Wet flexural tensile strength (MPa)
1.21
(1.181.24)
6
Initial rate of absorption (%)
3.21
(2.473.91)
15
Saturated water content (%)
12.02
(11.612.7)
6
Note: Dry density of the block: 18 kN/ m; rang values are in parentheses
Dry density of the soil-cement blocks is kept constant at 18 kN/ m
3
. Wet
compressive strength of the soil-cement block is 8.34 MPa, while the flexural strength
is 1.21 MPa (i.e., about 15% of compressive strength). Saturated water content of the
block is 12.02% and initial rate of absorption is 3.21 kg/m
2
/min. usually soil-cement
blocks have higher initial rate of absorption when compared to burnt clay bricks
(Walker 1999; Reddy and Gupta 2005a).
7

2.4 Compressed-stabilized earth brick
Muntohar (2011) has performed a research work on utilization of lime and rice husk ash for
soil stabilization caused high strength increase and other geotechnical properties of the
stabilized soils. Its application lime and rice husk is better for construction materials than
compressed-stabilized earth (CSE) or unfired-brick. Studying on materials, lime and rice husk
ash (RHA), mixture proportion and sample mixture, compressive strength of the stabilized
earth brick, water absorption of the stabilized earth brick, and flexural strength characteristic
of the stabilized-earth beam are factors which have been considered in this paper. Mixtures
proportion, which was shown in Table 2.2, and sample preparation will be obtained by clay as
the basic material of brick mixed with sand in order to reduce the effect of shrinkage. A trial-
mix of soil and sand were carried out to find optimum value of sand used based on their
compaction characteristics. The variation of clay and sand mixtures were assessed by standard
Proctor compaction test. The optimum proportion of soilsand mixtures is about 70% soil and
30% sand which has highest the maximum dry density among the trial-mix. The optimum
moisture content and maximum dry density the soilsand mixture are 19% and 17.4 kN/m
3

respectively. For a comparison, a clay soil specimen was also investigated. Muntohar has
conducted that: 1) the possibility of blended binders use with clay for the manufacture of
unfired clay materials in the building industry and different stabilized soil applications, 2) The
strength characteristics of the unfired clay bricks were meliorated by lime and RHA which
their combined action strongly bound the soil particles, 3)Adding sand to the mixing materials
in stabilized clay resulted in more improvement in the water retention ability of brick, 4)
Performances of clay brick in compressive and flexural strength improved by mixing the
mixture with sand, and they become better by adding lime and RHA as demonstrated in
Figure 2.2 and Table 2.3 and the optimum quantity of lime and RHA to achieve highest
strength is obtained at the ratio 1:1, 5) the addition of lime and RHA mixture ratio reduced the
ability of the compressed stabilized earth to absorb water, and 6) the compressive strength
because of submersion in water mostly remains 6295% of the normal (dry) compressive
strength specimen.



8

TABL 2.2 Mixture design of samples to do
compressive strength and water absorption test
Proportion of raw materials
Specimen number
Clay
Sand Lime: Rice hask
100%
_ _ 1
90%
_
5%:5%
2

5%:10%
3

5%:15%
4

10%:5%
5

15%:5%
6
70% 30%
_ 7

5%:5%
8


5%:10%
9

5%:15%
10

10%:5%
11

15%:5%
12
9


FIGURE 2.2 Effect of lime and RHA ratio on the compressive
strength (a) clay specimen,(b) claysand mix specimen



10

TABLE 2.3 Compressive strength (MPa)
Lime: RHA ratio
Dry Wet
Clay Clay-Sand Clay Clay-Sand
0
1:3
1:2
1:1
2:1
3:1
13.3
16.7
18.1
20.7
17.3
15.4
11.2
14.9
17.7
18.6
16.6
13.0

10.4
11.8
15.5
14.8
13.8

12.0
15.1
16.1
15.2
12.4

2.5 Harakeke reinforcement of soilcement building materials
Segetin et al. (2007) have conducted a research on fibre from the New Zealand flax
plant, Phormium tenax, or Harakeke as it is otherwise known in Maori, has been used
to reinforce soilcement composites in an effort to make better the strength and
ductility of the composite material, in other words to improve the mechanical
properties of the soilcement composite. Prior investigations have found the
interfacial bond strength between the harakeke fibre and the soilcement matrix to be
a significant issue for composite strength and in order to improve it; an enamel paint
coating has been applied to the fibre surface. Aims of this research implementation are
focuses on the development of soilcement building materials suitable for the
construction of habitable dwellings in New Zealand. In order to carry out this project
they have considered different factors in subdivision parts such as: 1) soil stabilization
and reinforcement based on chemical stabilisation and fibre-reinforcement, 2)
materials, 3) fibre mixing manually and mechanically by cultivator or rotary-hoe,
concrete mixer, and tumble mixer, 4) specimen preparation, 5) flexural testing, 6) and
compressive testing. The soil was sourced from a local quarry which was classified as
very silty SAND comprising 20% silt and 77% sand particles and due to stabilize it
Ordinary Portland cement was employed. In order to coating the flax fibres enamel
paint diluted by mineral turpentine. According to compressive strength and flexural
test they have conducted that: 1) maximum flexural strength of no fibre-reinforcement
specimen was 0.427 MPa and the average value was 0.26 MPa while the flexural
11

strength of fibre- reinforcement specimens was in the range of 0.35-0.5 MPa, and 2)
Specimens without fibre-reinforcement have an average compressive strength of 1.79
MPa with a standard deviation of 0.5 MPa, while the coated and non-coated fibre-
reinforced specimens which were shown in Figure 2.3 have compressive strengths of
2.0 and 2.49 MPa, respectively, with standard deviations of 0.43 and 0.5 MPa.
Average compressive strength taken over all of trialled specimens was 2.14 MPa
which exceed the minimum requirement of 1.3 MPa indicating that in terms of
compressive strength the material may be suitable for building construction. The
compressive strength for both coated and non-coated fibre-reinforced specimens are
greater than for the non-reinforced specimens. The dramatic improvements in the
compressive strength of the soilcement composite provided by Duracem cement
which has the average compressive strength from 2.14 to 4.55 MPa.

FIGURE 2.3 (a) coated fibre-reinforced specimens and (b) non-coated fibre-reinforced
specimens
2.6 Experimental testing and finite-element modelling for clay masonry
Porto et al. (2010) have done researching on defining the in-plane cyclic behaviour of
three types of load-bearing masonry walls made by perforated clay units, and various
types of head and bed joints were performed. Experimental behaviour was modelled
with four types of nonlinear finite-element models. Isotropic or orthotropic material
laws were chose for macromodeling and micromodeling schemes. Two easy criterions
were recommended for calibrating the models, one for defining orthotropic properties
12

starting from perforated unit geometry and the other for defining expanded unit and
interface element properties in micromodels. The procedures accepted for model
calibration established the reliability of various modelling strategies. Masonry made
with pockets for mortar infills (Po) have fully filled head joints as mortar is provided
over a minimum of 40% of the unit width. Masonry made with tongue-and-groove
units (TG) was built with dry mechanical interlocking between units at the head joints.
Thin-layer joint masonry (TM) was built using thin layer mortar at the bed joints and
dry mechanical interlocking between the units at the head joints. All these three types
were shown in Figure 2.4.

(a) (b) (c)
FIGURE 2.4 Three types of clay units: (a) edge-ground
unit (TM); (b) unit with tongue and groove (TG); and
(c) unit with mortar pocket (Po)
Cross section design (250300 mm; shell and web arrangement), percentage
of holes (43%), and mean compressive strength (20 N/ mm
2
) were almost the same in
all units. Thin-layer mortar (TM; bed joints of 1.3 mm thick) and general-purpose
mortar used for specimens with ordinary bed joints (TG and Po; bed joints of 12 mm
thick). Parameters considered in this research are tests on small masonry assemblages,
uniaxial and diagonal compression tests, in-plane cyclic shear-compression tests,
calibration of continuum models, calibration of interface models, and validation of
models and results of analyses. According to the uniaxial and diagonal compression
tests, which is done on specimens with average dimension of 10001000300 mm,
13

they have conducted that mean compressive strength of TM is 6.95 N/mm
2
and for TG
equals to 5.67 N/mm
2
while for Po is 5.34 N/mm
2
. TM masonry compressive strength
with thin-layer joints was 23% higher than in TG with ordinary bed joint and
interlocking units, and TM specimens have lower de-formability to vertical loads than
TG specimens, also the compressive strength and elastic moduli of TG and Po (mortar
pockets) masonry were practically equal, although the latter had lower values of
compressive strength (6%). The experimental perforated clay units were designed on
purpose for this research, following the principles of robustness. They had
compressive strength of about 20 N/ mm
2
, whereas the compressive strength of
perforated clay units used in practice varies over a range of about 205 N/ mm
2
.
Therefore, in order to study the influence of unit compressive strength (f
cu)
on the
global shear behaviour of the three masonry types, analyses were repeated with units
with compressive strengths of 20, 15, 10, and5 N/ mm
2
.
2.7 Load bearing soil-cement brick walls adding ground ceramic waste
Jr. et al. (2003) have conducted an experimental study of three load bearing walls
made by soil-cement bricks manufactured by three different material proportions, in
which two of them had part of the cement amount replaced by crushed ceramic waste.
Proportion of materials mentioned before are as follows: mixture 1 15.8% of soil
moisture, 6% of binding material and without any replacement of Portland cement by
crushed ceramic material; mixture 2 15.8% of soil moisture, 6% of binding material
and 35% of replacement of Portland cement by crushed ceramic material; and mixture
3 15.8% of soil moisture, 8% of binding material and 55% of replacement of
Portland cement by crushed ceramic material. Compressive strength of soil-cement
brick and cylindrical specimen and walls made by these soil-cement bricks are the
major factors mentioned in this paper. Soil-cement brick dimension and brick
specimen size for compressive strength were shown in Figure 2.5 and 2.6 respectively.
14


FIGURE 2.5 Soil-cement brick dimension

FIGURE 2.6 Compressive brick specimen
The walls were 95.20 cm height, 75.32 cm width, and 12.56 cm thickness and
had their bricks layered with cement paste. The walls were tested under compression
and their displacements were measured with 5 dial gages. They have conducted that:
1) the cylindrical compressive strength of the mixtures 1, 2, and 3 were 5.62, 3.84 and
3.14 MPa, respectively, along with the average specific masses were 2024, 2001 and
1980 kg.m
-3
respectively, 2) the compressive strength of bricks made by mixtures 1, 2,
and 3 are 3.07, 2.11, 2.19 MPa respectively with the average specific mass of 1648,
1689 and 1760 kg.m
-3
correspondingly, and 3) the compressive stress, in wall 1, at the
failure was 2.46 MPa, which is 20% less than the brick strength whilst in wall 2 was
2.21 MPa, that is almost the same brick strength and in wall 3 was 2.05 MPa, which is
close to the brick strength. Finally, it was observed that bricks with 55% of cement
15

replacement by crushed ceramic waste are suitable to be used as structural elements in
popular housing.

2.8 Interlocking soil-cement bricks wall
Ahmad Z. et al. (2011) investigate the behaviour of masonry walls by soil-cement
interlocking bricks. The materials for manufacturing the interlocking brick consists of
cement, laterite soil and sand with ratio of 1:1:6 (cement: sand: soil) by volume. The
corresponding mixing mass ratio of the reference sample is 27.6:4.0:4.2 kg. Soil, sand,
and cement were mixed together in the drum mixer. Water was gradually added into
the mixer until having right consistency which ready for moulding. The mixture was
placed into a mould as shown in Figure 2.7a and manually pressed under certain
amount of pressure (about 1.0 MN/m
2
) to become solid and rigid with the interlocking
shape. Then the specimen was removed from the mould and leave to air cured for 24
hours. The natural drying is used for drying process where the bricks are stacked on
racks and dried by the circulation of unheated air as shown in Figure 2.7b.

FIGURE 2.7 Interlocking brick; (a) mould for pressing and (b) curing process
The bricks sizes are 250 mm length, 125 mm width and 100 mm height.
Purposes of doing this research work are determination of: 1) physical properties of
the brick unit such as density, dimension, and water absorption, and 2) compression
16

and bending of brick unit and wall. In order to reach aims of the project they have
done sieve analysis, hydrometer test, and compressive strength test of brick units and
masonry walls which were constructed from interlocking bricks and tested under
constant vertical load at different eccentricities. Physical and mechanical properties of
the interlocking brick unit were shown in Table 2.4.
TABLE 2.4 Physical and mechanical properties of the interlocking brick unit
Length(mm) Width(mm) Height(mm)
Compressive
strength(N/mm
2
)
Water
absorption (%)
249.2 125 98.8
Mean
7.5
COV (%)
13
18.8
According to BS3921:1985, they have conducted that the average of
compressive strength of single unit interlocking soil bricks is 7.5 N/mm
2
which is
decreased to 3.56 N/mm
2
, the amount of compressive strength of the wall. In the
masonry interlocking brick walls, the eccentricity of the loading influenced the value
of strength of the wall. The strength is reduced when the eccentricity is away from the
centre.
2.9 Flexural strength of compressed stabilized earth masonry materials
Jayasinghe and Mallawaarachchi (2009) have conducted a research work on the
flexural strength of masonry. Flexural strength, which is defined parallel and
perpendicular to bed joints, is a vital strength factor particularly in lightly loaded
walls. The aim of the implementation this project was searching on compressed
stabilised earth (CSE) wall in order to determine the flexural strength using panels
subjected to limited degree of pre-compression and appraise the effects of different
bond patterns possible with CSE bricks on the flexural strength characteristics to
attain enhanced performance when subjected to lateral loads using cost effective
means. Alternative masonry materials are promoted because of scarceness of
conventional masonry materials and energy related issues associated with them. In
17

order to solve this case a detailed experimental programme was accomplished to find
the flexural strength of an assortment of options possible with CSE masonry that is
made by laterite soil, which has special feature of possibility to stabilise with
relatively low percentage of cement, and comparing the flexural properties of CSE
masonry with that of conventional masonry. A cost effective method for
intensification the lateral resistance was proposed. In order to perform this project
they study compressed stabilized earth in subdivision of solid bricks, plain solid
blocks, interlocking solid blocks with a horizontal groove, interlocking hollow blocks,
and rammed earth which are all shown in Figure 2.8-2.11.

FIGURE 2.8 CSE brick


18


FIGURE 2.9 CSE plain solid blocks

FIGURE 2.10 CSE interlocking solid block

19


FIGURE 2.11 CSE interlocking hollow block
CSE masonry is one such material with sufficient compressive strength for
single and two storey load bearing construction. Flexural strength of such alternative
materials is significant to appraise the performance when subjected to lateral loads due
to wind, floods or any other load that can cause out-of-plane bending in a wall. The
stabilization factor used to create compressed stabilized earth was cement. The
flexural strength of different walling brick shapes were demonstrated in Table 2.5.

20

TABLE 2.5 Flexural strength of different walling based on brick dimension
Type of walling
materials
Dimensions of an individual
unites(mm)
Flexural strength(N/mm
2
)
Length Width Height
Parallel to
bed joints
Perpendicular to
bed joints
Burnt clay bricks of
water absorption
>12% [13]
225 115 75 0.3 0.9
CSE solid brick 225 225 115 0.243 1.284
CSE interlocking
solid brick
235 225 115 0.393 1.957
CSE interlocking
hollow brick
300 145 100 0.262 0.261

The results were compared with the values achieved for conventional masonry
to highlight the appropriateness of compressed stabilized earth masonry for wider
application with confidence. They have conducted that lateral load carrying capacity
of a wall which was lightly loaded in compression is controlled by flexural strength.
An experimental programme indicates that the flexural strength of CSE wall panels
subjected to low levels of pre-compression are about 0.25 N/mm
2
or above by
comparing these values to BS 5628: Part 1:1992 for walls constructed with burnt clay
bricks which have water absorption above 12%. With compressive strength results, it
can be said that CSE bricks, blocks, and rammed earth can be considered confidently
as viable and safe options for the single leaf external and internal load bearing walls of
single and two storey houses. Single leaf walls are usually used for houses in countries
with tropical climatic conditions.

21

2.10 Water permeability assessment of alternative masonry systems
Anand et al. (2003) have conducted a research work on water penetration resistance of
conventional brick/block masonry for different construction types and materials
approving ASTM E 514-90 procedure which demonstrates most generally approved
method for laboratory investigations for evaluating the effect of different materials,
coatings, construction details, and workmanship on water penetration resistance of
masonry subjected to wind-driven rain. The behaviour of the interlocking block
masonry based on the bedding type (dry-stacking, thin-jointing, and mortar-bedding),
surface finishes (stucco/plaster finish) have been looked into. In order to solve this
case they have done the relative performance of solid and hollow interlocking block
masonry system, developed by the authors, with : 1) conventional masonry by testing
on burnt clay solid brick masonry in order to know the influences of joint thickness,
two types of brick and surface finish; also for relative performance appraisal with
interlocking block masonry, 230 mm thick single with the brick masonry wall in
English bond and 200 mm thick concrete hollow block masonry in running bond with
structurally efficient blocks used which is shown in Figure 2.11, and 2) testing on
solid and hollow interlocking block masonry, which are shown in Figure 2.12 and
Figure 2.13; these blocks which were developed by authors are assembled to have
walls with half-course (100 mm) high units on one face and full course (200 mm) high
units on the other face placed on a layer of levelling course of mortar. Following
layers of full-course high units are stacked on inner and outer faces and finally end up
with half-course units as closures. Specimen thickness was 150 mm for SILBLOCK
masonry and 200 mm for HILBLOCK masonry.

FIGURE 2.11 Structurally efficient hollow blocks (dimensions in mm)
22


FIGURE 2.12 SILBLOCK (dimensions in mm)

FIGURE 2.13 HILBLOCK (dimensions in mm)
They have conducted that the mean compressive strength of the wire-cut burnt
clay brick based on 10-20 mm joint thickness is 12 MPa with water absorption of 8%
while table-moulded brick have 6.4 MPa mean compressive strength value with the
water absorption equals to 11.9% and masonry with both types of units (with a mortar
joint thickness of 10 mm) was finished with 1:5 cementsand plastering have
compressive strength of 7.2 MPa and flow value of 112% on the test face. Also the
comparison of the SILBLOCK masonry with brick masonry was illustrated in Table
2.6.


23

TABLE 2.6 Properties of masonry unites
Unit type 24-hr water absorption(% by weight) Compressive strength(MPa)
SILBLOCK 6.2 7.1
Table-moulded
burnt clay brick
11.9 6.4
HILBLOCK 5.9 10.7

2.11 Fatigue behaviour of grouted stabilised of interlocking brick masonry
Nazar and Sinha (2007) have conducted a research work on the fatigue behaviour of
interlocking grouted stabilized mud-fly ash brick masonry. In order to carry out this
project the brick units and masonry system developed by Sinha is used. In order to
reach the aim of research brick masonry specimens have been constructed from
interlocking stabilized mud-fly ash bricks of size 200 mm 100 mm 100 mm
indicated in Figure 2.14 and compressive strength and the standard deviation of them
illustrated in Table 2.7, also eighteen specimens of size 500 mm 700 mm 100 mm
and nine specimens of size 500 mm 500 mm 100 mm were tested.

FIGURE 2.14 Interlocking brick
24

TABLE 2.7 Properties of interlocking bricks and grout
Type of material
Mix proportion by
weight
Water/cement
ratio (%)
Mean
compressive
strength (MPa)
Standard
deviation
(MPa)
Interlocking
stabilized
mud-fly ash
brick
0.60 Natural soil:
0.25 fly ash: 0.15
cement
0.50 12.12 1.41
Grout
Cement + non-shrink
material @225 gm
per 50 kg of cement
0.40 38.30 4.25
Three cases of loading at 0

, 45

, and 90

to the bed joints were considered. For

each of three levels of minimum stress, the number of cycles to failure is determined
for each of various maximum stress levels considered. These tests are limited to
around 8000 load cycles. According to the test results average ultimate strength for
specimens loaded at 0, 45 and 90 to bed joints were 6.49, 5.23 and 7.45 N/mm
2

with a standard deviation of 0.37, 0.29 and 0.24 N/mm2, respectively. And the
average axial strain corresponding to peak stress, for specimen loaded at 0,45 and
90 to bed joints were3.56 10
-3
, 1.83 10
-3
and 3.32 10
-3
with a standard deviation
of 1.56 10
-4
, 1.36 10
-4
and 1.48 10
-4
, respectively. They have conducted
behaviour of interlocking grouted stabilized mud-fly ash brick masonry under fatigue
loading. The compressive strength of interlocking grouted brick masonry decreased up
to 25% under frequent compressive loading and at the high value of
i
, the increase of
axial strain with the number of load cycles remained approximately linear. Initially at
lower values of
i
, the increase of axial strain with the number of cycles was high,
after that a relatively lesser rate of increase of strain with the number of load cycles
and finally a rapid increase of strain near failure. Also the relation between
i
and log
N
f
recommended a linear variation for each level of
min
, for the range of
i

considered. For a given value of
i
, the number of load cycles to failure considerably
increases when the value of
min
increases. A linear relationship exists between
max
25

and log N
f
. Also the number of cycles to failure increases as the value of
max
was
decreases for each three levels of
min
considered. The plastic strain in the material
with
min
equal to 0.25 and 0.50 were notably higher than the plastic strain values
when unloading was finished to zero stress level. This phenomenon stated by the
shape of a typical unloading curve which in the beginning demonstrates higher
stiffness at the beginning of unloading and the slope of the unloading curve bit by bit
decreases as unloading is continued. The unloading curve then noticeably softness at
low stress levels as if it is being pulled inward and then terminate at zero stress level.
2.12 Water permeation of interlocking block masonry
Anand and Ramamurthy (2001) have conducted a research work to water penetration
resistance of a solid interlocking block masonry system, based on ASTM E 514-90 for
the effect of the bedding type (dry stacking, thin jointing, and mortar), surface finishes
(stucco and plaster on one side or both sides), and modelled wind velocities (0, 50,
and 100 km/h). By considering three parameters such as :1) type of bedding according
to three method of dry stacking of the blocks with pointing of joints; thin jointing (23
mm thick) with mortar slurry (1:3 cement: fine sand) of flowing consistency; and
mortar bedding (10 mm thick) as per ASTM C 270 (ASTM 1989); 2) type of surface
finish for all type of bedding are looked at no surface finish; surface finish on test face
alone; and finish on both faces; and 3) Simulated wind velocity- as high winds
generally take place just for a small percentage of a rain duration, besides the ASTM
E 514 recommended pressure of 500 Pa (corresponding to a wind velocity of 100
km/h), tests were also completed with 0 pressure and 120 Pa (equivalent to 50-km/h
wind velocity). The influence of wind velocity (represented as equivalent pressure) is
reported for masonry with a surface finish on the test face. Dampness and leakage
appear early with an increase in pressure for both stucco and plaster finishes. The total
leakage and dampness become more with these two variables, but the degree of
influence changes with construction and finish type. Anand and Ramamurthy have
concluded that: (a) Silblock masonry without a surface finish is appropriate for rain-
protected and interior walls, (b) External face protection, by either stucco or plaster,
decreases the leakage and dampness. A plastered finish was more effective than the 3-
mm-thick stucco finish,(c) The introduction of any form of the mortar bedding (thin
26

jointing or conventional) effected higher dampness than dry-stacked specimens,(d)
For severe exposures when pressure is 500 Pa, plastering is effective in reducing
dampness and total leakage through all three types of bedding whereas the stucco
finish is only effective with the dry-stacked specimen, (e) Judging the overall
behaviour of plastered specimens with respect to (1) dampness, dry-stacked masonry
executes better; and (2) leakage, thin-jointed masonry does better.
2.13 Strength correlation between load bearing interlocking mortarless hollow
block masonry
Jaafar et.al (2006) have done research on the development of the compressive strength
correlation between the individual block, prism and basic wall panel for load bearing
interlocking hollow mortarless blocks which were developed by the Housing Research
Centre at Universiti Putra Malaysia. The Compressive strength, interlocking
mechanism, crack patterns, and failure mechanism of the interlocking masonry
specimens are highlighted and discussed. Forty individual block units from stretcher,
corner, and half blocks, which were shown in Figure 2.15, tested under compression.
Dimensions of these interlocking blocks were indicated in Table 2.8.

(a) (b) (c)
FIGURE 2.15 Interlocking block unite; (a) stretcher block,
(b) corner block, and (c) half block

27

TABLE 2.8 Interlocking block dimension
Block type Length(mm) Width(mm) Height(mm)
Stretcher 300 150 200
Half 150 150 200
Corner 300 150 200

The compressive strengths of 10 prisms assembled by stacking two stretcher
blocks and two half blocks were evaluated. Furthermore, four wall panels each having
a dimension of 1.2 m 1.2 m were assembled and tested under axial compressive
loads. The results were compared with those found in bonded masonry. Compressive
capacity of the bonded masonry predicted by BS 5628 Part 1:1992. The correlations
between the compressive strength of the interlocking masonry individual block (f
cb
),
prism (f
cp
) and standard panel (f
cw
) found in this analysis were f
cp
= 0.47 f
cb
, f
cw
=
0.83f
cp
and f
cw
= 0.39f
cb
. Test results indicate that failures were due to the development
of cracks which occurred at the interface between the web and shell; the cracks
widened with increase in the applied load until failure and vertical cracks in the block
shells developed with increase in the applied load, also the cracks in the shells were
vertical and aligned with the vertical joints. Moreover results of tests illustrate that
interlocking mechanism and strength of the block in the load-bearing wall was
satisfactory.